Augustine of Hippo

Augustine, Saint Augustine, and Augustinus

redirect here. For other uses, see Augustine (disambiguation), Saint Augustine (disambiguation), and
Augustinus (disambiguation).

the 20th century in particular come under attack by such

theologians as John Romanides.[13] But other theologians
and gures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown
signicant appropriation of his writings, chiey Georges
Florovsky.[14] The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the lioque,[15] which has been rejected
by the Orthodox Church.[16] Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and
predestination.[15] Nevertheless, though considered to be
mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint, and
has even had inuence on some Eastern Church Fathers,
most notably Saint Gregory Palamas.[17] In the Orthodox
Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August,[15][18]
and he carries the title of Blessed.

Augustine of Hippo (/stn/,[1] /stn/,[2] or

/'stn/;[3] Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis;[note 1] 13 November 354 28 August 430), also
known as Saint Augustine, Saint Austin,[4] (/stn/
or /stn/)[5] Blessed Augustine,[6] and the Doctor of
Grace[7] (Latin: Doctor gratiae), was an early Christian
theologian and philosopher[8] whose writings inuenced
the development of Western Christianity and Western
philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modernday Annaba, Algeria), located in Numidia (Roman
province of Africa). He is viewed as one of the most
important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his
writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important
works are The City of God and Confessions.

1 Life
1.1 Childhood and education

According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith.[note 2] In his early years,
he was heavily inuenced by Manichaeism and afterward
by the neo-Platonism of Plotinus. After his baptism and
conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed
his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.[9] Believing
that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and
made seminal contributions to the development of just
war theory.
When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate,
Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a
spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly
City.[10] His thoughts profoundly inuenced the medieval
worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered
to the concept of the Trinity as dened by the Council
of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople[11] closely
identied with Augustines City of God.
In the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion,
he is a saint, a preeminent Doctor of the Church, and the
patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated
on 28 August, the day of his death. He is the patron
saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of
sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.[12] Many
Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider him to be one
of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation
due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace.

The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by

Niccol di Pietro 1413-15

In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in

2
Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the
municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria)
in Roman Africa.[19][20] His mother, Monica or
Monnica,[21] was a devout Christian; his father Patricius
was a Pagan who converted to Christianity on his
deathbed.[22] Scholars generally agree that Augustine
and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous
to North Africa,[23][24][25][26] but that they were heavily
Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of
pride and dignity.[23] In his writings, Augustine leaves
some information as to the consciousness of his African
heritage. For example, he refers to Apuleius as the
most notorious of us Africans,[27] to Ponticianus as a
country man of ours, insofar as being African,[28] and
to Faustus of Mileve as an African Gentleman.[29]

a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted

him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained
his lover[40] for over fteen years[41] and gave birth to his
son Adeodatus,[42] who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended
his relationship with his lover in order to prepare himself
to marry a ten-year-old heiress. (He had to wait for two
years because the legal age of marriage was twelve. By
the time he was able to marry her, however, he instead
decided to become a celibate priest.)[41][43]
Augustine was from the beginning a brilliant student,
with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered
Greek[44] he tells us that his rst Greek teacher was a
brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized that he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and
although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was
never eloquent with it. However, his mastery of Latin was
another matter. He became an expert both in the eloquent
use of the language and in the use of clever arguments to
make his points.

Augustines family name, Aurelius, suggests that his fathers ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia given
full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212.
Augustines family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born.[30] It is
assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin,
on the basis of her name,[31][32] but as his family were
honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustines rst language is likely to have been 1.2
Latin.[31]
At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 19
miles (31 km) south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and
practices.[33] His rst insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number of friends stole fruit they
did not want from a neighborhood garden. He tells this
story in his autobiography, The Confessions. He remembers that he did not steal the fruit because he was hungry, but because it was not permitted.[34] His very nature, he says, was awed. 'It was foul, and I loved it. I
loved my own errornot that for which I erred, but the
error itself.[34] From this incident he concluded the human person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the
grace of Christ.
At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus,[35] Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric. It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius
(now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression and sparking his interest in philosophy.[36] Although raised as a Christian, Augustine left the church
to follow the Manichaean religion, much to his mothers
despair.[37] As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic
lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who
boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their
acceptance forced inexperienced boys like Augustine to
seek or make up stories about sexual experiences.[38] It
was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer,
Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet.[39]

LIFE

Teaching rhetoric

Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and

374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and would remain there for
the next nine years.[35] Disturbed by unruly students in
Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where
he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced,
in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the
apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to
pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the
term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and
then did not pay. Manichaean friends introduced him to
the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had
been asked by the imperial court at Milan[45] to provide
a rhetoric professor.
Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when
such posts gave ready access to political careers. Although Augustine showed some fervour for Manichaeism,
he was never an initiate or elect, but an auditor, the
lowest level in the sects hierarchy.[45]

While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the

Manichaean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of
Manichaean theology, started Augustines scepticism of
Manichaeanism.[45] In Rome, he reportedly turned away
from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the
New Academy movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths.[46] At
Milan, his mothers religiosity, Augustines own studies
At about the age of 19, Augustine began an aair with in Neoplatonism, and his friend Simplicianus all urged
him towards Christianity.[35] Initially Augustine was not

1.3

Christian conversion and priesthood

3
my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked,
and wounded, and bleeding. Augustine confessed that he
was not a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so
he procured another concubine since he had to wait two
years until his ance came of age. However, his wound
was not healed, even began to fester.[49]
There is evidence that Augustine may have considered
this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage.[50]
In his Confessions, he admitted that the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine
eventually broke o his engagement to his eleven-yearold ance, but never renewed his relationship with either
of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine
away from marriage, saying that they could not live a life
together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine
looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa
outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers,
and described it as Christianae vitae otium the Christian life of leisure.[51]

1.3 Christian conversion and priesthood

The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century

fresco, Lateran, Rome

strongly inuenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but

after coming in contact with Ambrose of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed.
Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but
older and more experienced.[47] Augustine was very much
inuenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own
mother and others he admired. Augustine arrived in Milan and was immediately taken under the wing by Ambrose. Within his Confessions, Augustine states, That
man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed
my coming as a good bishop should.[48] Soon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, And I began to love
him, of course, not at the rst as a teacher of the truth, for
I had entirely despaired of nding that in thy Churchbut
as a friendly man.[48] Augustine visited Ambrose in order to see if Ambrose was one of the greatest speakers and
rhetoricians in the world. More interested in his speaking
skills than the topic of speech, Augustine quickly discovered that Ambrose was a spectacular orator. Eventually,
Augustine says that through the unconscious, he was led
into the faith of Christianity.[48]
Augustines mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a marriage for which he abandoned his concubine.
Although Augustine accepted this marriage, Augustine
was deeply hurt by the loss of his lover. He said, My
mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to

Angelico, Fra. The Conversion of St. Augustine (painting).

In the summer of 386, at the age of 31, after having

heard and been inspired and moved by the story of Ponticianuss and his friends rst reading of the life of Saint
Anthony of the Desert, Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his conversion was
prompted by a childlike voice he heard telling him to
take up and read (Latin: tolle, lege), which he took as a
divine command to open the Bible and read the rst thing
he saw. Augustine read from Pauls Epistle to the Romans
the "Transformation of Believers" section, consisting of
chapters 12 through 15 wherein Paul outlines how the
Gospel transforms believers, and the believers resulting
behaviour. The specic part to which Augustine opened
his Bible was Romans chapter 13, verses 13 and 14, to
wit:
Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in
chambering and wantonness, not in strife and
envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and
make no provision for the esh to fulll the
lusts thereof.[52]

He later wrote an account of his conversion his very

transformation, as Paul described in his Confessions
(Latin: Confessiones), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of
autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account
of his life, the Confessions also talks about the nature of
time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics.[53] The following is taken from that work:
Late have I loved Thee, O Lord; and behold,
Thou wast within and I without, and there I
sought Thee.
Thou was with me when I was not with Thee.
Thou didst call, and cry, and burst my deafness.
Thou didst gleam, and glow, and dispell my
blindness.
Thou didst touch me, and I burned for Thy
peace.
For Thyself Thou hast made us,
And restless our hearts until in Thee they nd
their ease.
Late have I loved Thee, Thou Beauty ever old
and ever new.[1]
1. ^ Cite error: The named reference justus.anglican.org was invoked but never
dened (see the help page).
Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son Adeodatus, on Easter Vigil in 387 in Milan. A year later, in 388,
Augustine completed his apology On the Holiness of the
Catholic Church.[45] That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa.[35] Augustines mother
Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark
for Africa.[54] Upon their arrival, they began a life of
aristocratic leisure at Augustines familys property.[55][56]
Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died.[57] Augustine then sold
his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only
thing he kept was the family house, which he converted
into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of
friends.[35]
In 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius
(now Annaba), in Algeria. He became a famous preacher
(more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean
religion, to which he had formerly adhered.[45]
In 395 he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, and became full Bishop shortly thereafter,[58] hence the name
Augustine of Hippo"; and he gave his property to the
church of Thagaste.[59] He remained in that position until
his death in 430. He wrote his autobiographical Confessions in 397-398. His work The City of God was written
to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths
had sacked Rome in 410.

