GIS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SEMINAR REPORT
SUBMITTED BY

M V HAREESH
In the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KIDANGOOR

KOTTAYAM
OCTOBER 2016

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KIDANGOOR

KOTTAYAM

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the report entitled GIS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING is the bonafide
record of the seminar presented by Mr. M V HAREESH in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Civil Engineering, from
Cochin University of Science and Technology, during the academic year 2016-2017.

Dr. Roobin V. Varghese

Mrs. Sreekumari T.K

Head and Professor

Assistant Professor & Guide

ABSTRACT
Geographic Information System (GIS) technology is attracting interest from a broad range of
Civil Engineering disciplines because of its potential to provide a new environment for
problem solving which would lower costs, improving quality and support multi discipline
analysis for complex projects. It is used in many Civil Engineering application including
Infrastructure management, Transportation, Land use planning, Water resource Engineering
and Environmental Engineering.
When so many parameters are to be connected with Transportation network like travel time,
speed, road resistance, turning movements, etc. For such a big network GIS (Geographic
Information System) proves itself as an efficient tool for solving such a network problems
quickly and with a great precision. The GIS Software is determining the optimal routes or
Best routes from one origin to many destinations kind of problem, with an objective of
minimizing travel distance and travel time of users. Constrains taken into consideration were
impedance for intersections, type of road and speed. GIS emerged as better tool for getting
solution of such complex problems very accurately and rapidly.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

WHY GIS?

2.1.

AUTHOR, SERVE, USE

2.2.

SPATIAL ANALYSIS

2.3.

VISUALIZATION AND CARTOGRAPHY

2.4.

SPATIAL DATA MANAGEMENT

3.

COMPONENETS OF GIS

4.

INFRASTRUCTURE LIFE CYCLE

4.1.

PLANNING

4.2.

DATA COLLECTION

4.3.

DESIGN

4.4.

ANALYSIS

4.5.

CONSTRUCTION

4.6.

DATA COLLECTION

4.7.

OPERATIONS AND MAINTANENCE

5.

OPERATIONS

6.

DATA INTEGRATION, VISUALIZATION AND

11

MANAGEMENT
7.

INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT

12

8.

CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION

13

9.

NOISE POLLUTION

15

9.1. SOUND AND NOISE

16

9.2. THE IMPACT OF NOISE

16

9.3. NOISE MAPPING

16

9.3.1.

NOISE MAPPING IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

iii

16

9.3.2. NOISE MAPPING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

17

9.3.3. NOISE MAPPING IN KENYA

17

19

10. THE NAIROBI STUDY

10.1. THE STUDY AREA

19

10.2. STUDY OBJECTIVES

19

10.3. METHODOLOGY

19

10.4. RESULT

20

11. GIS TOOL FOR MAPPING FLOODED AREAS OF

KURIGRAM, BANGLADESH

25

11.1. STUDY AREA

26

11.2. METHOD

26

11.3. RESULT

27

11.3.1. MAPPING FLOOD OF KURIGRAM

28

11.3.2. MAPPING FLOOD OF KURIGRAM, 1994

28

11.3.3. MAPPING FLOOD OF KURIGRAM, 2004

31

11.4. COMPARISON OF FLOOD RISK AREA

34

12. CONCLUSION

36

REFERENCES

37

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1

Flowchart indicating phases of GIS

Fig 2

Infrastructure Lifecycle

Fig 3

Operation in GIS

Fig 4

Data model of GIS

11

Fig 5

The study area in the CBD

20

Fig 6

Flow chart of methodology

22

Fig 7

Nairobi CBD noise map

23

Fig 8

The average recorded noise levels

23

Fig 9

Study area of kurigram

26

Fig 10

Flood inundation map of Kurigram (1994)

29

Fig 11

Flood risk map of Kurigram (1999)

30

Fig 12

Flood inundation map of Kurigram (2004)

32

Fig 13

Flood risk map of Kurigram (2004)

33

Fig 14

Comparison of flood risk areas

34

vi

1. INTRODUCTION
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based tool for the input, storage,
management, retrieval and output of the information. The information in a GIS relates to the
characteristics of geographic locations or areas. In other words, a GIS answers questions
about where things are or about what is located at a location. The term GIS has different
meaning in different contexts. It can relate to an overall system of hardware and software that
is used to work with spatial information. It might refer to a particular software package that is
designed to handle information about geographic features. Data capturing from aerial
photography and / or remote sensing system were made with the help of Global Positioning
System, digitalizing and scanning [4].
Civil Engineering is about developing and sustaining infrastructure. GIS technology provides
the tool for creating, managing, analysing and visualising the data associated with developing
and managing infrastructure. GIS allows civil engineers to manage and share data and turn it
into easily understood reports and visualisations that can be analysed and communicated to
others. This data can be related to both project and its broader geographic contexts. It also
helps organisations and Governments work together to develop strategies for sustainable
development. Thus, GIS is playing an increasingly important role in Civil Engineering
companies, supporting all phases of the infrastructure life cycle [4].
GIS will allow project managers and different people involved in project with different
backgrounds to get the information about the progress of the project and support Decision
Making. GIS will provide a common basis of understanding and communication among these
people. Many people think of GIS as a presentation tool. A GIS does in fact create high
quality maps that communicate considerable amounts of information in an efficient and
attention-getting manner [1].

