Basics of Flight 2

Basics of Flight - Lift

1. Definition - LIFT
There are several "definitions" of lift that may be found by searching through the
relevant literature, but only one that is really fundamentally correct. Sometimes the lift is
inappropriately defined as the force that is required to support the weight of the aircraft
in flight. On first inspection, this seems to make sense and indeed it is true in the case of
steady level flight. However, it is otherwise patently not the case, e.g. when the aircraft is
performing a manoeuvre. The only truly correct definition which works for all possible
flight conditions is: the component of aerodynamic force generated on the aircraft which
acts perpendicular to the instantaneous flight direction.
This means that the lift is inclined backwards in a climb, forwards in a dive and inwards in
the case of a banked turn (Fig 1.1).

Fig 1.1 Lift vector for different flight conditions

1.1 Lift Coefficient

Lift (L) = V2 S CL

(1.1)

Where = air density, V = freestream velocity and S = reference area (for fixed-wing
aircraft, S is usually taken as the gross wing planform area while for most other bodies it is
the maximum cross-sectional area).

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2. Generation of Lift
The overall force may be attributed to two natural phenomena (Fig 2.1):
the variable static pressure distribution, acting perpendicular to the surface.
the variable shear stress distribution, acting tangential to the surface.

Fig 2.1 Static pressure & shear stress distributions around subsonic aerofoil
It is clear that, as far as lift is concerned, the shear stress is secondary and
contributes mainly to the drag force. The lift force itself is primarily due to the pressure
distribution imbalance over the upper and lower surfaces. In particular, the production of a
lower net pressure across the surface relative to the lower surface will produce an upwards
lift force. It is therefore often convenient to only deal with the pressure forces when
discussing the physical origin of the lift force.

2.1 Aerofoil Section

This is shown in Fig 2.2, with the camber and thickness exaggerated to aid clarity
(more typically around 3% and 12% of the chord length respectively). It is worth noting
that any shape may be made to produce lift, provided it is given either camber or inclined

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to the flow direction (i.e. given an angle of attack). It is requires to optimize the lift/drag
ratio which leads to the use of the classical streamlined aerofoil sections.

Fig 2.2 Subsonic aerofoil section configuration & definitions

2.2 Popular Simplified Explanation - Flawed

Many embark upon aeronautical studies to satisfy a desire to understand how and
why aircraft fly. It is unfortunate that the most popular explanations given to students are
fundamentally incorrect and that many retain these misunderstandings throughout the
rest of their studies! The basic explanations are often given along the following lines.
The most obviously flawed theory is the one which espouses the fact that in order to
produce lift it is necessary to use a cambered lifting surface. This is clearly nonsense as
symmetrical sections and even flat plates can be used to produce lift provided they are
inclined at an angle of attack to the oncoming flow.

Fig 2.3 Leading & trailing edge stagnation point formation

This means that the respective distances from SLE to STE are different with respect
to whether the flow travels over the upper or lower surface. In particular, if cambered or
inclined, the upper surface distance is greater than the lower surface distance. OK so far -

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but this is where the explanation goes wrong. The internet states that the flow must take
the same time to get from SLE to STE over both surfaces, meaning that the mean velocity
over the top surface must be greater than over the lower surface. This is then linked with
Bernoulli's theorem to explain where the pressure difference comes from and hence - LIFT!
However, there is no reason why the time taken should be the same. Indeed,
experiments and numerical simulations show that this is patently not the case and that the
time taken to move over the top surface is actually a lot less than that taken to travel over
the lower surface! This is shown in Fig 2.4 for a fluid element C which leaves the trailing
edge a long time before element D moving over the lower surface. This is where the
simplistic theory is flawed.

Fig 2.4 Time taken for flow to pass over upper & lower surfaces

2.3 Valid Physical Explanation

A more fundamentally correct explanation for the origin of aerodynamic lift may be
found by making use of the conservation laws of physics, namely mass flow (continuity)
and energy or momentum (Euler or Bernoulli).
Consider the 2-D stream tubes A and B shown in Fig 2.5 - these are originally of the
same width when well upstream of the aerofoil and out of its influence. The common
streamline between them is aligned with the leading edge stagnation point and so acts to
divide the airflow over the top and bottom surfaces. The stream tube A encounters the
upper portion of the aerofoil and is squashed through what is effectively a smaller area.
Stream tube B is squashed less, resulting in a larger stream tube width, relative to A. From
continuity (m = A V) this must mean that the velocity in A must be greater than in B.