LIFE

left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in

the episcopal residence. He left a regula for his monastery
that led to his designation as the "patron saint of regular
clergy.[60]
Much of Augustines later life was recorded by his friend
Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his Sancti Augustini Vita. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator
who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against
its detractors. Possidius also described Augustines personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate
sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the
temptations of the esh, and exercised prudence in the
nancial stewardship of his see.[61]

1.4 Death and veneration

Shortly before Augustines death the Vandals, a Germanic
tribe that had converted to Arianism, invaded Roman
Africa. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of
430, when Augustine entered his nal illness. According
to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the
siege.[61]:43 According to Possidius, Augustine spent his
nal days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the
penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that
he could read them. He directed that the library of the
church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.[61]:57 Shortly
after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo,
but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city.
They destroyed all of it but Augustines cathedral and library, which they left untouched.[62]
Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later
recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope
Boniface VIII.[63] His feast day is 28 August, the day
on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of
brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number
of cities and dioceses.[12]
1.4.1 Relics
According to Bede's True Martyrology, Augustines body
was later translated or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the
Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric.
Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king
Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in
Pavia, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids
by Muslims. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the
papal bull Veneranda Santorum Patrum, in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called Arca), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustines
life.

Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San

2.2

Slavery

Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing some human bones (including part of a skull). A
dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of
Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regular of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones
of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons
armed that they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII
(17241730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, Monsignor
Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Saint
Augustine.[64]
The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the
disassembled Arca, which were removed to the cathedral
there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was nally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano
Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.[65][66]

2
2.1

Views and thought

Christian anthropology

Augustine was one of the rst Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear vision of theological anthropology.[67] He saw the human being as a perfect unity of
two substances: soul and body. In his late treatise On
Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5 (420 AD) he exhorted to respect the body on the grounds that it belonged
to the very nature of the human person.[68] Augustines
favourite gure to describe body-soul unity is marriage:
caro tua, coniunx tua your body is your wife.[69][70][71]
Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After
the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic
combat between one another. They are two categorically
dierent things. The body is a three-dimensional object
composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no
spatial dimensions.[72] Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, t for ruling the body.[73] Augustine was
not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, with going
too much into details in eorts to explain the metaphysics
of the soul-body union. It suced for him to admit that
they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be
a composite of soul and body, and the soul is superior to
the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classication of things into those that merely exist,
those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and
have intelligence or reason.[74][75]
Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras,[76] Augustine vigorously condemned the practice of induced
abortion", and although he disapproved of an abortion
during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction
between early abortions and later ones.[77] Nevertheless,
he accepted the distinction between formed and unformed fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation
of Exodus 21:22-23, a text that, he observed, did not clas-

5
sify as murder the abortion of an unformed fetus, since
it could not be said with certainty that it had already received a soul (see, e.g., De Origine Animae 4.4).[78]

2.2 Slavery
Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to
free their slaves as an act of piety.[79] He boldly wrote a
letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave
traders and was very much concerned about the sale of
children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had
permitted sale of children, not because they approved of
the practice, but as a way of preventing infanticide when
parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted
that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire
out or to sell their children as a means of survival.[80] In
his famous book, The City of God, he presents the development of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to
Gods divine plan. He wrote that God did not intend that
this rational creature, who was made in his image, should
have dominion over anything but the irrational creation
not man over man, but man over the beasts. Thus he
wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made
shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. The condition
of slavery is the result of sin, he declared.[81] However,
he did on at least one occasion support slavery. In The
City of God, Augustine wrote he felt slavery was not a
punishment. He wrote: Slavery is not penal in character
and planned by that law which commands the preservation of the natural order and forbids disturbance.

2.3 Astrology
Augustines contemporaries often believed astrology to
be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were
regarded as true men of learning and called mathemathici. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean
doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their
books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those
who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop,
he used to warn that one should avoid astrologers who
combine science and horoscopes. (Augustines term
mathematici, meaning astrologers, is sometimes mistranslated as mathematicians.) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or
Eratosthenes but common swindlers.[82][83]:63[84][85]

2.4 Creation
See also: Allegorical interpretations of Genesis
In City of God, Augustine rejected both the immortality
of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary
ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that diered from the Churchs sacred writings.[86]

In The Literal Interpretation of Genesis, Augustine took

the view that everything in the universe was created simultaneously by God, and not in seven calendar days like
a literal interpretation of Genesis would require. He argued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the
Book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather
than the passage of time in a physical way it would bear
a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less
literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in
Sirach 18:1, creavit omnia simul (He created all things
at once), which Augustine took as proof that the days
of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literally.[87] Augustine
also does not envision original sin as causing structural
changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies
of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the
Fall.[88] Apart from his specic views, Augustine recognizes that the interpretation of the creation story is dicult, and remarks that we should be willing to change our
mind about it as new information comes up.[89]

2.5

Ecclesiology

VIEWS AND THOUGHT

rst theologian to expound a systematic doctrine of

amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian
historians believe his position was closer to that of
modern postmillennialists. The mediaeval Catholic
church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian
amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually
through his triumphant church.[91] At the Reformation,
theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism.
Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is
determined at death,[92][93] and that purgatorial res
of the intermediate state purify only those that died in
communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel
for later theology.[92]

2.7 Epistemology
Epistemological concerns shaped Augustines intellectual
development. His early dialogues [Contra academicos
(386) and De Magistro (389)], both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reect his engagement
with sceptical arguments and show the development of
his doctrine of inner illumination. The doctrine of illumination claims that God plays an active and regular part
in human perception (as opposed to God designing the
human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for example, Descartes idea of clear and distinct perceptions) and
understanding by illuminating the mind so that human beings can recognize intelligible realities that God presents.
According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all
rational minds, and is dierent from other forms of sense
perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.[8] Augustine also posed the problem of
other minds throughout dierent works, most famously
perhaps in On the Trinity (VIII.6.9), and developed what
has come to be a standard solution: the argument from
analogy to other minds.[94] In contrast to Plato and other
earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argued that
what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we
don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.[95]

See also: Ecclesiology

Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught that
there is one Church, but that within this Church there are
two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional
hierarchy, the Catholic sacraments, and the laity) and the
invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either
dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven).
The former is the institutional body established by Christ
on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the
sacraments, while the latter is the invisible body of the
elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and
who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal, will be made up of wheat and tares,
that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist
claim that only those in a state of grace were the true
or pure church on earth, and that priests and bishops
who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect the sacraments.[90]:28 Augustines ecclesiology was more fully developed in City of God. There
he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over 2.8 Just war
all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by
pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that the See also: Just War
bishops and priests of the Church are the successors of
the Apostles,[90] and that their authority in the Church is
Augustine asserted that Christians should be pacists as a
God-given.
personal, philosophical stance.[96] However, peacefulness
in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped
by violence would be a sin. Defence of ones self or oth2.6 Eschatology
ers could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a
Augustine originally believed in premillennialism, legitimate authority. While not breaking down the connamely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year ditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the
kingdom prior to the general resurrection, but later phrase in his work The City of God.[97] In essence, the
rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. He was the pursuit of peace must include the option of ghting for