2. Why GIS?
GIS software is interoperable, supporting the many data formats used in the infrastructure life
cycle and allowing civil engineers to provide data to various agencies in the required format
while maintaining the datas core integrity. GIS technology provides a central location to
conduct spatial analysis, overlay data, and integrate other solutions and systems. Built on a
database rather than individual project files, GIS enables civil engineers to easily manage,
reuse, share, and analyse data, saving time and resources.
GIS are needed in part because human populations and consumption have reached levels such
that many resources, including air and land, are placing substantial limits on human action.
Human populations have doubled in the last 50 years. Public organizations have adopted GIS
because of legislative mandates, and because GIS aid in governmental functions. Many
businesses have adopted GIS because they provide increased efficiency in the delivery of
goods and services. Retail businesses locate stores based on a number of spatially-related
factors. GIS are also used in hundreds of other business applications, such as to route delivery
vehicles, guide advertising, design buildings, plan construction, and sell real estate. GIS
provide spatial solutions to many fields of civil engineering such as transportation, water
resources, facilities management, urban planning, construction and E-business. GIS is an
effective tool to visualize the topographical conditions of construction site. The modelling of
construction site facilitates in construction controlling and planning process [4].
2.1 AUTHOR, SERVE, USE
GIS lets you easily author data, maps, globes, and models on the desktop; serve them
to a GIS server; and use them through Web, desktop, and mobile clients [4].
2.2 SPATIAL ANALYSIS
GIS provides tools for modelling information to support more intelligent, faster decisions;
discover and characterize geographic patterns; optimize network and resource allocation; and
automate workflows through a visual modelling environment [4].

2.3 VISUALIZATION AND CARTOGRAPHY

Through the use of 2D and 3D clients, you can experience a more interactive way of seeing
data, visualizing change over time and space to identify patterns and trends, and disseminate
knowledge to engineers, managers, clients, regulators, and field-based personnel [4].
2.4 SPATIAL DATA MANAGEMENT
GIS organizes and manages geographic information to support fast and efficient visualization
and analytic applications, regardless of the amount of data held within an organization.
Agencies securely store and manage vast amounts of spatial information and propagate data
changes between multiple data sources [4].

FIG 1: Flowchart indicating phases of GIS [4]

3. COMPONENTS OF A GIS
A GIS has following components.
Hardware: It consists of the equipment and support devices that are required to capture, store
process and visualize the geographic information. These include computer with hard disk,
digitizers, scanners, printers and plotters etc.
Software: Software is at the heart of a GIS system. The GIS software must have the basic
capabilities of data input, storage, transformation, analysis and providing desired outputs. The
interfaces could be different for different softwares. The GIS software being used today
belong to either of the category proprietary or open source. ArcGIS by ESRI is the widely
used proprietary GIS software. Others in the same category are MapInfo, Micro station, Geo
media etc. The development of open source GIS has provided us with freely available
desktop GIS such as Quantum, uDIG, GRASS, MapWindow GIS etc., GIS softwares.

Data: The data is captured or collected from various sources (such as maps, field
observations, photography, satellite imagery etc.) and is processed for analysis and
presentation.

Procedures: These include the methods or ways by which data has to be input in the
system, retrieved, processed, transformed and presented.

People: This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as programmer,
database manager, GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also the
individuals who are at the user end using the GIS services, applications and tools [7].

4. INFRASTRUCTURE LIFE CYCLE

A centralized information system based on GIS software provides civil engineers with the IT
framework for maintaining and deploying critical data and applications across every aspect of
the infrastructure project life cycle including planning and design, data collection and
management, spatial analysis, construction, and operations management and maintenance.
This architecture provides the tools to assemble intelligent GIS applications and improve a
project process by giving engineers, construction contractors, surveyors, and analysts a single
data source from which to work. Centrally hosting applications and data makes it easy to
manage, organize, and integrate geographic data, including CAD data, from existing
databases to visualize, analyse, and make decisions. The system helps combat data
communication errors, eliminating the need for multiple, flat files in disparate systems [4].

FIG 2: Infrastructure Lifecycle [4]

4.1 PLANNING
It contains high-level planning functions for site location including environmental impact
mitigation, economic analysis, regulatory permitting, alternative siting analysis, routing
utilities, what-if scenarios, visualization of concept options, data overlay, modelling, and
benefit/cost alternatives analysis [6].
In planning its major contribution is to give us with an organised set of data which can help
professionals to combat complex scenarios relating to the selection of site, environmental
impact, study of ecosystem, managing risk regarding the use of natural resources,
sustainability issues, managing traffic congestion, routing roads and pipelines etc. [4].
4.2 DATA COLLECTION
Precise and accurate data is the core driving factor of any successful project. GIS is equipped
with almost all the tools and functions that enables the user to have access to the required
data within a reasonable time [6].
GIS has specific functions to collect precise site data used for predesign analysis, design and
calculations including field survey, topography, soils, subsurface geology, traffic,
photogrammetry, imaging, sensitive environmental areas, wetlands, hydrology, and other site
specific design-grade data [4].
4.3 DESIGN
It allows creation of new infrastructure data for new civil works including grading,
contouring, specifications, cross sections, design calculations, mass haul plans, environmental
mitigation plans, and equipment staging. This includes integration with traditional design
tools such as CAD and databases for new design capabilities [4].

