Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Any research work foundation depends on literature survey. Based on the studies
carried out by several researchers and their contribution to research field motivates
for further scope of research. In this chapter review of several research papers by
various authors and technical reports has been discussed. Distributed Generation
(DG)and their grid integration issues and later on solutions presented by several
authors are presented. Also studies on the hybrid combination of PV/ Wind modelling
and simulation by several authors using various tools have been discussed.
12
of
DG
that
13
or blackouts are of concern for utilities. The voltage issues related to the
14
Installation of DG
also impacts the losses and power factor of the distribution system. Few research
papers discusses about the reduction of losses by inserting power from DG into the
system.
Borges and Falcao [2003] discussed the role of DG in loss reduction based on a
power summation method. Barker and Mello [2000], briefly presented on the impact
of DG on losses of the feeder but analysis was not carried out.
15
potential investors. This inspired the investors and lead to the growth of wind
generation.
The wind power programme in India was initiated towards the end of the Sixth Plan,
in 1983-84. Indian wind energy outlook report of 2009 outlines Indian renewable
installed capacity of 13.2 GW [IWEO, 2009] and the installed capacity has increased
from 41.3 MW in 1992 to reach 13065.78 MW by December 2010 [IWEO, 2010].
The gross potential is 48,561 MW and a total of about 14,158.00 MW of commercial
projects have been established until March 31, 2011. In terms of wind power installed
capacity, India is ranked fifth in the World. The reports discusses not only about
status of wind energy in India but also policy environment for wind energy, costs and
benefits, demand projections, energy efficiency and growth rates.
IWEO [2011], reported on the importance of the grid stability which is a key
consideration for interconnection of any new system to the existing grid. Stresses upon
the variable nature of wind power necessitate the development of interconnection
standards to enable the grid to sustain the variability without affecting the power
quality adversely.
The report of OECD [2005] discussed that Grid integration concerns have come to the
fore in recent years as wind power penetration levels have increased in a number of
countries as an issue that may impede the widespread deployment of wind power
systems and mention that two of the strongest challenges to wind powers future
prospects are the problems of intermittency and grid reliability. The report also
highlights the most of the international collaborative work specifically categorises the
current focus into four main areas Wind power prediction tools to improve forecasting for electricity
production
Modelling and grid simulation studies and practices to ensure grid system
optimization.
Investigations and planning of designs to reinforce and extend the grid
Analysis and development of grid access rules, technical code requirements
and international standards.
16
From these four areas the second one has been taken for this research study and
presented and discussed in chapter 5 and 6.
CREDP discussed on the degree of the success of grid integration and the level of wind
penetration variation are due to, largely on voltage levels, power quality issues such as
harmonic distortion, voltage transients, sags, voltage flicker and response to abnormal
conditions. Xie et al., [2011], surveys a major technical challenge for power system
operations in support of large scale wind energy integration and discusses the impact
of wind, on unit commitment, economic dispatch, automatic generation control and
frequency stabilization in their study.
Researchers Martinez et al., [2004] have analysed on the suitability of wind turbines
with Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) for new grid operator norms that
require ride through operations and shown that the use of power error vector control
and active & reactive power reference reduction during voltage dips may be a good
solution for low voltage ride through.
Khorrami [2010], presented on challenges in cyber- controlled smart grid and he
developed a technology for integration by controlling renewable energy source, control
of energy consumption and load management. He also suggested to empower energy
user for a sustainable living and to develop DG system where energy user is also an
energy producer and usage of FACTS for controlling smart switches.
Smith et al., [2007], Parsons et al., [2006], Demeo et al., [2005], summarises and
updates on many of the salient points on the current state of knowledge regarding
utility wind integration issues. All provided the impact of wind generation on system
dynamic performance by comparing with and without wind integration and suggests
that actual operational experience will contribute significantly to understand the wind
impact on the system.
Matias et al., [2010] study findings provided supportive evidence for the need to
rethink, upgrade and redesign the current electricity markets structures to
accommodate deep penetration of wind power and stressed on to harness the benefits
associated with wind energy.
17
Sorensen et al., [2000] reported on critical power quality issues, in connection with
joint Danish and Indian project and obtained power quality data such as reactive
power, voltage imbalance, current imbalance, frequency range harmonics, inter
harmonic distortion and voltage fluctuations. They suggested for power factor
improvement by capacitor compensation, synchronous condenser, and thyristor
controlled reactors and after the survey they concluded that usage of automatic tap
changers for steady state voltage control and dedicated feeders to the wind farms for
better quality.
