Turbomachinery Characteristics

Dimensional Analysis
A better understanding of the behaviour of turbomachines is obtained from
dimensional analysis. This is the formal procedure whereby the group of variables
representing some physical situation is reduced to a smaller number of dimensionless
groups. When the number of independent variables is not too great, dimensional
analysis enables experimental relations between variables to be found with the greatest
economy of effort. Dimensional analysis applied to turbomachines has three further
important uses: (a) prediction of a prototypes performance from tests conducted on a
scale model (similitude); (b) determination of the most suitable type of machine, on
the basis of maximum efficiency, for a specified range of head, speed, and flow rate;
(c) predicting the a machines performance under different inlet flow conditions, such
as different altitudes for an aircraft engines turbomachinery. In the context of
turbomachinery characterisation, dimensional analysis is sometime replaced by the
expression Dynamic Scaling. As we will see in the following discussion, some
variables in the resulting non-dimensional groups are dropped for convenience
rendering the groups not strictly non-dimensional.
Adopting the simple approach of elementary thermodynamics, a control surface of
fixed shape, position, and orientation is drawn around the turbomachine (Figure 1).
Across this boundary, fluid flows steadily, entering at station 1 and leaving at station
2. As well as the flow of fluid there is a flow of work across the control surface,
transmitted by the shaft either to, or from, the machine. All details of the flow within
the machine can be ignored and only externally observed features such as shaft speed,
flow rate, torque, and change in fluid properties across the machine need to be
considered. To be specific, let the turbomachine be a compressor (although the
analysis could apply to other classes of turbomachine) driven by an electric motor. The
speed of rotation N, can be adjusted by altering the current to the motor; the mass flow
rate , can be independently adjusted by means of a throttle valve. For fixed values of
the set and N, all other variables, such as torque, , and pressure rise !! !! , are
thereby established. The choice of and N as control variables is clearly arbitrary and
any other pair of independent variables such as and pressure ratio could equally well
have been chosen. The important point to recognise is that there are, for this
compressor, two control variables. If the working is changed for another of different
molecular properties (R, ), the performance of the machine will be affected.
We will focus the discussion on compressors (handling compressible flow) and at the
end; the concepts developed will be extended to turbines. So far we have considered
only one particular turbomachine, namely a compressor of a given size. To extend the
range of this discussion, the effect of the geometric variables on the performance must
also be included.
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Email: a.sayma@city.ac.uk

Control surface
Control volume

1
2

Motor
Throttle valve

Figure 1: Compressor in a control volume

Compressor Characteristic
Geometric scaling produces the simplest groups of parameters used to characterise
the compressor. Some of the geometric non-dimensional groups include:
o Solidity: chord to pitch ratio.
o Aspect ratio: ratio of mean blade length to mean blade chord.
o Hub-tip ratio: the ratio of the diameter at the hub to that at the casing.
The choice of the aerodynamic scaling, however, depends on the choice of the
information and generally it is found that different manufacturers use different scaling
groups. However, the basic principles generally rely on the parameters affecting the
performance of the compressor, or in other words, parameters that characterise the
compressor. The following aerodynamic parameters are of relevance:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Mass flow rate

Pressure rise, or pressure ratio
Rotational speed
Temperature
Efficiency
Power input

To deduce functional relations leading to no-dimensional groups of parameters the

variables used in the above parameters are used as follows:

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o
o
o
o

D : A characteristic dimension of the compressor, such as maximum diameter

N : Rotational speed
! : Mass flow rate
m
Po1 : Total pressure at inlet

Po 2 : Total pressure at outlet

o To1 : Total temperature at inlet
o

To 2 : Total temperature at outlet

o : Gas constant
o

When considering the dimensions of temperature, it is more convenient to associate

it with the gas constant R so that a combined variable RT is used which is equal to
p / for an ideal gas. The reason being this combination has the same dimensions
as velocity squared.
Furthermore, the density was not included in the listed set of parameters because it
can be obtained from the ideal gas low from the pressure and temperature, thus its
inclusion becomes redundant. It should also be noted that the viscosity is not
included. The reason is that its inclusion leads to a known quantity in the form of
Reynolds number. Practical experience shows that compressors operate at a
turbulent flow regime where Reynolds number variations have negligible effect.
A functional relation can include the above variables as follows:

f ( D, N , m! , Po1 , Po 2 , RTo1 , RTo 2 ) = 0

(1)

There are seven parameters governed by three dimensions of length, mass and time
as the original parameters (Note that has the dimension of velocity square).
Dimensional analysis theories lead to four non-dimensional groups that can be
formed from the seven variables in equation 1 (Seven variables minus three
dimensions). There are several methods readily available to find those groups such
as the theorem. These groupings can also be found by inspection. It is worth noting
that these are not unique groupings. We will choose groups that have been common
practice in industry for practical reasons. These groups are:
o
o
o

Po 2
: Total to total pressure ratio
Po1
To 2
: Total to total temperature ratio
To1
m! RTo1
Mass flow rate function
D 2 Po1

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ND
Corrected rotational speed
RTo1