4.4 ANALYSIS
Analysis is one of the major and most influential phases of the infrastructure lifecycle.
Analysis guides us about the validity or correctness of design or we can say that analysis is a
method which supports our designs. Some of the analysis that can be performed by GIS are:

Water distribution analysis.

Traffic management analysis.

Soil analysis.

Site feasibility analysis.

Environment impact analysis.

Volume or area of catchment.

River or canal pattern analysis.

Temperature and humidity analysis [6].

GIS provides analysis to support design including hydrology analysis, volume calculations,
soil load analysis, traffic capacity, environmental impact, slope stability, materials
consumption, runoff, erosion control, and air emissions. During environmental analysis, view
project maps, site photos, CAD files, survey measurements, and 3D renderings. Analysis of
the environment with a GIS allows you to view patterns, trends, and relationships that were
not clearly evident without the visualization of data [4].
4.5 CONSTRUCTION
It is a stage when all layout plans and paper work design come into existence in the real
world. The GIS helps the professionals to understand the site conditions that affect the
schedule baseline and cost baseline. To keep the construction within budget and schedule GIS
guide us about how to utilise our resources on site efficiently by:

Timely usage of construction equipment.

Effects of seasonal fluctuations.

Optimising routes for dumpers and concrete trucks.

Earth filling and cutting.

Calculation of volumes and areas of constructed phase thereby helping in estimation

and valuation [6].

It provides the mechanics and management for building new infrastructure including takeoffs, machine control, earth movement, intermediate construction, volume and material, and
payment calculations, materials tracking, logistics, schedules and traffic management [4].
4.6 DATA COLLECTION
As Built Surveying GIS provides the tools to collect precise site data and document existing
conditions. With as-built surveying infrastructure data, operators use defined, operational,
industry-standard data models. As-built surveying with GIS technology permits the surveyor
to deliver data into operational GIS, eliminating costly data conversion and reducing errors
[4].
4.7 OPERATIONS/MAINTENANCE
Operations are controlled by modelling of site data and compared by the baseline prepared in
planning phase. Modelling of site may be in the form of raster images or CAD drawings.
These can help us to keep track of timely operations of activities. GIS can help to make a
record of work that has been completed and can give us visualization in the form of thematic
maps which will guide us about rate of operations, completed operations and pending
operations [6].
It models utility and infrastructure networks and integrates other related types of data such as
raster images and CAD drawings. Spatial selection and display tools allow you to visualize
scheduled work, on-going activities, recurring maintenance problems, and historical
information. The topological characteristics of a GIS database can support network tracing
and can be used to analyse specific properties or services that may be impacted by such
events as stoppages, main breaks, and drainage defects [4].

5. OPERATIONS
It models utility and infrastructure networks and integrates other related types of data such as
raster images and CAD drawings. A spatial selection and display tool allows you to visualise
scheduled works, on-going activities recurring maintenance problems and historical
information. The topological characteristics of GIS database can support network tracing and
can be used to analyse specific propertied or services that may be impacted by such events as
stoppage, main breaks and drainage defects [6].

FIG 3: OPERATIONS IN GIS [4]

A server-based data management environment leveraging GIS capabilities promotes efficient

workflows in data and project management. It allows you to streamline your work processes
in data capture, editing, analysis, visualization and design. With an ability to communicate
9

changes to an entire team rapidly, GIS gives your entire team access to the most current
information supporting better decision making [4].
GIS enhances workflows in
Project management
Analysis and design
Logistics
GIS provides
Data accuracy
Data sharing
Analysis capability
Modelling

10

6. DATA INTEGRATION, VISUALIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

You can use GIS to combine and interpret data from many different formats. GIS allows you
to integrate satellite images, CAD drawings, and parcel maps to create a visual overview of a
project and turn it into easily understood reports. It accepts CAD data without conversion and
includes it as a layer in a geo database.
A GIS geo database gives you the ability to handle rich data types and apply sophisticated
rules and relationships. In addition to managing large volumes of geographic data, it also
implements sophisticated business logic that, for example, builds relationships between data
types such as topologies and geometric networks, validates data, and controls access. Data
management tools scale to meet your needs, from the individual to workgroups and large,
multiuser enterprises [4].

FIG 4: Data model of GIS [6]

11

7. INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT
Visualizing assets and the surrounding environment when you build, upgrade, and repair
infrastructure helps you decide how to prioritize your work, convince others of its
importance, and make good decisions about how to move forward with your plans Having an
accurate, clear picture of the project helps you better understand need reduce problems, and
mitigate costs and environmental impacts. These processes are improved when GIS is the
core system for data management and visualization.
With all the demands on your time, using tools that streamline your business processes and
provide you with the best mapping and visualization makes sense. GIS can help you present
information in a straightforward way to partners in your projects, government officials, and
the public. With ArcGIS Server technology, you can take maps that you have created with
ArcGIS Desktop software and publish them over the Web so you, your partners, and your
staff in the field can see how a project is progressing.
Use GIS for more efficient

Planning and site location.

Environmental analysis.

Infrastructure design.

Construction management.

Data collection and as-built surveying.

Operations and maintenance [4].

12

8. CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION

Engineers responsible for the safety and security of buildings, bridges, utilities, and other
critical infrastructure need a comprehensive decision-making tool for emergency assessment,
preparation response, and recovery activities. GIS technology provides a situational
awareness tool for fusing information, from flood elevation and evacuation routes to a
bridges structural specifications and inspection results. With critical infrastructure
information stored in a geodatabase,ou can display that information in real time on a Webbased map [4].
Use GIS tools to combine and analyze specific data needed to meet a required task. Add
current traffic and weather data, draw buffer protection zones, and share new changes in real
time. Emergency managers use the enterprise GIS database to

Identify critical infrastructure and hazards within affected areas.