Several researchers opinion is that in order to maintain the grid stable even after wind
integrates there is a need for grid code maintenance. Rajesh, [C-WET] reported that
there is a need for Indian wind grid code as wind energy constitutes 12% of the
installed capacity in the power scenario in India. With high penetration, overall power
system gets affected and hence grid code envisages establishing a standard operating
practice.
The grid codes for wind in general deal with active power control, frequency, voltage
and reactive power issues, fault ride through capability, protection and power quality
issues like flicker, harmonics. According to the report variation of frequency can lie
between 47.5-51.5 Hertz for stable operation.
Douglas and Orme [2006] traced out that hooking up wind farms to the grid is not
always easy but network operators are rising to the challenge. Brian et al., [2006]
discussed about higher wind penetration impacts the power system operation due to
variability of wind. Goggin [2009] overviews the recent wind growth, factors driving
the growth and also transmission and grid integration issues. He also mentioned that
wind is easier to integrate on more flexible power systems and integrating wind would
be cost issue but not a reliability issue. The New Indian Electricity Grid Code declares
that the operational frequency band has been tightened from 50.3-49.2 Hertz to 50.249.5 Hertz. Also all users of inter-state grid including distribution utilities will now be
also directly responsible for grid discipline and load management, in addition to load
despatch centres [Pradeep, 2010].
All these research papers present the importance of grid code maintenance when
renewable DG integrates with the grid and there is an emergency in taking care of
18
reliable and secure of operation of power system. There is also a call for upgrading the
transmission system infrastructure in order to reach power to every corner of the
world.
For all the above necessary statements FACTS Controllers are the solution as they are
more reliable and best option. Improved utilization of the existing power system is
provided through the application of advanced control technologies.
19
voltage stability, frequency stability, power oscillations, fault ride through, and power
quality.
Wei et al., [2006] investigated the application of FACTS devices to enhance the
dynamic and transient performance of power systems which includes large wind farm.
Simulation study on three phase short circuit test at PCC on the test system using
PSCAD/EMDTC has carried out in their research work. The study was limited to only
three phase fault at PCC. SSSC and STATCOM combination were used to damp
oscillations in their simulation studies. Results showed that the FACTS devices
provide an effective means in dynamic voltage control of the wind farm, dynamic
power flow control, improving power oscillation damping and transient stability.
Jones [2007] addressed how FACTS technology helped in improving at least 10%15% of transmission capability of lines and mentions ABB taken initiative of installing
over 600 FACTS applications in 50 countries.
Panda and Padhy, [2007] investigated the dynamic behavior of WTG during an
external three phase fault with STATCOM and without STATCOM under various
wind speed changes. Simulation results show that STATCOM prevents large
deviations of bus voltage magnitude induced by reactive power drawn from
distribution network by WTGs.
Zobaa et al., [2006] discussed the disadvantage of wind energy converting systems
dependency on the grid for supplying its own reactive power. The grid has to supply
not only the load and lines but also generator. They suggested that installing
centralized VAr compensator at the point of common coupling regulates the fluctuated
VAr demand, mitigates voltage flicker and compensates line losses.
The techniques of correcting the supply voltage sag, swell, and interruption in a
distributed system were suggested [(Ren et al, 2008), (Kumar and Nagaraju, 2007)].
Ren et al, [2008], proposed an algorithm and simulation procedure to deal with the
installation of the DFACTS in the distribution network, allowing better and higher
penetration of DGs. Stephan and Stefan [2007], discussed the technical and
economical benefits of wind energy converters with FACTS capabilities for power
systems and grid integration of wind power. Their investigation is mainly on the wind
turbine generators recent developments.
20
Salman and Teo [2005] investigated the dynamic behaviour of multiple wind farms
that are integrated to the same network. The authors concluded that the behaviour of
wind farm under fault condition connected to the network, influence the stability of
other wind farms connected to the same network. To solve this problem critical
clearing time of multiple wind farms can be slightly improved using VAr injection
technique. They achieved by installing Static Synchronous Compensators (SSC) at
selected location.
Rajiv et al., [2008] studied on mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR) in series
compensated wind farm using two thyristor based FACTS devices-Static VAr
Compensator [SVC] and Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor [TCSC]. They found
that SVC and TCSC are effective in damping sun synchronous resonance [SSR]
oscillations when the system is subjected to severe fault.