2.11

Original sin

its long-term preservation.[98] Such a war could not be

pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace.[99] Thomas
Aquinas, centuries later, used the authority of Augustines
arguments in an attempt to dene the conditions under
which a war could be just.[100][101]

to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose

its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to
act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person
can make either good or bad use of it.[83]:355356[111] Like
Jovinian, Pelagians insisted that human aections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g.
2.9 Mariology
fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person
does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposiAlthough Augustine did not develop an independent tion to that, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobeMariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and dience of the esh to the spirit, and explained it as one of
depth those of other early writers.[102] Even before the the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eves
Council of Ephesus, he defended the ever Virgin Mary disobedience to God.[112]
as the Mother of God, who, because of her virginity, is
Augustine had served as a Hearer for the Manichaeans
full of grace.[103] Likewise, he armed that the Virgin
for about nine years,[113] who taught that the original sin
Mary conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed
was carnal knowledge.[114] But his struggle to understand
virgin forever.[104]
the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the
age of nineteen.[115] By malum (evil) he understood most
of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dom2.10 Natural knowledge and biblical inter- inating person and causing in men and women moral dispretation
order. A. Trap insists that Augustines personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupisAugustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation cence. His marriage experience, though Christian marcontradicts science and our God-given reason, the Bibli- riage celebration was missing, was exemplary, very norcal text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each mal and by no means specically sad.[116] As J. Brachtenpassage of Scripture has a literal sense, this literal sense dorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of
does not always mean that the Scriptures are mere history; passions, to interpret Pauls doctrine of universal sin and
at times they are rather an extended metaphor.[105]
redemption.[117]

2.11 Original sin

See also: Original sin
Augustine taught that Original sin of Adam and Eve was
either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride
and disobedience to God or that pride came rst.[note 3]
The rst couple disobeyed God, who had told them not
to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil
(Gen 2:17).[106] The tree was a symbol of the order of
creation.[107] Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat
of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world
as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and
values.[note 4] They would not have fallen into pride and
lack of wisdom, if Satan hadn't sown into their senses the
root of evil (radix Mali).[108] Their nature was wounded
by concupiscence or libido, which aected human intelligence and will, as well as aections and desires, including sexual desire.[note 5] In terms of metaphysics, concupiscence is not a being but bad quality, the privation of
good or a wound.[109]

The view that not only human soul but also senses were
inuenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in
Augustines time among the Fathers of the Church.[118]
It is clear that the reason for Augustines distancing
from the aairs of the esh was dierent from that
of Plotinus, a neo-Platonist[note 6] who taught that only
through disdain for eshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind.[119] Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purication, of the body in
the resurrection.[120]

Some authors perceive Augustines doctrine as directed

against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on
continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustines need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the Confessions. But in view of his writings it
is apparently a misunderstanding.[83]:312[note 7] Augustine
taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together
with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption
of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal
acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the
grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which bea remedium concupiscentiae remedy of
Augustines understanding of the consequences of the comes therefore[121][122]
concupiscence.
The redemption of human sexuoriginal sin and of necessity of the redeeming grace
ality
will
be,
however,
fully
accomplished only in the reswas developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his
[123]
[90]
urrection
of
the
body.
Pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum,
who had been inspired by Runus of Syria, a disciple of The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings.
Theodore of Mopsuestia.[110] They refused to agree that Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught
libido wounded human will and mind, insisting that the that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by
human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and

8
concupiscence,[124] which he regarded as the passion of
both, soul and body,[note 8] making humanity a massa
damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and
much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of
the will.[92]:12001204
Augustines formulation of the doctrine of original sin
was conrmed at numerous councils, i.e. Carthage (418),
Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes,
i.e. Pope Innocent I (401417) and Pope Zosimus (417
418). Anselm of Canterbury established in his Cur Deus
Homo the denition that was followed by the great 13th
century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess, thus separating it from concupiscence, with which
some of Augustines disciples had dened it[83]:371[125] as
later did Luther and Calvin.[92]:12001204 In 1567, Pope
Pius V condemned the identication of Original Sin with
concupiscence.[92]:12001204
Augustine taught that some people are predestined by
God to salvation by an eternal, sovereign decree which
is not based on mans merit or will. The saving grace
which God bestows is irresistible and unfailingly results
in conversion. God also grants those whom he saves with
the gift of perseverance so that none of those whom God
has chosen may conceivably fall away.[90]:44[126]

VIEWS AND THOUGHT

2.13 Sacramental theology

Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the regularity and validity
of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed
by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend
upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex
opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still
accepted as valid provided they are done in the name
of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church.
On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic
movements must be re-baptised.[90] Augustine taught that
sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church,
though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also
stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace
when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon
as one is received into the Catholic Church.

Augustine upheld the early Christian understanding of

the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, saying that
Christs statement, This is my body referred to the
bread he carried in his hands,[130][131] and that Christians
must have faith that the bread and wine are in fact the
body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their
In On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia), Au- eyes.[132]
gustine wrote: And what is written, that He wills all men
Against the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the imto be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be unportance of infant baptism. About the question whether
derstood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned
baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however,
in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing:
Augustine appears to have rened his beliefs during his
He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the prelifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians
destinated may be understood by it, because every kind
about his position. He said in one of his sermons that
[127]
of men is among them.
only the baptized are saved.[133] This belief was shared
by many early Christians. However, a passage from his
City of God, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate
that Augustine did believe in an exception for children
born to Christian parents.[134]

2.12 Free will

2.14 Jews
Included in Augustines theodicy is the claim that God
created humans and angels as rational beings possessing
free will. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it
is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will
deled by sin is not considered as free as it once was
because it is bound by material things, which could be lost
or be dicult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin
impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that
was once free can be subjected to sins corruption.[128]
The Catholic Church considers Augustines teaching to
be consistent with free will.[129] He often said that anyone
can be saved if they wish.[129] While God knows who will
and won't be saved, with no possibility for the latter to
be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents Gods
perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their
destinies.[129]

Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered
that God had chosen the Jews as a special people,[135]
and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the
Roman Empire to be a fulllment of prophecy.[136] He
rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same
prophecy, namely Slay them not, lest they should at last
forget Thy law (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed
Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at the
end of time, argued that God had allowed them to survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such,
he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian
lands.[137] The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians should let the Jews survive but not
thrive (it is repeated by author James Carroll in his book
Constantines Sword, for example)[138][139] is apocryphal

2.16

Pedagogy

and is not found in any of his writings.[140]

2.15 Sexuality
For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in
the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typically accompany it. In On Christian Doctrine Augustine
contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God,
and lust, which is not on account of God.[141] Augustine
claims that, following the Fall, sexual passion has become
necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male
erection), sexual passion is an evil result of the Fall, and
therefore, evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (On marriage and concupiscence 1.19). Therefore,
following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely
to procreate the species inevitably perpetuates evil (On
marriage and concupiscence 1.27; A Treatise against Two
Letters of the Pelagians 2.27). For Augustine, proper love
exercises a denial of selsh pleasure and the subjugation
of corporeal desire to God. The only way to avoid evil
caused by sexual intercourse is to take the better way
(Confessions 8.2) and abstain from marriage (On marriage and concupiscence 1.31). Sex within marriage is not
however for Augustine a sin, although necessarily producing the evil of sexual passion. Based on the same logic,
Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the
sack of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend
to sin nor enjoy the act.[142][143]
Before the Fall, Augustine believed that sex was a passionless aair, just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant operation of our other limbs,
without any lascivious heat"; the penis would have been
engorged for sexual intercourse simply by the direction
of the will, not excited by the ardour of concupiscence
(On marriage and concupiscence 2.29; cf. City of God
14.23). After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be
controlled by mere will, subject instead to both unwanted
impotence and involuntary erections: Sometimes the
urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other hand, it
forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body
while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it
does not follow through what it has begun and arouse the
body also (City of God 14.16). Deane Galbraith explains
that Augustine regards the 'disobedience' of the penis
to the command of a mans mind as a just and deserved
punishment, because it enacts within man his original disobedience to the command of God at the time of the Fall
(The Literal Meaning of Genesis 9.19).[144] Galbraith argues that Augustines description of his penis as having a
mind of its own (Treatise on the Merits and Forgiveness
of Sins, and on the Baptism of Infants 2.36) contributed
to his development of the doctrine of Original Sin: Augustines uncontrollable penis, which he presents as the
major bodily evidence for the Fall, is ... a major bodily
stimulus of his interpretation of Paul and his formulation
of original sin. Augustines great contribution to Christian theology is, to a signicant extent, informed by his