Identify medical resources and route patients to nearest facilities.

Prepare evacuation routes for at-risk populations.

Provide accurate damage estimates.

Identify priorities for short-term recovery needs.

Assess long-term recovery needs [4].

13

9. NOISE POLLUTION MAPPING USING GIS IN NAIROBI, KENYA

Noise is any sound that causes physiological uneasiness to the ear. People in many
environments today, especially urban ones, are exposed to such noise without realizing its
potential danger to their healthy hearing. This situation is largely contributed to by the little
attention that most governments, especially in the developing countries, pay to noise as a
pollution issue. This paper describes a study that aimed at measuring the noise levels at
selected points in Nairobis CBD with a view to generate a noise map over the study area in
addition to identifying areas of high noise in- tensity or noise hot spots. The study found that
noise levels, on average, varied from 61 db to 78 db, increasing from the west to the east of
the CBD, and emanated mainly from vehicular traffic; several noise hotspots were also
identified, and they are located mainly to the east of the CBD. The paper concludes that
although the study was not city-wide, the noise levels observed are high enough to warrant
further research and action by the environmental authorities.
Environmental pollution and its concentration are significantly increasing and are causing a
global threat to the quality of the environment and the fragile ecosystem of the Earth.
Management of environmental pollution is a challenge in itself; air, water, hazardous waste
and noise pollution are now serious concerns in many nations. One of the serious and most
often overlooked issues about environmental pollution is environmental noise. Noise is seen
as a normal phenomenon. Action plans and subsequent acoustical planning are not seriously
considered in many parts of the world. As a result, the impact of noise is not well understood.
It is important to measure the level of noise emanating from specified sources and to share
such information with the people that are at the noise source. This will help the public to
realize the levels of noise that they are exposed to and to develop mechanisms for reducing
the noise to permissible levels. A geographic informa- tion system (GIS) is a computer based
information system that enables the input, management, analysis, output and dissemination of
spatially referenced, land related data and information at all scales. Noise maps provide good
spatial presentations of acoustic situations. GIS provides good visualization tools of noise
propagation and assists in building a spatial decision support system that can be used in the
decision making process. Noise maps built in GIS can therefore be used for such analysis and
management processes. Since noise has some psychological and social implications and
affects the well-being and quality of life in our environment, there is a need for noise to be
14

visualized and shown especially to affected parties. GIS can fa- cilitate such display and
visualization and can lead to findings which might be necessary to inform infrastructure
planning, ensure productivity in various places of work or study, and to implement or enforce
compliance to any existing noise regulations [1].
9.1. SOUND AND NOISE
Environmental noise pollution continues to pose a significant threat to human health and the
quality of life for millions of people worldwide. Urbanization and associated growth in
mobility and industrialization have resulted in the intensification of noise in densely
populated areas causing an increase in noise exposure. As the population increases in an
urban area, industrial activities also increase to meet peoples needs. This results in increased
noise levels. In order to understand what noise and thus noise pollution is, it is first vital to
understand what sound is, how it is produced and how it consequently becomes noise.

In

physics, sound is defined as vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave
of pressure and displacement through a medium such as air or water. In physiology, sound is
the reception of such waves and their perception by the brain. When an object moves or
vibrates in the air, it creates waves which spread out away from the source. These vibrations
radiate out in all directions from the source like ripples in a pond and create pressure changes
which are detected by the human ear. These small changes in air pressure are relayed to the
brain and are interpreted as sounds. Such changes in air pressure are very small in
comparison to the baro- metric air pressure that surrounds us all the time. Sound is measured
using a Sound Level Meter, also referred to as a noise meter or a decibel meter in Decibels
(dB) or in Pascal units. Sound starts becoming noise when it causes uneasiness to the ear.
The human ear can hear sounds from the quietest source (e.g. a sleeping dog) to the highest
source (e.g. a jet aircraft taking off). The lowest pressure change that can generally be
detected by the human ear is 0 dB (0.00002 Pascal). The pressure change that represents the
threshold of pain to the human ear is about 140 dB (200 Pascal), equivalent to the sound of a
jet aircraft. Noise is therefore any undesirable sound that is intrinsically objectionable or that
may cause adverse effects on human health or the environment. In the simplest of terms,
noise is defined as unwanted sound. Noise pollution is a term which refers to the level of
ambient sound that is potentially aggravating or annoying to human beings and even to
animals [1].
15