Very interesting point considered by the authors Wessels and Fuchs [2009] about the
voltage swell during grid faults that is caused by switching off large loads or switching
on capacitor banks. They suggested the applicability of Dynamic Voltage Restorer
[DVR] and the Static Synchronous Compensator [SSC] to mitigate the three phase
swell. Cartwright et al, [2004] presented the solution for integrating large off shore
wind farms into transmission networks using both FACTS and a hybrid HVDC
system.
Keane et al, [2011] proposed a passive solution to reduce the impact on transmission
system voltages and to overcome the distribution voltage rise barrier. They developed
a methodology which optimizes the power factor and tap changer settings of the
distribution network section such that distribution voltages are obeyed at all times.
Wilch et al., [2007] addressed the reactive power generation of offshore wind parks
using DFIG connected to the main grid with long cables along with reactive power
compensating devices. Both studies had not used FACTS controllers for compensation.
Salehi et al., [2006] found that wind turbine generators tend to drain large amount of
VArs from the grid, potentially causing low voltage and may be voltage stability
problems for the utility. Using SVC and STATCOM they could expand voltage
stability margin even during transient and dynamic load variations. Han et al., [2006
and 2008], studied the impact of STATCOM on large wind farm integrating weak
21
power system. They presented a STATCOM control strategy for voltage fluctuation
suppression.
Roohollah et al, [2008] used TurbSim, AeroDyn, FAST, and SIMULINK to model the
aerodynamic, mechanical and electrical aspects of a wind power system including
STATCOM. They studied the performance of STATCOM controller for different wind
disturbances to the wind energy converting systems. They also showed that wind speed
and wind direction changes have different effects on the generated power and voltage.
Sharad and Mohan [2010] and Arulampalam et al., [2006] discussed on
implementation of STATCOM in wind farm for improvement of the system. Yuvaraj
and Deepa [2011] and Meera and Ratna [2012] also demonstrated the power quality
problem and its solution by STATCOM. Bhanu et al., [2003] discussed the additional
features of UPFC and mentions that today FACTS devices are individually controlled
but according to a new EPRI report, inventive strategies incorporating system wide
control logic could further increase power transfer capability, stability, and reliability
of transmission systems. Francisco et al., [2012] presented three strategies for reactive
power control in wind farms with STATCOM.
Oskoui et al., [2010] presents the implementation of Holly STATCOM at Austin.
Since its inception, STATCOM for overall system performance was appreciated.
Grunbaum et al.,[2004] showed that when the network is weak local dynamic reactive
power support may prevent voltage collapse and make it possible for the wind farms to
recover and remain in service after a short circuit event. They also discussed a dynamic
voltage control scheme based on a combination of SVC and STATCOM technology.
Verma et al., [2009] presented a very interesting concept of using solar farm as
STATCOM during night time when there is no active power at solar farm. The solar
farm inverter is used to regulate the distribution voltage at PCC. The proposed
strategy of PV solar farm control will facilitate integration of more wind plants in the
system without needing additional of more wind plants in the system and voltage
regulating devices. Trond [2005] and Suwannarat [2005] in their reports on wind
farms in weak grids compensated with STATCOM. Both as their part of curriculum
have taken up the study and developed a suitable simulation models for different faults
and disturbances and he reports that through simulation study it would give a rough
22
picture of expected dynamic behaviour of the system and found that as long as fixed
speed machine is complemented with sufficient reactive power control, such as
STATCOM, the transient response would improve.
A report from ABB [2012], on renewable energy, presented wind integration with the
grid and the challenges to maintain grid code at various countries like, Great Britain,
Australia, Poland, Norway, Korea etc. with the help of PCS100, a fully dynamic
STATCOM.
23
Capacitor, SVC and STATCOM operations with respect to static voltage stability
margin enhancement and found that from cost point of view shunt capacitor is
cheapest but STATCOM is better option when performance wise considered.
Mehrdad et al., [2009] also found in their research work that STATCOM is a better
option than SVC.
Based on the literatures, for this study, STATCOM was chosen to solve the grid
integration issues.
considering three phase fault for some milliseconds and for fixed STATCOM rating.
A complete study on different type of faults at PCC and at wind turbine generator
(WTG) are essential to achieve overall power quality of the system.
Since the study is not only to see the better performance of the existing wind farm
using STATCOM, but also to suggest hybrid combination of PV energy with the wind
energy with in and around the space availability of Wind Farm. So literature survey
on PV Modelling and simulation of PV arrays were carried out.