9
experience of being unable to control his erections.[145]
Augustine believed that the serpent approached Eve because she was less rational and lacked self-control, while
Adams choice to eat was viewed as an act of kindness
so that Eve would not be left alone.[146] Augustine believed sin entered the world because man (the spirit) did
not exercise control over woman (the esh).[147] Augustine does, however, praise women and their role in society
and in the Church. In his Tractates on the Gospel of John,
Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from
John 4:142, uses the woman as a gure of the church.
According to Raming, the authority of the Decretum Gratiani, a collection of Roman Catholic canon law which
prohibits women from leading, teaching, or being a
witness, rests largely on the views of the early church
fathersone of the most inuential being Augustine, the
Bishop of Hippo.[148] The laws and traditions founded
upon Augustines views of sexuality and women continue
to exercise considerable inuence over church doctrinal
positions regarding the role of women in the church.[149]

2.16 Pedagogy
Augustine is considered an inuential gure in the history
of education. A work early in Augustines writings is De
Magistro (On the Teacher), which contains insights about
education. However, his ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In
the last years of his life Saint Augustine wrote his Retractationes, reviewing his writings and improving specic texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate translation of retractationes may be reconsiderations. Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme of the
way Saint Augustine learned. Augustines understanding of the search for understanding/meaning/truth as a
restless journey leaves room for doubt, development and
change.[150]
Augustine was a strong advocate of critical thinking skills.
Because written works were still rather limited during
this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very
important. His emphasis on the importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed that dialogue/dialectic/discussion is the best means for learning,
and this method should serve as a model for learning encounters between teachers and students. Saint Augustines dialogue writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.[150]
He recommended adapting educational practices to t the
students educational backgrounds:
the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;
the student who has had no education; and

10
the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated.
If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of
subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what
they have already learned, but to challenge the student
with material which they do not yet know thoroughly.
With the student who has had no education, the teacher
must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student
understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most dicult
student, however, is the one with an inferior education
who believes he understands something when he does not.
Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of
student the dierence between having words and having understanding, and of helping the student to remain
humble with his acquisition of knowledge.

4 INFLUENCE
est theological works of all time. He also wrote On Free
Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio), addressing why
God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.

4 Inuence

In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly inuenced by Stoicism, Platonism and
Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of
Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued).
Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism, some ideas
are still visible in his early writings.[153] His early and
inuential writing on the human will, a central topic in
ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such
Under the inuence of Bede, Alcuin and Rabanus Mau- as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was
rus, De catechizandis rudibus came to exercise an im- also inuenced by the works of Virgil (known for his
portant role in the education of clergy at the monastic teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teachschools, especially from the eighth century onwards.[151] ing on argument).[8]
Augustine believed that students should be given an opportunity to apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of Augustines major contributions 4.1 In philosophy
to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He
claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when Philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by Augusspeaking to the students. The mixed style includes com- tines meditation on the nature of time in the Confessions,
plex and sometimes showy language to help students see comparing it favourably to Kant's version of the view that
the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The time is subjective.[154] Catholic theologians generally subgrand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but scribe to Augustines belief that God exists outside of
is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the time in the eternal present"; that time only exists within
same passion in the students hearts. Augustine balanced the created universe because only in space is time dishis teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based cernible through motion and change. His meditations on
practice of strict discipline.
the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration
of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her
1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage
of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of
3 Works
walking up a ight of stairs and entering the vast elds
of memory[155] clearly indicates that the ancient Romans
Main article: Augustine of Hippo bibliography
Augustine was one of the most prolic Latin authors in were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural
terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large
of more than one hundred separate titles.[152] They in- amounts of information.
clude apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians,
Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Christian doctrine, notably De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine); exegetical works such as commentaries
on Genesis, the Psalms and Pauls Letter to the Romans;
many sermons and letters; and the Retractationes, a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end
of his life. Apart from those, Augustine is probably best
known for his Confessions, which is a personal account
of his earlier life, and for De civitate Dei (The City of
God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore
the condence of his fellow Christians, which was badly
shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His
On the Trinity, in which he developed what has become
known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also
among his masterpieces, and arguably one of the great-

Augustines philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his Confessions, had continuing inuence
on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and
inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and
hermeneutics.[156] Edmund Husserl writes: The analysis
of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive
psychology and theory of knowledge. The rst thinker
to be deeply sensitive to the immense diculties to be
found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem.[157] Martin Heidegger refers to
Augustines descriptive philosophy at several junctures in
his inuential work Being and Time.[note 9] Hannah Arendt
began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on

4.3

In popular culture

Augustines concept of love, Der Liebesbegri bei Augustin (1929): The young Arendt attempted to show
that the philosophical basis for vita socialis in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love,
grounded in his understanding of the common origin of
humanity.[158] Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and
the Limits of Politics nds similarity between Augustine
and Arendt in their concepts of evil: Augustine did not
see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence
of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which
produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann
in Jerusalem].[159] Augustines philosophical legacy continues to inuence contemporary critical theory through
the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century gures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three
main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine:
rst, political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian political theology; and third, Augustinian political theory.[160]

4.2

In theology

Thomas Aquinas was inuenced heavily by Augustine.

On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more
optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that
his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the
Fall.[92]:12001204 Augustines doctrine of ecacious grace
found eloquent expression in the works of Bernard of
Clairvaux; also Reformation theologians such as Martin
Luther and John Calvin would look back to him as their
inspiration. While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine
taught that Adams guilt as transmitted to his descendants
much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of
their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John
Calvin armed that Original Sin completely destroyed
liberty (see total depravity).[92]:12001204
According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustines arguments
against magic, dierentiating it from miracle, were
crucial in the early Churchs ght against paganism
and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustines vision of the heavenly
city has inuenced the secular projects and traditions
of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and ecofundamentalism.[161] Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio
Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustines
thought, particularly The City of God, in their book of
political philosophy Empire.
Augustine has inuenced many modern-day theologians
and authors such as John Piper. Hannah Arendt, an inuential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his thought throughout her career.
Ludwig Wittgenstein extensively quotes Augustine in
Philosophical Investigations for his approach to language,
both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his

11
own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from
the Confessions. Contemporary linguists have argued
that Augustine has signicantly inuenced the thought of
Ferdinand de Saussure, who did not 'invent' the modern
discipline of semiotics, but rather built upon Aristotelian
and Neoplatonist knowledge from the Middle Ages, via
an Augustinian connection: as for the constitution of
Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one)
has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything
but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the
modern conceptual exigencies.[162]
In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict
XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest inuences in
his thought.

4.3 In popular culture

Much of Augustines conversion is dramatized in Johann
Adolph Hasse's oratorio La conversione di Sant' Agostino.
In the libretto for the oratorio by Duchess Maria Antonia
of Bavaria, Augustines mother Monica is presented as a
prominent character that is worried that Augustine might
not convert to Christianity. The Duchess took a ve-part
drama by Franciscus Neumayr and condensed it for the
purposes of the oratorio. As Dr. Andrea Palent[163] says:
Maria Antonia Walpurgis revised the vepart Jesuit drama into a two-part oratorio liberty in which she limits the subject to the conversion of Augustine and his submission to the
will of God. To this was added the gure of the
mother, Monica, so as to let the transformation
appear by experience rather than the dramatic
artice of deus ex machina.
Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness
to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse
through extended recitative passages.
Augustine was played by Dary Berkani in the 1972 television movie Augustine of Hippo. He was played by
Franco Nero in the 2010 mini-series Augustine: The Decline of the Roman Empire and the 2012 feature lm
Restless Heart: The Confessions of Saint Augustine.[164]
The modern-day name links to the Agostinelli family.[165]
Jostein Gaarder's philosophical novel Vita Brevis is presented as a translation of a manuscript written by Augustines concubine after he became the Bishop of Hippo.
Augustine also appears in the novel The Dalkey Archive
by Flann O'Brien (the pen name of Irish author Brian
O'Nolan). He is summoned to an underwater cavern by
an absurd scientist called De Selby; together they discuss life in Heaven and the characters of other saints.
Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s novel A Canticle for Leibowitz
cites Augustine as possibly positing the rst version of

12

a theory of evolution.[166] He appears prominently in

Patricia McGerr's novel, My Brothers, Remember Monica: A Novel of the Mother of Augustine.[167]

Incurvatus in se

Bob Dylan recorded a song entitled "I Dreamed I Saw St.