9.2. THE IMPACT OF NOISE

Noise pollution has many negative physiological and social implications and affects the wellbeing and quality of life in our environment. Noise pollution disturbs sleep, increases stress,
causes distraction, discomfort and deprives peace of mind. It disturbs students, is a hazard to
the aged and the sick and is a sign of disrespect to the community at large. Long exposure to
noise can cause noise-induced hearing loss. High noise levels can also contribute to
cardiovascular effects. Noise can have detrimental effects on animals too, for instance,
scaring animals out of their natural habitats. Other minor psychological problems such as
tension, irritability and difficulty in concentrating are also evident from noise [1].
When having prolonged exposure, noise will have far-reaching detrimental effects; moreover,
coupled with the increasingly urbanised environment characterized by a high density of living
in high-rise residences, the ca- pability of noise pollution to affect a larger proportion of
people also increases; quality of life is also under- mined, especially during night-time. Other
negative impacts that are related to the quality of life include undue alterations in the
everyday behaviour of individuals; examples include preventing the use of residential areas
such as balconies and common areas due to excessive noise levels as well as the shutting of
windows in homes to prevent noise emission [1].
9.3. NOISE MAPPING
Noise mapping is the measurement of sound levels at pre-determined points and the use of
the resulting data to construct a graphic representation of the distribution of sound levels over
a given region for a defined period. Noise maps can be used to assess conformance to
allowable noise levels, set up noise reduction measures and monitor the impact of such
measures [1].
9.3.1 NOISE MAPPING IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
In developed countries, problems with noise are often rated at the highest level of concern
together with is- sues such as global warming. Within the context of an emerging evidence
base suggesting links between expo- sure to environmental noise and public health concerns,
noise policy gained greater prominence in EU environ- mental policy throughout the 1990s.
In June 2002, the European Parliament adopted Directive 2002/49/EC (END), relating to the
16

assessment and management of environmental noise. The aim of this directive was to define a
common approach intended to avoid, prevent or reduce the harmful effects of environmental
noise [1].
9.3.2 NOISE MAPPING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Noise is one of the most unregulated and overlooked forms of pollution as it is temporal and
inconspicuous. It does not have any immediate observable effect and it doesnt cause direct
impact upon individuals. Many cities in developing countries are now having to take action to
enhance their institutional and technical capabilities to monitor and control noise exposure
and implement preventive actions in order to reduce the risks that noise poses to their
citizens. The severity of environmental noise in cities of developing countries reflects the
level and speed of development. As cities undergo economic and industrial development,
environmental noise be comes an increasing problem. Many people in developing countries
suffer the pressure of a combination of different driving forces like motorization,
industrialization and an increase in urban population density. Most of the cities in such
countries are however without the well-developed civil infrastructure and financial resources
to control these forces. The result is that the capacity of many cities to cope with the
combined pressures is often exceeded leading to a deterioration in environmental quality and
human livelihood. As compared to developed countries, problems with noise in developing
countries are often not rated at the highest level of concern. The link between noise and
human health is not taken seriously and hence there is not much done to curb the emission of
noise [1].
9.3.3 NOISE MAPPING IN KENYA
As the population increases within various towns and urban areas in Kenya, industrial
activities also increase to meet peoples needs resulting in increased noise levels. Poor land
use planning and increased traffic levels have also contributed to the elevation of noise levels
in such areas. It is also necessary to note that in order to meet spiritual needs of the people,
churches, mosques and temples are continuously being established in many areas. Religious
activities have the potential for noise pollution due to the use of loud speakers in the spread
of their messages. To protect the human population and other organisms that are sensitive to
noise, monitoring of noise levels has become an invaluable management tool. It is thus
17

necessary to provide every Kenyan with a safe and secure environment as provided for in the
Kenyan constitution which stipulates a right to a clean and safe environment as a fundamental
human right of the people of Kenya. Nairobi, being the capital of Kenya, has a high
concentration of industrial activities that has attracted a population of over three million
people. To promote harmonious coexistence between different land uses, it is impor- tant to
manage externalities generated by diverse land uses meant to meet a wide array of needs.
Nairobi has doubled its population in the last decade and Kenyas urban population currently
stands at about 40 per cent of the national population.
In Kenya, the impact of noise is not yet taken seriously and its effects are not well
emphasized. The link be- tween noise and human health is also not taken seriously and hence
there is not much done to curb the emission of noise or to better understand its spread and
effects [1].

18

10. THE NAIROBI STUDY

10.1. THE STUDY AREA
The area of study, as shown in Figure 1, is a part of the CBD of Nairobi County in the
Republic of Kenya be- tween latitudes 109'56" and 127'28" South and longitudes 3639'04"
and 3706'18" East. Nairobi County bor- ders Kiambu, Machakos and Kajiado Counties and
has an approximate area of 684 square kilometres with an approximate population of 3.36
million people. Therefore it has an average population density of 4850 people per square
kilometre. The study area in the CBD is approximately 1.776842 square kilometres. There are
many commercial activities, industrial sites, institutional, recreational and residential areas
within Nairobi ranging from small scale retail, sales, services and businesses to large
companies with offices, ware- houses and go downs; slum housing and informal settlement to
extremely lavish housing; mixed commer- cial-institutional and mixed residentialcommercial land use and some few open spaces without any develop- ment. Nairobi is the
worlds fourth most congested city according to a 2011 survey. Infrastructure has been made
obsolete by a growing population that is keen on cars. Much of Nairobis road network is
more than half a cen- tury old and was developed for just 350,000 inhabitants; since then
Nairobis population has swelled and like many other African cities it cannot build roads as
fast as its residents can buy cars [1].
10.2. STUDY OBJECTIVES
Generally, the study aimed at sampling, documenting and spatially analyzing noise levels in
the Nairobi Central Business District. Specifically, it aimed to:

Measure noise levels from predetermined potential sources of noise.

Develop a 2D strategic noise map for the CBD and to identify noise hot spots there
in based on noise levels [1].