The first parameter cannot be simplified further and its interpretation is obvious.
However the later three can take other forms as explained below:
Total temperature ratio and efficiency:
The total temperature ratio can be recast in the form of the compressor isentropic
efficiency given by:
T To1
(2)
c = o2
To 2 To1
Referring to the T-S diagram shown below:

Figure 2: Compressor T-S diagram

Mass flow function:
If the working fluid used in the compressor is the same, it is reasonable to assume
that R is constant over the operating range and thus it can be dropped. Additionally, if
the analysis is concerned with a particular engine of fixed dimensions, D can also be

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dropped, thus the mass flow function reduces to the expression

m! To1

. It is worth
Po1
noting that this is a dimensional quantity. R However need to be retained if another
working fluid is to be used in the compressor, and D should be retained if
compressors of different sizes are to be compared.
Another comment on the mass flow rate results from rewriting it in the following form:

=
=
=
!
!
!
!
For a machine of given diameter and inlet area, A and D can be dropped. Also as a
non-dimensional quantity can be added under the square root, so the mass flow
function is proportional to:

Where the right hand side is the flow inlet velocity to the speed of sound ratio, or in
other words, the inlet Mach number. Thus the mass flow function is proportional to
the flow Mach number.
Corrected speed:
Similar arguments can be used to drop R and D from the corrected speed. The
N
group then becomes:
which is also not truly non-dimensional. Further insight in
To1
the physical meaning of the corrected speed can be obtained by deducing it using an
alternative approach. Since the mass flow in the compressor depends on the
rotational speed, the compressor speed is converted to Mach number based on the
U
blade tip speed, U giving
. Here, the speed of sound is based on the inlet
RTo1
stagnation temperature as the local temperature near the tip is not known. The blade
tip speed is given using the relation U = ND / 2 , so the non-dimensional tip Mach
ND
number becomes:
. Using the same argument as above, for a given working
2 RTo1
fluid can be dropped. If the constant 2 is also dropped, the same non-dimensional
quantity as above can be obtained for the corrected speed. Thus this parameter is
essentially a representation of the blade tip Mach number.

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Other alternatives are available in the literature for the corrected speed. For example,
the following parameter is used by some compressor manufacturers: corrected speed
N
is
, where T ref is some reference stagnation temperature.
To1T ref

Compressor characteristic:
The above dynamic scaling parameters can be used to plot two sets of curves that
describe the performance of the compressor completely under any set of ambient
conditions. These two sets of curves are called compressor characteristics. The first
set of curves is obtained by plotting the total to total pressure ratio versus the
corrected mass flow rate for a given corrected speed. One such curve for a single
corrected speed is shown in Figure 3:

Figure 3: Pressure ratio versus mass flow for a given speed

This curve can be obtained by measuring the mass flow rate and pressure ratio
across a compressor while rotational speed is fixed. The variation is obtained by
varying the opening of a valve on the ducting downstream of the compressor. Three
basic feature of what is called the speed characteristic can be identified as shown in
the figure. The right hand end of the curve is called choke boundary. Here the valve
will have a maximum opening leading the flow reaching a maximum mass flow in the
compressor due to choking. Beyond this point, the compressor cannot handle more
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mass flow if the valve is further opened due to instability of the flow. At the other end,
the pressure ratio rises to a value such that the flow starts to separate at the suction
surface of the blade leading to smaller effective area and hence smaller mass flow
rate. Eventually, the compressor cannot handle the increased pressure rise and the
total pressure at exit drops gradually until phenomena called surge and stall occurs.
This will be descried in more detail later. In between the two ends, the pressure ratio
reaches a maximum values.
If the same experiment is repeated for different rotational speeds (and hence
different corrected speeds), spanning all the operating range, a complete
characteristic of the compressor can be obtained. A typical centrifugal compressor
characteristic is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Centrifugal compressor characteristic,

If the efficiency was plotted for the same points instead of the pressure ratio, the
second set of curves can be obtained. A typical centrifugal compressor efficiency
characteristic is shown in figure 5.

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Figure 5: Centrifugal compressor efficiency.

A typical characteristic of an axial flow compressor is shown in Figure 6. Comparing
Figures 4 and 5 we can see basic differences between the behaviour of axial and
centrifugal compressors. For example:
o Axial compressor characteristic covers a much narrower operating range
o At high rotational speeds, axial compressor characteristic becomes steep and
ultimately may become vertical
o The axial compressor characteristic does not roll over at the stall side as it
reaches stall earlier than centrifugal compressor which implies narrower range
of stable operation.

Figure 6: Axial compressor characteristic

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It should be noted that the compressor characteristic can be represented using

alternative forms. For example, Figure 6 shows a compressor characteristic where
the volume flow rate function is plotted instead of the mass flow function. Additionally,
the efficiency curves are added on the same graph. The has the advantage of
directly exploring the relationship between the operation and efficiency.