Augustine" on his album John Wesley Harding. Pop artist
Sting pays an homage of sorts to Augustines struggles
with lust with the song Saint Augustine in Hell which
appears on the singers 1993 album Ten Summoners
Tales. Christian rock band Disciple named their fourth
track on their 2010 release Horseshoes and Handgrenades
after Augustine, called The Ballad of St. Augustine.
The song St. Augustine appears on Girlyman's album,
Supernova. American rock band Moe named and referenced Augustine of Hippo in their song entitled St. Augustine.

Jansenism

The conversion of Saint Augustine is dramatized in the

oratorio La conversione di Sant'Agostino (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this
oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria,
draws upon the inuence of Metastasio (the nished libretto having been edited by him) and is based o an
earlier ve-act play Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr.[168]

Otium

REFERENCES

Cornelius Jansen

Just war theory

Johannes Klenkok
Abraham Kuijper
John Gresham Machen
Order of Saint Augustine
Original sin

Neo-Calvinism
Blaise Pascal
Francis Landey Patton
Pelagianism
Philosophy of history

See also

Philosophy of religion

Alexander of San Elpidio

Predestination

Mar Ammo

Johann Pupper

Augustinian hypothesis

Problem of evil

Augustinian Institute

Reformed

Augustinian Studies

Scholasticism

Augustinian theodicy

Semipelagianism

Augustinians

Theology of John Calvin

Domingo Baez

Truth

Thomas Bradwardine
Confessions (Augustine)

Bennet Tyler
B. B. Wareld

Constantinian shift
Council of Orange (529)

6 References

Ecclesiology
Jonathan Edwards
Filioque
Free will
Gregory of Rimini
Michael Horton

6.1 Notes
[1] The nomen Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying
little more than Roman citizenship (see: Salway, Benet
(1994). Whats in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700. The Journal of Roman Studies. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 84: 12445. doi:10.2307/300873. ISSN
0075-4358. JSTOR 300873.).

6.2

Sources

[2] Jerome wrote to Augustine in 418: You are known

throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as
the one who has established anew the ancient Faith (conditor antiquae rursum dei). Cf. Epistola 195; TeSelle,
Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. London. p.
343. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 edition: ISBN
1-57910-918-7.
[3] He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most subtle job to discern what came rst: Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos
homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit. (Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)
[4] Augustine explained it in this way: Why therefore is it enjoined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose,
in order that, it may consider itself, and live according to
its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to
its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be
subject, and above those things to which it is to be preferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above
those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things
through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself.
For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more
excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to remain steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away
from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to itself, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what
He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradually down into less and less, which it thinks to be more
and more. ("On the Trinity" (De Trinitate), 5:7; CCL 50,
320 [112])
[5] In one of Augustines late works, Retractationes, he made
a signicant remark indicating the way he understood difference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual desire: Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido
(libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis). See the
whole passage: Dixi etiam quodam loco: Quod enim est
cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem
generis, et utrumque non est sine delectatione carnali, quae
tamen modicata et temperantia refrenante in usum naturalem redacta, libido esse non potest. Quod ideo dictum
est, quoniam libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis.
Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti
malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos
Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi. Cf. De bono coniugali,
16.18; PL 40, 385; De nuptiis et concupiscentia, II, 21.36;
PL 44, 443; Contra Iulianum, III, 7.16; PL 44, 710; ibid.,
V, 16.60; PL 44, 817. See also Idem (1983). Le mariage
chrtien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une thologie
baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: tudes Augustiniennes. p. 97.
[6] Although Augustine praises him in the Confessions, 8.2., it
is widely acknowledged that Augustines attitude towards
that pagan philosophy was very much of a Christian apostle, as T.E. Clarke SJ writes: Towards Neoplatonism there
was throughout his life a decidedly ambivalent attitude; one
must expect both agreement and sharp dissent, derivation
but also repudiation. In the matter which concerns us here,
the agreement with Neoplatonism (and with the Platonic
tradition in general) centers on two related notions: immutability as primary characteristic of divinity, and likeness to divinity as the primary vocation of the soul. The

13

disagreement chiey concerned, as we have said, two related and central Christian dogmas: the Incarnation of the
Son of God and the resurrection of the esh. Clarke, SJ,
T. E. St. Augustine and Cosmic Redemption. Theological Studies. 19 (1958): 151. Cf. . Schmitts chapter
2: L'idologie hellnique et la conception augustinienne de
ralits charnelles in: Idem (1983). Le mariage chrtien
dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une thologie baptismale
de la vie conjugale. Paris: tudes Augustiniennes. pp.
108123. O'Meara, J.J. (1954). The Young Augustine:
The Growth of St. Augustines Mind up to His Conversion.
London. pp. 143151 and 195f. Madec, G. Le platonisme des Pres. p. 42. in Idem (1994). Petites tudes Augustiniennes. Antiquit 142. Paris: Collection d'tudes
Augustiniennes. pp. 2750. Thomas Aq. STh I q84 a5;
Augustine of Hippo, City of God (De Civitate Dei), VIII,
5; CCL 47, 221 [34].
[7] Gerald Bonners comment explains a little bit why there
are so many authors who write false things about Augustines views: It is, of course, always easier to oppose and
denounce than to understand.
[8] In 393 or 394 he commented: Moreover, if unbelief is
fornication, and idolatry unbelief, and covetousness idolatry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is fornication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any
unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication,
if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive,
that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one
is guilty in acts of uncleanness with anothers husband or
wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul
making a bad use of the body to wander from the law of
God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may,
without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband,
because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an exception; which fornication, in accordance with the above
considerations, we are compelled to understand as being
general and universal. ("On the Sermon on the Mount",
De sermone Domini in monte, 1:16:46; CCL 35, 52)
[9] For example, Heideggers articulations of how Beingin-the-world is described through thinking about seeing:
The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particularly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation
of concupiscentia. Heidegger then quotes theConfessions:
Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this
word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to
cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines, ... 'but
we even say, 'See how that sounds". Being and Time, Trs.
Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964, p.
171.

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[135] Diarmaid MacCulloch. The Reformation: A History (Penguin Group, 2005) p 8.
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REFERENCES

6.3 Further reading

Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers
in Translation. New York: Newman Press. 1978.
Augustine, Saint (1974). Vernon Joseph Bourke,
ed. The Essential Augustine (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett.
Ayres, Lewis (2010). Augustine and the Trinity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-83886-3.
Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1945). Augustines Quest of
Wisdom. Milwaukee: Bruce.
Bourke, Vernon Joseph (1984). Wisdom From St.
Augustine. Houston: Center for Thomistic Studies.
Brachtendorf J. Cicero and Augustine on the Passions. Revue des tudes Augustiniennes. 43 (1997):
289308. hdl:2042/23075.
Brown, Peter (1967). Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-001869.
Burke, Cormac (1990). St. Augustine and Conjugal Sexuality. Communio. IV (17): 545565.

[161] Lal, D. (March 2002) Morality and Capitalism: Learning

from the Past. Working Paper Number 812, Department
of Economics, University of California, Los Angeles.

Burnaby, John (1938). Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine. The Canterbury Press Norwich. ISBN 1-85311-022-1.

[162] Munteanu, E. 'On the Object-Language / Metalanaguage

Distinction in Saint Augustines Works. De Dialectica and
de Magistro.', p. 65. In Cram, D., Linn, A. R., & Nowak,
E. (Eds.). History of Linguistics 1996: Volume 2: From
Classical to Contemporary Linguistics. John Benjamins
Publishing Company. Retrieved April 16, 2015 from
https://books.google.com/books?id=IWtCAAAAQBAJ.