10.3. METHODOLOGY
The relevant data sets identified for collection included noise data, roads data, and buildings
data in the CBD.
19

FIG 5: The study area in the CBD[1].

20

The noise data used in this study was obtained from field measurements in the area of study
using a sound level meter and a hand held GPS. Coordinates were taken concurrently with
readings upon sampling site visits. LAeq, which refers to equivalent continuous noise level, is
a single decibel value derived from measurements taken in a period of time to account for
fluctuations. This data was recorded in data sheets.
The roads data was obtained on-line, created and prepared jointly by the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the Government of the Republic of Kenya under the
Japanese Government Technical Cooperation Program. The roads file was created with the
intention of providing a freely accessible, generalized representation of Nairobis
transportation network; a freely available dataset that will allow those interested in Nairobis
future to use GIS to make informed decisions. The roads data was then updated by digitizing
from Open Streets Maps.
The data on buildings within the CBD was also obtained online, created and prepared jointly
by the Japan In- ternational Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the Government of the Republic
of Kenya under the Japanese Government Technical Cooperation Program.
This study was done over a short period of time and specifically during the day due to
constraints of time, security and cost to show a GIS-based approach for 2D noise modeling.
Coupled with other constraints, the sam- pling duration was less than 1 minute at every
sampling point. The temporal dimension was not considered as measurements were not taken
concurrently but individually and momentarily [1].

21

10.4. RESULTS
Figure shows the Nairobi CBD noise map, probably the first ever constructed, and which is
the key result that was obtained from mapping average noise within the CBD.

FIG 6: Flow chart of methodology [1] .

A 2D strategic noise map showing noise hot-spots in the study area was also developed to
show the noisiest areas in the CBD based on noise levels, The results show that the eastern
parts of Nairobis CBD have the highest levels of noise. This can be attributed to a high
concentration of matatu (public service vans) stops and open air vendors in that part of the
CBD. Fig- ure 6 also shows that by far, the greatest source of noise in the CBD is traffic. This
is consistent with the results of some studies that have been carried out elsewhere, such as
Gholami et al. (2012); consequently, any mitigation measures would have to focus on this
source.

22

FIG 7: Nairobi CBD noise map[1] .

Fig 8: The average recorded noise levels[1].

23

The highest sound recorded, at 78 db, shows that in some parts, especially the hotspots, the
noise levels approach the healthy hearing limit of about 85 db. In inter- preting these results,
one must keep in mind that the study was limited to only the CBD and would need rolling out
to the other parts of the city in order to get results more representative of the whole city; in
addition, noise levels, especially from traffic, are bound to vary with time of day or night and
therefore continous noise recording would give even more representative results [1].

24

11. GIS TOOLS FOR MAPPING OF FLOODED AREA OF

KURIGRAM, BANGLADESH:
Nowadays, flood is frequent, widespread and the most devastating natural hazardous
phenomena in the world. It is also a common natural hazard in Bangladesh. Flood hazard
is very serious in Kurigram district which is surrounded by many small and big rivers.
According to UNEP (2002) flood and river bank erosion is the main natural disaster in
Kurigram district. These natural disasters are more devastating for Kurigram district
because there have no flood forecasting system technology to pre disaster preparedness
and post disaster rehabilitation. As well as flood disaster is not a new concept to
Kurigram district, it has vast damages on physical, cultural, economic, environmental
properties and lives. It so needs to know the nature, causes and mitigation process of
flood where flood inundation mapping is the vital elements of flood management.
Accurate flood mapping can reduce the flood damages. There is no accurate flood
inundation map of Kurigram district which is related to satellite image flood data.
Accurate flood inundation map is very important for the proper planning and management
the flood hazards. Traditional surveying methods are very time consuming for flood data
collection and mapping where the satellite image interpretation and flood inundation
mapping is very simple, easy and quick method. RADARSAT and other satellites provide
the satellite images data for flood inundation mapping can easily help to reduce the flood
damages. For appropriate land use and protect the environment, properties and lives from
flood damages in flood prone areas flood mapping are hardly needed. It creates rapidly
accessible charts and maps easy to read which facilitate the identification of risk areas and
prioritize their mitigation effects. In the past many studies were considered GIS
techniques and remote sensing data to produce flood inundation areas map. Many studies
were carried out to investigate the hydrological behaviour of the floods in Bangladesh.
Remote sensing has provided not only a systematic framework for scientific knowledge
of planetary dynamics at various scale but also an effective basis for better informed
decision making, regarding issues ranging from planning to forecast and response to
natural hazards. Low resolution is especially suitable for large areas mapping for their
high revisited time and new high resolution sensors which are useful for local scale
analysis. This study provides an easy, simple and short technique for producing flood
25

inundation maps from various satellite data by using Geographic Information System
(GIS) software tools [2].
11.1. STUDY AREA
Kurigram district is located in Rangpur division situated in northern part of Bangladesh.
Total area of Kurigram district is 2296.10 sq.kms where total land covers is 276.45
sq.kms. It is surrounded by Coach Bihar district and West Bengal of India on north
portion, and the south portion surrounded by Gaibandha district of Bangladesh, the
eastern part is surrounded by Assam province of India, West Bengal, Rangpur and
Lalmonirhat districts on the western position. Kurigram district is situated 2523'N to
2614'N latitude and 8928'E to 8954'E longitude. Average height of this district is 13
meter from the mean sea level. There are many big and small river flows over this district.

FIG 9: Study Area of Kurigram [2].