Figure7: Alternative form of representing a compressor characteristic

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Exercise
A centrifugal compressor has 0.1 m eye root diameter and 0.25 m eye tip diameter. If
the mass flow function is given by 0.0006 (SI units used) at a pressure ratio of 2.5 at
the point of peak efficiency where the corrected speed is 73.8. Assuming zero angle
of attack at peak efficiency and uniform velocity profile at inlet calculate the following
for two conditions described below:
The mass flow rate in Kg/s
The rotational speed in rpm
The relative velocity at the tip at sea level conditions
Relative Mach number of flow approaching tip section
Blades angle with the axial flow direction at hub and tip sections
Condition 1:
Sea level: T=288.15 K and P = 101325 Pa
Condition 2:
10 000 m altitude: T=223.3 K and P = 26500 Pa
Take:
R

Abdulnaser I Sayma

287 J/kg K
1.4

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Performance characteristic of turbines

An axial flow turbine characteristic is based on the same pressure ratio against mass flow parameters
as shown in Figure 8. The most evident feature is the lines of constant corrected speed parameter
almost converge to a single line of almost constant mass flow parameter. This mass flow is caused by
the gas reaching sonic velocity in the turbine stator blades or inlet casing. This flow will remain
constant unless the inlet temperature increases regardless of the rotational speed of the turbine.














Figure 8: Axial flow turbine characteristic

In the case of radial flow turbine, due to centrifugal field created by the rotor, there is a noticeable
spread of constant speed parameters for choked flow conditions as shown in Figure 9
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11




















Figure 9: Radial flow turbine characteristic

Compressor Loss mechanisms

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Several mechanisms conspire to produce total pressure loss, and hence reduce the efficiency of a
compressor. The following list shows the most prominent loss mechanisms in compressors:

o
o
o
o

Drag at solid surfaces

Mixing
Shock losses
Shear work

Drag at solid surfaces:

The drag loss can be seen if we assume a stationary cascade, with an incompressible flow. Drag at
solid surfaces leads to a displacement thickness of the flow at both sides of the blades. This results in
a reduction in static pressure downstream. Because flow is incompressible, the velocity downstream
recovers to the far stream velocity after the blade row. It is seen then that there is a loss in total
pressure.
Mixing losses
Most of the mixing losses happen due to over the tip leakage. Because of the pressure difference
across the tip flow passes from the pressure side to the suction side (See figure 10). This flow then
mixes with the main stream flow, thus losing all its kinetic energy, which cannot be recovered. Mixing
losses also occur if there is a separation region near the trailing edge of the blades. Figure 11 shows
flow near the tip of a transonic compressor where the flow mixing is occurring near the trailing edge.

Figure 1: Flow over the tip of a compressor blade

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Figure 2: Flow near the tip of a transonic compressor

Shock losses
The largest total pressure shock loss occurs when the shock is decelerated by a single normal shock.
If the flow is decelerated by a series of oblique shocks, shock loss is largely reduced. Inlet Mach
numbers exceeding 1.4 are unusual in compressors. This leads to about 4.2% loss in stagnation
pressure with a single normal shock. However, this leads to 2.1% static pressure rise resulting
efficient compression. Shock loss is increases as ( M 1) 3 so small increases in Mach number leads
to large increases in shock loss. Another loss mechanism related to shock is the tendency of the
shock to cause boundary layer separation. Efficient operation is thus a compromise between
pressure rise resulting from the shock, shock loss and passage loss due to boundary layer separation
due to the shock.

Shear work loss
Shear work losses due to shear work dissipation take place wherever there are velocity gradients.
Obviously, most of the losses occur in regions of steep velocity gradients. Main shear regions are
boundary layer and wakes.

Rotating stall and surge

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Rotating stall occurs most often in core compressors, but can occur also in fans. Rotating stall is
instability local to the compressor, in which a circumferentially uniform flow is disturbed. A local
region or regions appear where the flow is stagnant. The regions propagate in the same direction as
the blades, rotating around the annular path at a fraction of the rotational speed. For fully developed
rotating stall this speed is between a fifth and half of the shaft speed. Rotating stall may occur in
some parts of the machine only, e.g. in some stages. It is regarded as the precursor of a more severe
and potentially dangerous flow instability known as surge.
Figure 12 shows the mechanism of development of a rotating stall cell. Assuming a disturbance of
some form started in passage 2 resulting flow recirculation (Stall cell). The resulting blockage turns
the incoming flow away. The flow angle increases for the flow entering passage three. This results in
another stall cell forming in passage three. Because of the stall cell in passage three, the flow angle
reduces for the flow going into passage 2 (As seen in the figure for passage 1) leading to recovery of
the flow in passage 2. Thus the stall cell has moved from passage 2 to 3. The mechanism repeats
itself and the stall cell moves to passage 4 while passage 3 recovers and so on.







Figure 3: Rotating stall

Surge is a self-excited cycle phenomenon, affecting the compression system as a whole. These results
from pressure build up downstream of the compressor, where the compressor is unable to handle
the resulting pressure rise. It is characterized by large rises in the annulus unsteady pressure
amplitude and average mass flow fluctuation. Flow reversal is also possible. Surge happens in cycles
at a frequency related to the volume storing the compressed fluid downstream of the compressor.
When the compressor surges, the pressure drops gradually downstream up to a stage where the
compressor recovers. If the reasons causing the surge are not removed, the pressure builds up again
and a subsequent surge cycle occurs and so on.

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