Clark, Mary T. (1994). Augustine. Georey Chapman. ISBN 978-0-225-66681-6.

[163] Hasse, Johann Adolf (1993). La conversione Di Sant'

Agostino. CD Booklet: Marcus Creeds recording of La
conversion di Sant' Agostino with the RIAS Kammerchor;
10 389/90.: Capriccio Digital. p. 13.
[164] Restless Heart.
2013-04-28.

Restlessheartlm.com.

Retrieved on

[165] AGOSTINELLI Family Crest / AGOSTINELLI Coat of

Arms. 4crests.com (2013-04-19). Retrieved on 2013-0428.
[166] Miller, Walter M., Jr. (1959) A Canticle for Leibowitz, p.
209.
[167] McGerr, Patricia (1964), My Brothers, Remember Monica: A Novel of the Mother of Augustine, New York: P. J.
Kenedy.
[168] Smither, Howard E. (1977-01-01). A History of the Oratorio. UNC Press Books. ISBN 9780807812747.

Deane, Herbert A. (1963). The Political and Social

Ideas of St. Augustine. New York: Columbia University Press.
de Paulo, Craig J. N. (2011). Augustinian Just War
Theory and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: Confessions, Contentions and the Lust for Power. Peter
Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-1232-4.
Doull, James A. (1979). Augustinian Trinitarianism and Existential Theology. Dionysius. III: 111
159.
Doull, James A. (1988). What is Augustinian
Sapientia"?". Dionysius. XII: 6167.
Fitzgerald, Allan D., O.S.A., General Editor (1999).
Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia.
Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
ISBN 0-8028-3843-X.
Gilson, Etienne (1960). The Christian Philosophy
of St. Augustine. L. E. M. Lynch, trans. New York:
Random House.

6.3

Further reading

19

Green, Bradley G. Colin Gunton and the Failure

of Augustine: The Theology of Colin Gunton in the
Light of Augustine, James Clarke and Co. (2012),
ISBN 9780227680056
Kolbet, Paul R. (2010). Augustine and the Cure
of Souls: Revising a Classical Ideal. Notre Dame,
IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 9780268033217.
Lawless, George P. (1987). Augustine of Hippo and
His Monastic Rule. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Plumer, Eric Antone (2003). Augustines Commentary on Galatians. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-924439-1.
Pollman, Karla (2007). Saint Augustine the Algerian.
Gttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 3-89744-2094.
Pottier, Ren (2006). Saint Augustin le Berbre (in
French). Fernand Lanore. ISBN 2-85157-282-2.

Lubin, Augustino (1659). Orbis Augustinianus sive

conventuum ordinis eremitarum Sancti Augustini
chorographica et topographica descriptio. Paris.

Rgle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son

ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrgation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarn et du Saint-Sacrament
(Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 2829.
Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday,
Libraire,1962), pp. 2224. English edition, (New
York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33
35.

Mackey, Louis (2011). Faith Order Understanding:

Natural Theology in the Augustinian Tradition. Totonto: PIMS. ISBN 978-0-88844-421-9.

Siecienski, Anthony Edward (2010). The Filioque:

History of a Doctrinal Controversy. Oxford University Press.

LeMoine, Fannie; Kleinhenz, Christopher, eds.

(1994). Saint Augustine the Bishop: A Book of Essays. Garland Medieval Casebooks. 9. New York:
Garland.

Markus, R. A., ed. (1972). Augustine: A Collection

of Critical Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor.
Matthews, Gareth B. (2005). Augustine. Blackwell.
ISBN 0-631-23348-2.
Mayer, Cornelius P. (ed.).
Basel: Schwabe AG.

Augustinus-Lexikon.

Miles, Margaret R. (2012). Augustine and the Fundamentalists Daughter, Lutterworth Press, ISBN
9780718892623.
Nash, Ronald H (1969). The Light of the Mind: St
Augustines Theory of Knowledge. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
Nelson, John Charles (1973). Platonism in the Renaissance. In Wiener, Philip. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 3. New York: Scribner. pp. 51015
(vol. 3). ISBN 0-684-13293-1. (...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...)
O'Daly, Gerard (1987). Augustines Philosophy of
the Mind. Berkeley: University of California Press.
O'Donnell, James (2005). Augustine: A New Biography. New York: ECCO. ISBN 0-06-053537-7.
Pagels, Elaine (1989). Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity. Vintage
Books. ISBN 0-679-72232-7.
Park, Jae-Eun (2013), Lacking Love or Conveying
Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and
Augustines Nuanced Treatment of Them, The Reformed Theological Review, 72 (2): 10321.

Starnes, Colin (1990). Augustines Conversion: A

Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I-IX. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
Tanquerey, Adolphe (2001). The Spiritual Life: A
Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology. Rockford, IL: Tan Books & Publishers. pp. 37). ISBN
0-89555-659-6.
Trap, A. (1990). S. Agostino: Introduzione alla
Dottrina della Grazia. Collana di Studi Agostiniani
4. I Natura e Grazia. Rome: Citt Nuova. p. 422.
ISBN 88-311-3402-7.
von Heyking, John (2001). Augustine and Politics
as Longing in the World. Columbia: University of
Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1349-9.
Woo, B. Hoon (2013). Augustines Hermeneutics
and Homiletics in De doctrina christiana". Journal
of Christian Philosophy. 17: 97117.
Woo, B. Hoon (2015). Pilgrims Progress in
SocietyAugustines Political Thought in The City
of God". Political Theology. 16.5: 421441.
Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1986). Augustines Ideal
of the Religious Life. New York: Fordham University Press. ISBN 0-8232-1105-3.
Zumkeller O.S.A., Adolar (1987). Augustines Rule.
Villanova: Augustinian Press. ISBN 0-941491-064.

20

External links

7.1

General

Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)"

from Augustinus.it

EXTERNAL LINKS

7.3 Works by Augustine

Works by Aurelius Augustine at Project Gutenberg
Works by Saint Augustine at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Saint Augustine at Internet
Archive

Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)"

from Abbey Saint Benot de Port-Valais

Works by Augustine of Hippo at LibriVox (public

domain audiobooks)

Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)"

from Mercaba, Catholic leaders website

St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library

Works by Saint Augustine from CCEL.org

Augustine against Secundinus in English.

Mendelson, Michael. Saint Augustine. Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Aurelius Augustinus at IntraText Digital Library

texts in several languages, with concordance and
frequency list

Augustine. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Augustinus.it Latin, Spanish and Italian texts

Augustines Political and Social Philosophy.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of
the Church, Butlers Lives of the Saints
Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell
texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.
Augustines Theory of Knowledge
Saint Augustine of Hippo at the Christian Iconography website
The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor from
the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend
David Lindsay: Saint Augustine Doctor Gratiae
St. Augustine - A Male Chauvinist? , Fr. Edmund
Hill, OP. Talk given to the Robert Hugh Benson
Graduate Society at Fisher House, Cambridge, on
22 November 1994.
St. Augustine Timeline - Church History Timelines
Giovanni Domenico Giulio: Nachtgedanken des
heiligen Augustinus. Trier 1843 Digitized

7.2

Bibliography

Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk extensive bibliography and on-line articles

Bibliography on St. Augustine Started by T.J. van
Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium

Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia

Latin
City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books
Saint Augustine (2008). The Happy Life; Answer to
Sceptics; Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil;
Soliloquies. US: CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-81321551-8.
Digitized manuscript created in France between
1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo
works at SOMNI
Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini digitized
codex created between 11501175, also known as
Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1-83, at SOMNI
Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem
librum digitized codex created in 1481; his sermons about Johns Gospel at SOMNI
Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini decerptae digitized codex created in 1539; at Library
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences

7.4 Biography and criticism

Order of St Augustine
Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church
Augustines World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of
the Augustinian Order, Villanova University
Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei by
Robert Kilwardby, digitized manuscript of 1464 at
SOMNI

7.4

Biography and criticism

21

Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century

St. Augustine by Peter Paul Rubens

22

EXTERNAL LINKS

St. Augustine in His Study by Vittore Carpaccio, 1502

Saint Augustine painting by Antonio Rodrguez

Saint Augustine in His Study by Sandro Botticelli, 1494, Uzi

Gallery
Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics painting by Vergs
Group