26

Tempered climate is seen in the district all the year round. Here annual maximum
temperature is 32.3C and minimum 11.2C. Annual total rainfall is 2931 mm (National
Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh, 2007). Here at about 162,334.28 hectares land is cultivable
where total fallow land is 19,312.22 hectares; 30% land is single crop, 50% land is double
crop and 20% land is treble crop [2].
11.2 METHOD
This study demonstrated using topographic data, remotely sensed imagery, the integrated
approach of remote sensing and GIS techniques in flood mapping. The remote sensing
data especially RADARSAT images were collected from Space Research and Remote
Sensing Organization (SPARRSO) and Centre for Environmental and Geographic
Information Services (CEGIS). A subset of images covering a district of the region was
used at this stage of the research. Unsystematic errors remain in commercially available
remote sensing data; geometric correction was done to reduce the error. All radar
amplitude data were firstly geo corrected in the WGS_1984 geographic coordinate system
using the open source software package ArcGIS9.3 provided by the Environmental
Systems Research Institute (ESRI). The accuracy of classification was assessed based on
the evaluation set of the ground truth data. After that the geo referenced images were used
with GIS layers. The flooded areas were then derived from the radar amplitude data. Data
were carried out using Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
During the GIS manipulation flood data was converted into the attribute data and the
overlay process was done to determine the interaction with other features such as
drainage and relief for producing the flood inundate maps of flood prone areas. Then it
was reclassified into five risk zones of flooded areas are very high, high, moderate, low
and very low risk using equal interval of separation based on flooded and non-flooded
areas. Then, the five risk zones are overlaid on the map to produce the vulnerability map
of the flood affected areas. After that the vulnerability map was converted into the digital
format to enable the decision makers to assemble necessary data. Without the geospatial
data here included some the geospatial data here included some administrative
boundaries, road networks and elevation units in GIS layers for produce the map. The
range of GIS software error is up to 10% as a result of digitization and finally overlays
analyses performed on conventional maps [2].
27

11.3. RESULT
11.3.1. MAPPING FLOOD OF KURIGRAM
Kurigram is a northern district of Bangladesh where total population is 2,069,273. Various
seasonal flooding affected the people every year where flood situation is depending on
surrounding rivers and total rainfall. The unplanned urban growth of city, unplanned dam and
unplanned water bodies filling has made the worse flood situation in Kurigram district. The 1998
and 2004 catastrophic flood is affected the whole district and widely impacted on social,
environmental and economic sectors. According to hydrological and meteorological assessment
these events are more severe due to the lack of proper flood protection and flood management
these lacking lose the huge amount of properties and lives. For creating map of the district for
flood management, Remote sensing data and GIS tools have been used. The 1998 and 2004 flood
events show that how the flood maps of Kurigram district were developed. It is true that the using
of remote sensing data and GIS tools for flood mapping is quite recent in our Bangladesh. So
floods mapping of Kurigram district in 1998 and 2004 is not available and widely. For providing
the basic idea of the floods mapping process 1998 and 2004 event is included. Here the 1998 and
2004 events are detailed in this study [2].

11.3.2. MAPPING FLOOD OF KURIGRAM DISTRICT, 1998:

On basis of land cover classification and flood inundation area the study tries to determine the
flood vulnerable areas. For mapping the flooded area of 1998 and 2004 in Kurigram district two
RADARSAT images were used as flood data. The first image is August, 1998 which was
collected during the flood and second image is July, 2004 which also collected during rainy
season. For avoiding distortions geometric correction was done for establishing the relationship
between the coordinate system and image coordinate system. Table 1 here showed that in 1998
about 720 sq.km areas were non-flooded where the total area was 2296.1 sq.km. The non-flooded
area covers the 31% of total area where the total flooded area is 1575 sq.km and covered 69% of
total area of the district. The map grey color has shown the non-flooded area where the pixel
counts the 347304. According to flood where the first class is denoted here at very high risk and
its covered 622.75 sq.kms which is 27.12% of the total area. Second class is high risk zone and
its covered 278.75 sq.kms which is 12.14% of the total area. Third class is moderate risk zone
and its covered 379.57 sq.kms which is 16.33% of the total area. Forth class is low risk zone and
its covered 793.94 sq.kms which is 34.58% of the total area. Fifth class is very low risk zone and

28

its covered 222.35 sq.kms which is 9.68% of the total area shown in map, the total area of
Kurigram district is divided into five vulnerable zones [2].

FIG 10: Flood Inundation Map of Kurigram (1998) [2].

29

FIG 11: Flood Risk Map of Kurigram (1998) [2].

30

11.3.3. MAPPING FLOOD OF KURIGRAM, 2004

In 2004 according to Figure 5, about 1040 sq.kms areas were non-flooded where the total area
was 2296.1 sq.kms. The non-flooded area covers the 46% of total area. The map violet colour has
shown the non-flooded area where the pixel counts the 347304. Otherwise, the 1255 sq.kms area
was flooded in 2004. The flooded area covers 54% area of Kurigram district. According to flood
map, the total area of Kurigram district is divided into five vulnerable zones. Where the first class
is denoted here at very high risk and its covered 823 sq.kms which is 35% of the total area.
Second class is high risk zone and its covered 286.56 sq.kms which is 12% of the total area.
Third class is moderate risk zone and its covered 429 sq.kms which is 18% of the total area.
Forth class is low risk zone and its covered 600 sq.kms which is 26% of the total area. Fifth class
is very low risk zone and its covered 156.77 sq.kms which is 9% of the total area [2].