24
25
26
Mualikrishna and Lakshminarayana [2008] proposed a hybrid system with solar and
wind sources for rural electrification. Authors compare stand alone wind and
standalone PV with Hybrid combination and concludes that hybrid would be the best
option and viable if PV module cost is below Rs 100/W and its efficiency is higher
than 20%.
micro grid system in republic of Maldives, a remote island. They insisted the hybrid
system which has been installed was commissioned in August 2007 is able to perform
better and detail study on daily power flow of each energy has been tested practically.
From the recorded data daily energy output from wind, PV and diesel was plotted and
shown in the paper after first month of installation. They concluded that the newly
developed and installed system will provide very good opportunities to showcase high
penetration of renewable energies using wind turbines, photovoltaic modules,
advanced power electronics and control technology.
Zahedi and Kalam [2000], developed a methodology for calculating the correct size of
hybrid system and optimized the management of the same system. Main power for the
system considered is PV and wind and diesel is used as backup in this hybrid system.
The system is considered as autonomous as it is not using national grid supply. The
system was designed by calculating monthly demand of electrical energy required.
Size of the battery bank is worked out to substitute the PV array during cloudy and
non sunny days.
Dihrab et al., [2009] proposed a feasibility of using the renewable resources for power
generation by PV and wind hybrid system for grid connected applications for four
cities in Jordan. The simulation studies using Matlab solver shows that Jordan can
use the solar and wind energy to generate enough power and compared which was the
best location among four cities to install hybrid system. Yang et al., [2009] discussed
an optimal design and techno- economical analysis of a hybrid solar- wind power
generation system.
Hans et al, compared the simulation study using Matlab/SIMULINK for battery sizing
in grid connected renewable generation with the results based on the optimization tool
HOMER. They concluded that PV/Wind hybrid systems present a better solution in
terms of efficiency and energy cost as compared with pure PV or wind systems with
battery storage. Nehrir [2006] outlines the motivation for the development of an
27
alternative energy DG covering wind, PV and fuel cell power generation which has
been offered at Montana State University since 2003. Author discussed the detailed
coverage of course topics, student projects and student response on the course. It is
very interesting to know that the research area has become a course content and one
should know the importance of hybrid generation for the present era.
Kumar et al., [2011] proposed a hybrid system which includes PV/Wind/MicroHydro/Diesel power generation suitable for remote area applications. They have
designed the model to provide an optimal system configuration based on hour by hour
data for energy availability and demands. They also found based on simulation results
that renewable/alternative energy sources will replace the conventional energy
sources and feasible solution for remote and distant locations.
Chang et al., [2007] discussed about the fact that if appropriate renewable energy
sources are selected and used complementarily, the overall performance and potential
supply time are anticipated to exceed those obtained by the individual use of these
resources. The study they carried out is on the complimentary operation system,
consisting of PV and Wind systems. Homer software was used to illustrate and
evaluate the technical and economic aspects of the hybrid system.
An attempt was made by Rehman et al., [2011], to explore the possibility of utilizing
power of the wind and sun to reduce the dependence on fossil fuel for power
generation to meet the energy requirement of a village in Saudi Arabia. In their study
they adopted wind/PV/diesel as hybrid system with 35% renewable energy
penetration (26% wind, 9% PV) and 65% diesel power contribution as the most
economical power system. They concluded after estimation that the cost of energy of
only diesel power system was found to be more sensitive to diesel price than the cost
of energy of hybrid power system.
Milligan [2011] worked on costs of integration for wind and solar energy for large
scale studies and implications. Author presented an oversight of wind and solar cost
issues when large amount of integration is studied.
28
29
components in both electrical and geothermal subsystems. The results illustrated that
the designed control technique enables the developed system to be in correct and
continuous operation.
Onar et al., [2006] in their paper focussed on the combination of wind, fuel cell and
ultra capacitor systems for sustained power generation. In their proposed system,
when wind speed is sufficient the wind turbine can meet the demand. If the available
power from wind turbine cannot satisfy the load demand the fuel cell system can meet
the excess power demand, while ultra cell can meet the excess load for short
durations. They insisted that the proposed system can tolerate the rapid changes in
wind speed and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on equipment side voltage in
a novel topology.
Chedella et al., [2010] presented the preliminary study of modelling a small stand
alone AC system with the fuel cells and solar panels as energy resources. The solar
energy is main energy source for electricity generation during the day and will be
complemented with the fuel cell and battery during night.