7.4

Biography and criticism

Saint Augustine Meditates on the Trinity when the Child Jesus

Appears before him by Vergs Group

The Consecration of Saint Augustine by Jaume Huguet

23

24

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Augustine of Hippo Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo?oldid=747979397 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus

Manske, MichaelTinkler, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Szopen, BenBaker, Shsilver, Fubar Obfusco, William
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Clementi, Decumanus, TOO, Christopher Parham, Barbara Shack, Haeleth, Tom harrison, Timpo, Marcika, Everyking, Gamaliel, Varlaam,
Angry candy, Lurker, Duncharris, Eequor, Agnus, Tagishsimon, Joseph Dwayne, Bacchiad, Gadum, Andycjp, Jonel, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Elembis, Phil Sandifer, Girolamo Savonarola, Secfan, One Salient Oversight, Cornischong, Pmanderson, Necrothesp, KarlHenner, Trc, Fintor, Mschlindwein, Pinnerup, Mennonot, Lacrimosus, Bluemask, Aziri, PRiis, D6, Simonides, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, FranksValli, Cnyborg, Francis Schonken, LindsayH, Dbachmann, Paul August, Stbalbach, Edgarde,
Bender235, MattTM, JoeSmack, Hapsiainen, El C, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Laurascudder, Lima, Coolcaesar, Wareh, Jpgordon, Bill
Thayer, Grick, Bobo192, Whosyourjudas, Redlentil, Viriditas, Allthewhile, Jojit fb, Kjkolb, Nk, Fredclown, Polylerus, Jonathunder,
Skategem, Patsw, Alansohn, Aardwolf, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Hydriotaphia, Atlant, Ricky81682, Craigy144, Plumbago, Cjthellama, Auz,
Riana, Trjumpet, DanD, Mac Davis, Mailer diablo, Arunreginald, Jjhake, Wtmitchell, Andrew Norman, BanyanTree, SidP, KingTT, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Garzo, RainbowOfLight, Deathphoenix, Kusma, SteinbDJ, Mattbrundage, Djsasso, Kazvorpal, Spartacus007, Dejvid,
Angr, Velho, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Camw, Nuggetboy, PoccilScript, Rocastelo, Kzollman, WadeSimMiser, Chochopk, Matijap, Fred J, Tabletop, Hailey C. Shannon, Flamingspinach, Brendanconway, Jon Harald Sby, Doric Loon, Joe Roe, JEB90, Graham87, Chris Weimer, Cuchullain, BD2412, Kbdank71, Bikeable, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Koavf, , DeadlyAssassin, JHMM13, TexasDawg, Oblivious, Feelmybrainwaves, Ligulem, R.e.b., Lairor, Eleazar~enwiki, SanGatiche, SLi, FayssalF, Partenope,
Tpkunesh, FlaBot, Daderot, Nagig, Doc glasgow, Winhunter, Nihiltres, GnniX, SouthernNights, Andy85719, RexNL, Gurch, AlexCovarrubias, Banazir, Str1977, Vilcxjo, Nivaca, XkarlmagneX, Toi, Cockney, Rekleov, Chobot, DVdm, Voodoom, Bgwhite, Adoniscik, The
Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, HG1, Jim Ellis, JSilvanus, TheTrueSora, Oldwindybear, Ecemaml, Nighm, 999~enwiki, RussBot,
Serinde, Pigman, Chris Capoccia, Rapomon, J.H, RadioFan2 (usurped), Hydrargyrum, KevinCuddeback, C777, Gaius Cornelius, OneGyT, Rsrikanth05, Mike411, Thane, Daveswagon, Mark O'Sullivan, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Complainer, Nirvana2013, LiniShu, Berend
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BOT-Superzerocool, PrimeCupEevee, Harami2000, Asarelah, Evrik, Jpeob, Botteville, Tomisti, AjaxSmack, Tetracube, Sandstein, J S
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Jesus geek, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, NSLE, Lestrade, Jhearne, BAPhilp, Herostratus, InverseHypercube, Mrgate3, DCDuring, Unyoyega, Pgk, Stephensuleeman, Piccadilly, Sciintel, WookieInHeat, RobotJcb, Edonovan, Srnec, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains,
Skizzik, Carl.bunderson, Ludi, Fetofs, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Audacity, Rkitko, Enkyklios, Grimhelm, Kleinzach, Sadads, Kevin Ryde,
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Lesnail, Stevenmitchell, Mistico, Pastorwayne, KazuyaDarklight, BigBurkey, Savidan, Iblardi, WWJD~enwiki, Salt Yeung, LoveMonkey, Iridescence, Deepblackwater, Jon Awbrey, Jandolin, Xiutwel, Thorsen, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, Baked, Dearagon, Will Beback,
SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Paolo Belzoni, John, MagnaMopus, Enlightened~enwiki, InsaneZeroG, Accurizer, RomanSpa, Ckatz, Taiwan boi,
Mr. Vernon, RandomCritic, Geb, Makyen, PEiP, Beetstra, AwesomeMachine, Oswald Glinkmeyer, Meco, Gkerkvliet, CharlesMartel,
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Stephenx~enwiki, Unionhawk, Awb49, Megaboz, BeenAroundAWhile, Rwammang, Nunquam Dormio, 5-HT8, Gtmanleg, Iphthime,
Ken Gallager, Karenjc, Arnold.Sikkema, Irishninja1980, Gregbard, Nauticashades, Ekajati, Namayan, Badseed, Musoniki, Vaquero100,
HalJor, Cydebot, Beek man, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Aristophanes68, Mato, Semper15, Khatru2, Sullivan9211, JFreeman, Njamesdebien, Soetermans, Julian Mendez, Strom, Michael C Price, Doug Weller, Ejectgoose, DumbBOT, Phydend, Nowhere man, Anpetu-We,
Meconium, Sheilakirbos, DBaba, Nasugbu batangas, Pauljeersonks, Omicronpersei8, Woland37, Gimmetrow, Richhoncho, Mamalujo,
Epbr123, Biruitorul, AJK1, Qwyrxian, Pstanton, Lasym21, Minutiaman, Headbomb, Marek69, Roger Pearse, Folantin, James086, Sliponshoe, X201, Rosencrantz1, Wescbell, SusanLesch, TeslaMaster, Scottandrewhutchins, Escarbot, Quaxanta, AntiVandalBot, DavidCrookes,
Luna Santin, Guy Macon, Seaphoto, Lostcaesar, Voyaging, Just Chilling, Lyricmac, Aemathisphd, Fayenatic london, Dylan Lake, LibLord,
Danny lost, A.M.962, Blastwave, Phanerozoic, Leuqarte, Golgofrinchian, Born2ie, JAnDbot, XyBot, Deective, Athkalani~enwiki, Kosboot, Barek, MER-C, Dsp13, Awilley, Paulcantrell2, 100110100, TAnthony, Alastair Haines, Msalt, Geniac, Biblical1, Magioladitis,
Connormah, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, LawrenceTrevallion, AlphaPhoenixDown, TheAllSeeingEye, Doug Coldwell, Nyttend, Avicennasis,
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Squarelot, It Is Me Here, Kevspencer, Ncmvocalist, Skier Dude, Balthazarduju, HeckYes1, Dmitri Yuriev, Belovedfreak, Mangwanani,
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Fratrep, Afernand74, OKBot, A E Francis, Vojvodaen, Torchwoodwho, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, StaticGull,