31

FIG 12: Flood inundation map of Kurigram (2004) [2].

32

Fig 13: Flood risk map of Kurigram (2004) [2].

33

11.4. COMPARISONS OF FLOOD RISK OF KURIGRAM BETWEEN 1998 AND

2004
The 1998 and 2004 flood is more catastrophic which caused worst environmental disaster
in Kurigram district and also the memorable history. These floods were prolonged than
any known event which consequences in severe damages of economies and untold
sufferings to the inhabitants of Kurigram district. The flood hazard areas of these two
catastrophic flood of 1998 and 2004 shown. Here acquired two RADARSAT images
covered the whole flood season of 1998 and 2004 monthly July and August. In the 1998
where the very high risk zone is covered 622.75 sq.kms there in 2004 high risk zone
marked 823 sq.kms and 35% of total area of Kurigram district. There after the high risk
zone was covered at about same area and percentage in the both events. As that the
moderate risk zone of both areas was 18% in 2004 and 16.66% in 1998. Therefore the
low and very low risk zone was covered in large area than 1998 to 2004 where the low
risk zone percentage in 2004 was 26% and 1998 was 34.58%. In the 2004 very low risk
zone covered 156.77 sq.kms area and 9% of total area. Figure 8 shows the area and
percentage of flood risk in 1998 and 2004. The flood map of Kurigram district in 1998
and showed that high concentration of damages of every sides of the river both homestead
and agricultural land. These areas are very highly fertile lands which can produce a
various types of fruits and crops. Due to lack of detailed flood protection and proper flood
management the crops were damaged. There are many roads, motor ways, highway roads
and many small roads were damaged [2].

FIG 14: Comparison of flood risk area (1998 and 2004)

In this study only the inundated area has been mapped. There was no flood plain data
were available of the study area. There these flood mapped will be one of the historical
event of flood extent can be very effectively used for certain flood modelling and to
produce the general flood plain boundaries. These flood modelling and flood boundaries
34

also can help the future urbanization limits and land use pattern to minimize and avoid the
properties and human losses. The blue color areas showed the very high risk flood zone
where the green, light green and grey color areas showed the high, moderate, low and
very low flood risk zone. There the green color is more risky than light green color areas.
The red color showed the build-up areas where the different residences were situated.
These residential and crop lands fall into flood prone zone of different rivers. Distance is
not calculated during analysis of these zones from the rivers because elevation is the main
factor than distance for flooding. For example, an area which is situated at the right bank
of the river may not be flood affected for its great height where left bank is far from the
river but flood-affected due to its low gentle slope from the river. The vulnerability map
of 1998 and 2004 showed the probable extent of flood disaster. From the image or the
map risk classification, residential buildings, industries and farmlands can be observed
within the different risk zones of the river. This analysis suggests that very high risk
zones should use very carefully in different purpose by proper flood protection and flood
management for decreasing the property and live losses. It also should control the light
green zones for land use by the government [2].

35

12. CONCLUSION
There are ample evidences of applying the recent advances in satellite based remote sensing
and GIS technology in various fields of civil engineering. Indias space programmed ensuring
continuous availability of RS (Remote Sensing) data and launching of future satellites
carrying high spatial and spectral resolution sensors can go a long way in providing useful
information required for civil engineering applications [8].
The following conclusions were obtained from my seminar on GIS in civil engineering:

GIS can be easily used and hence enhances the each and every phase of infrastructure
lifecycle.

GIS plays a vital role in construction management and decision making.

GIS can be used for environment impact analysis.

The using of the remote sensing imagery and GIS tools is very effective for flood
mapping in the recent flood events.

The maps can help the decision makers to identify the flood risk zones.

GIS can act as an important tool for noise mapping.

GIS will prove to be foundation of next generation Civil Engineering.

GIS also allows pollution mapping, flood mapping, water management etc. [4]

36

REFERENCE
[1] Enock Abe Wawa, and Galcano Canny Mulaku, Noise Pollution Mapping Using GIS in
Nairobi, Kenya , Journal of Geographic Information System, 2015, 7, 486-493 Published
Online October 2015 in SciRes.
[2] Sadhan Kumar Roy, Subaran Chandra Sarker, Integration of Remote Sensing Data and
GIS Tools for Accurate Mapping of Flooded Area of Kurigram, Bangladesh, Journal of
Geographic Information System, 2016, 8, 184-192 Published Online April 2016 in
SciRes.
[3] Clement, A.R. (2014) An Application of Geographic Information System in Mapping
Flood Risk Zones in a NorthCentral City in Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental
Science and Technology, 7, 365-371.
[4] www.esri.com/arcgis
[5] Sadhan Kumar Roy, Subaran Chandra Sarker, Integration of Remote Sensing Data and
GIS Tools for Accurate Mapping of Flooded Area of Kurigram, Bangladesh, Journal of
Geographic Information System, 2016, 8, 184-192 Published Online April 2016 in SciRes.
[6] www.google.co.in
[7] www.nptel.com
[8] R.A.Ganorkar, P.I.Rode, Ashtashil V. Bhambulkar, Application Of GIS In
Transportation Engineering,

International Journal of Engineering Research and

Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 3, Issue 2, March -April 2015,
pp.540-542

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