A new converter topology for hybrid wind/PV energy system is proposed by Jacob
and Arun [2012]. They were influenced by the authors Hui et al., [2010] who
presented a new rectifier stage topology for hybrid wind-solar energy system. The
new converter used the cuk and single ended primary inductor converter type of DCDC converters.
Doumbia
et
al.,
[2007]
presented
dynamic
simulation
model
using
30
Kim et al., [2006] dealt in their research on power control of a wind and solar hybrid
generation system for interconnection operation with electric distribution system.
Modelling and simulation study on the entire control scheme was carried out using a
power system transient tool, PSCAD/EMTDC. The results of their simulation showed
the control performance and dynamic behaviour of the wind/PV system.
Giraud et al., [2001] reported the performance of a 4 KW grid connected residential
wind-photovoltaic system with battery storage located in Lowell, USA. This paper
also includes the discussion on system reliability, power quality, loss of supply and
effects on the randomness of the wind and solar radiation on system design.
Jain and Agarwal [2008] discussed on an integrated hybrid power supply for
distribution generation applications fed by non conventional energy sources. The
advantage of this proposed system includes low cost, compact structure and high
reliability which render the system suitable for modular assemblies and plug-n-play
type applications. They presented the analytical, simulation and experimental results
of their research study.
Phrakonkham et al., [2010] discussed the status and development of electrification as
well as the available renewable energy sources. They summarized on different micro
grid configurations and on simulation tools. They continued their case study with
respect to economic optimization using two different simulation software tools,
HOMER and HOGA.
2.7 Summary
After carrying out the literature survey the research work had one orientation towards
the importance of renewable DG in the upcoming years and the associated problems
when they work on either stand alone or grid integrated system. The solutions
suggested by several authors in their research for most of the issues caused by the DG
integration. Recent development of power electronics introduces the use of FACTS
controllers in power systems. FACTS technologies not only provides solutions for
efficiently increasing transmission system capacity but also increases available
transfer capability, relieves congestion, improve reliability and enhances operation
and control.
31
essential to achieve good power quality. For all these issues FACTS controllers are
better solution.
voltage sourced converters like STATCOM, SSSC or UPFC are more attractive as
their operation is not so strongly dependant on the grid conditions. Series devices yet
did not receive too much attention in wind power field as their role is on transmission
system not on generation site and this did not probably attract wind generation
owners. On the other hand shunt devices are normally deployed not only inside the
transmission network but at load and generation buses. UPFC has only very few
experimental applications due to its high cost.
Several investigators experimented that STATCOM play a vital role in DG
integration which in turn makes them to look like conventional power plant and helps
to achieve required grid code maintenance. Applications of STATCOM were
investigated by several researchers such as for improvement of voltage stability in
wind farm, to mitigate voltage fluctuations and harmonics reduction.
The application of FACTS devices to enhance the dynamic and transient performance
of power systems which includes large wind farm using simulation study on three
phase short circuit test at PCC on the test system using PSCAD/EMDTC has been
carried out. Such studies were limited to only three phase fault at PCC. Previous
researchers have used a combination of SSSC and STATCOM to damp oscillations.
Results showed that the FACTS devices provide an effective means in dynamic
voltage control of the wind farm, dynamic power flow control, improving power
oscillation damping and transient stability. Few researchers also investigated the
dynamic behavior of WTG during an external three phase fault with STATCOM and
without STATCOM under various wind speed changes.
All the studies were concentrated on only three phase fault occurrence at PCC and to
achieve overall power quality for fixed rating of STATCOM. Therefore, a detailed
study is necessary and has to be carried out under various fault conditions such as LG,
32
LLG faults at PCC and as well as at WTG. The effect of different combinational
faults with STATCOM and without STATCOM is to be studied to achieve better
power quality. There is a need for investigating the fault ride through capability of
STATCOM when connected at PCC. Details of WTG is also not analyzed which is
important to identify each turbine behavior under different scenarios.
Based on recent publications it is found that there is a scope for further research in the
area of power oscillations damping of squirrel cage induction generator, harmonics,
flicker mitigation and fault ride through capability of various faults using STATCOM
for grid integration of wind energy. Since several studies suggested having hybrid
combination rather than individual renewable sources for better and reliable operation
of power system, this research study further carried out with PV simulation for
estimation and cost analysis of PV plant in and around the study area chosen.
Hence it was envisaged to carryout STATCOM implementation at PCC with all
possible different faults at both PCC and WTG and proposal of PV plant with the
existing wind farm.