8.2

Images

25

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Should Not Be, Danopticon, ClickClickDerp, Shark96z, R000t, Drmies, Der Golem, Colin kerr, TheOldJacobite, SuperHamster, Beatrice Otter, Blanchardb, Parkwells, RafaAzevedo, Allanhazlett, Leadwind, Boneyard90, Wizago, Christian Skeptic, Minimidgy, Ktr101,
Excirial, Wikillaniman, Honorvalorhoboknight, Dedgeord, Zaharous, Yorkshirian, Rhododendrites, Tyler, Spirals31, Jotterbot, Matthew
Dillenburg, Newyorxico, Sophisquitry, Glorthac, BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, El bot de la dieta, Kakofonous, Catalographer, Thingg, AmandaEP, Nintyguy, Mattissa, Versus22, Adriansrfr, SoxBot III, Schinleber, EstherLois, Ambrosius007, XLinkBot, Spitre, Gnowor, Jytdog,
Jonneroo, Aggomez77, T.w.s.hunt, Dthomsen8, Theloavesandthevicious, Ost316, Little Mountain 5, NellieBly, Bvis08, Martmor330, Good
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Jojhutton, Ave Caesar, Non-dropframe, WhoppeeSA, LightSpectra, AkhtaBot, SpellingBot, TutterMouse, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter,
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A Lifetime, RedBot, Lars Washington, Jeppiz, December21st2012Freak, Frindro, White Shadows, Virginblack, ActivExpression, Rgr09,
Kgrad, LutP, IgdDev, Lpt101095, TobeBot, Insignicantwrangler, Jordgette, Dogman1988, ItsZippy, Griit, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Oracleofottawa, Vrenator, TBloemink, Mitchesbea, Jaba1977, Clarkcj12, Begoon, Tediouspedant, Ktlynch, Lammidhania, Koralinthor, Saint Augustine, Suusion of Yellow, Klbell3, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Sbobierw, Goblinwars, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jsfkdla;iox, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, Gleaman, Grace Augustine, DASHBot, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, ModWilson, WikitanvirBot, Neigh94,
Crazyanimegirl16, Lancerloon, Stebunik, Inltrator-23, Semantics-A1, Unimpeder, Syncategoremata, RA0808, Rarevogel, Dcirovic,
Italia2006, Evanh2008, Lobsterthermidor, ZroBot, PBS-AWB, Blessedhomes, Susfele, F, Josve05a, Imadjafar, Alan347, Omar-Toons,
DasherX, Tederose1943, 1234r00t, Fidulario, AndrewOne, Ocaasi, Akasseb, Jbribeiro1, Brandmeister, Adamantius3, Solus ipse Inc.,
Senjuto, Donner60, Chewings72, Omar-toons, ChuispastonBot, Beafreind, ClamDip, EdoBot, Holmessa, Roypeter347, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Lnewshoe, Tillander, NapoleonX, FesCityRaver, Sanziolo, TheConduqtor, Veritas72, Kikichugirl, Augustinestudent, Taina xrista,
Hazhk, Ballershotcaller2, Shan030709, Dream of Nyx, Mannanan51, EauLibrarian, Widr, Ddrouin, Cognate247, Helpful Pixie Bot, Frazybaby, Courtyen, BG19bot, Rodrigo09, Mealmlz, Northamerica1000, MPSchneiderLC, Dzlinker, MusikAnimal, Frze, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Danrichards12, Qazolop123, Elchupaya, ReformedArsenal, JHobson2, TurtleJogger, CitationCleanerBot, Nonstickst, Alexandermala, Kim Batteau, Scholarship4truth, Jfhutson, Andrasholl, Polmandc, Matthew David Gonzlez, Djihinne1, Nazarene2000, Johnconverse, Oriandel, BattyBot, CrestHerald, Player072, G.M. Sir Lawrence, SupernovaExplosion, ChrisGualtieri, Eb7473, Packer1028, Mlitwa1, Annyoneelse, All Worlds, Dexbot, Croesoswallt, Belisariusgroup, Zip34532, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Mogism, Chicbyaccident,
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Corinne, Thomas2robson, Wywin, Wdugda1, , 900mill, Lgfcd, Epicgenius, Tentatio21, Lekoren, Augustiniana, Laura Y.
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KasparBot, ProGloriamDei, Srednuas Lenoroc, PossidiusII, Surena20, Hudsonh11, Stolcor, Fishcard30, Drunktheologian, InternetArchiveBot, Jesuit2, Cade344, Poorbillypilgrim, Llydraw, Iamjusticewoods, Tbilodeau, GreenC bot, Jujutsuan, Daniel3545457, Crazosolo, Mayoniase, TheDwellerCamp, Sorabino, Doraoneill, Yutran, Anar, Alas, Garvey Holmes, Ckarma and Anonymous: 1430

8.2

Images

File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA

3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark
File:7_Nicolo_di_Pietro._1413-15._The_Saint_Augustine_Taken_to_School_by_Saint_Monica._Pinacoteca,_Vatican..jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/7_Nicolo_di_Pietro._1413-15._The_Saint_Augustine_Taken_to_
School_by_Saint_Monica._Pinacoteca%2C_Vatican..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scan Original artist: Nicolo di Pietro
File:Antonio_Rodrguez_-_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d0/Antonio_Rodr%C3%ADguez_-_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
kwGS5ApcSQpaiw at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Antonio Rodrguez (1636 - 1691) Painter
Details of artist on Google Art Project
File:Augustine_Lateran.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Augustine_Lateran.jpg
License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?id=3553 Original artist:
Unknown<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Carlo_Crivelli_-_St._Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/
Carlo_Crivelli_-_St._Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: kQHrK8lr0kZGcg at Google Cultural
Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Carlo Crivelli (circa 1435circa 1495)

26

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Source:
cense: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg Li-

Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54;
Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source:
svg License: Public domain Contributors:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.

File:Coat of arms Holy See.svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a le by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City
State.svg, who had created his le using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded
this version on 19 January 2007.
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fra_angelico_-_conversion_de_saint_augustin.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Fra_
angelico_-_conversion_de_saint_augustin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Fra Angelico (circa
13951455) and workshop
File:Gloriole_blur.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Gloriole_blur.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eubulides
File:Jaume_Huguet_-_Consecration_of_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Jaume_Huguet_-_Consecration_of_Saint_Augustine_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License:
Public domain
Contributors: hgG-9ILRYyFSGw at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Jaume Huguet
File:JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Justus van Gent (. 14601480)
File:Kirchenfenster_Bckweiler.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Kirchenfenster_B%C3%
B6ckweiler.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/11596438@N00/2435169073/sizes/o/in/
photostream/ Original artist: tiegeltuf
File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_St_Augustine.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Peter_Paul_Rubens_
-_St_Augustine.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Ophelia2 Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens
File:Polittico_del_1476,_s._tommaso_d'aquino.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Polittico_del_
1476%2C_s._tommaso_d%27aquino.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This image was copied from wikipedia:uk. The original description was:

Original artist: Carlo Crivelli (circa 1435circa 1495)
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Saint_
Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Los Angeles County Museum of Art: online database:
entry 171584 Original artist: Philippe de Champaigne
File:Sandro_Botticelli_-_St_Augustin_dans_son_cabinet_de_travail.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d3/Sandro_Botticelli_-_St_Augustin_dans_son_cabinet_de_travail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Botticelli :
de Laurent le Magnique Savonarole : catalogue de l'exposition Paris, Muse du Luxembourg, du 1er octobre 2003 au 22 fvrier
2004 et Florence, Palazzo Strozzi, du 10 mars au 11 juillet 2004. Milan : Skira editore, Paris : Muse du Luxembourg, 2003. ISBN
9788884915641 Original artist: Sandro Botticelli
File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions
were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia.
File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Tiffany_Window_of_St_Augustine_-_Lightner_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/
Tiffany_Window_of_St_Augustine_-_Lightner_Museum.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Vergs_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_Disputing_with_the_Heretics_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Verg%C3%B3s_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_Disputing_with_the_Heretics_-_Google_Art_
Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 4wH74az12lW5xg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist:
Vergs Group
Details of artist on Google Art Project
File:Vergs_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_Meditates_on_the_Trinity_when_the_Child_Jesus_Appears_before_him_-_Google_
Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Verg%C3%B3s_Group_-_Saint_Augustine_
Meditates_on_the_Trinity_when_the_Child_Jesus_Appears_before_him_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: sgFbOi8a8sxcjg at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Vergs Group
Details of artist on Google Art Project

8.3

Content license

27

File:Vittore_carpaccio,_visione_di_sant'agostino_01.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
5/5b/Vittore_carpaccio%2C_visione_di_sant%27agostino_01.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Web Gallery
of Art:
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/c/carpacci/3schiavo/1/1vision.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/c/carpacci/3schiavo/1/1vision.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Vittore Carpaccio
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:William_of_Ockham.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: self-created (Moscarlop)

8.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0