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Fig 2.5 Streamtubes A & B passing over upper & lower surfaces
Either Euler's (dp = - VdV) or Bernoulli's (p + V2 = constant) theorems may now be
applied to show that pA must be less than pB. This results in the pressure distribution
shown in Fig 2.6. It can be seen that the majority of lift is due to the low pressure (suction)
acting over the upper surface, particularly over the front 20% to 30%, where the flow
accelerations are at their most severe. Another popular misconception is thus disproved,
that it is the high pressure on the lower surface produces most of the lift. In fact, in the case
shown, the pressure on the lower surface is below that of the ambient value, its just that
the pressure on the upper surface is even lower than this its the pressure difference
which is important.

Fig 2.6 Pressure distribution giving lift

2.4 Alternative Physical Explanation (Newtons Laws of Motion)

An alternative explanation, sometimes given in textbooks and on websites on flight
mechanics, uses Newton's laws of motion as a basis. The reasoning is that the wing deflects
the air downwards so that the wing imparts a downward component to it. To do so, the
wing must be providing a downwards force on the air (Newton's 1st Law). Then from

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Newton's 3rd Law, the air must be providing an equal and opposite reaction force on the
wing.

Fig 2.7 Downward deflection of airflow (downwash)

This explanation is certainly better than the standard but it could be argued that this is the
effect of lift rather than the cause of it. There is no doubt that air is deflected downwards
and indeed that a considerable amount of air movement is required in order to provide the
requisite amount of wing lift. It could; however, be the pressure distribution which is
pushing the wing up and that this is really the action which is taking place. The reaction to
this would then be for the wing to push the air down, with a sufficient momentum change
to balance out the lift produced. This would mean that the original argument is probably
the "wrong way around"!

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Basics of Flight 2

Magnus Effect and Kutta - Joukowski Theorem

Qualitative Study of Lift on a Rotating Cylinder (Magnus Effect):

Fig: (A). illustrates uniform circulation on a non-rotating cylinder. (B). illustrates the increased airflow over
the top of a rotating cylinder. The airflow speed is further increased when the rotating cylinder is in a moving
stream of air (C). The air molecules near the surface of an object are slowed and almost stationary. (D)
Example of typical aircraft grade aluminum used in aircraft construction to include wings and leading edges
of wings as shown in E (left). When magnified at 1,500x (E, right), polished aluminum is visibly rough. This
demonstrates why airflow is affected by molecular irregularities of the surface.

Quantitative Study of Lift on a Rotating Cylinder (Kutta-Joukowski Theorem):

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All that is necessary to create lift is to turn a flow of air. We are familiar with the lift
generated by an airplane wing or a curving baseball. But a simple rotating cylinder will also
create lift. In fact, because the flow field associated with a rotating cylinder is two
dimensional, it is much easier to understand the basic physics of this problem than the
more complex three dimensional aspects of a curveball.
However, the details of how a rotating cylinder creates lift are still pretty complex.
Next to any surface, the molecules of the air will stick to the surface as discussed in
the properties of air slide. This thin layer of molecules will entrain or pull the surrounding
flow in the direction that the surface moves. If we put a cylinder that is rotating about
the longitudinal axis (a line perpendicular to the circular cross section) into a fluid, it would
eventually create a spinning, vortex-like flow around the cylinder. If we then set the fluid in
motion, the uniform velocity flow field can be added to the vortex flow. The right portion of
the figure shows a view of the flow as if we were moving with the cylinder looking down
the longitudinal axis. The cylinder appears stationary and the flow moves from left to right.
The cylinder rotates clockwise. So the free stream flow over the top of the cylinder is
assisted by the induced flow; the free stream flow below the cylinder is opposed by the
induced flow. The streamlines around the cylinder are distorted because of the spinning. If
the cylinder were not spinning, the streamlines would be symmetric top and bottom. The
net turning of the flow has produced an upward force. Because of the change to the velocity
field, the pressure field will also be altered around the cylinder. The magnitude of the force
can be computed by integrating the surface pressure times the area around the cylinder.
The direction of the force is perpendicular to the flow direction.
The magnitude of the force was determined by two early aerodynamicists, Martin
Kutta in Germany and Nicolai Joukowski in Russia. The lift equation for a rotating
cylinder bears their names. The equation states that the lift L per unit length along the
cylinder is directly proportional to the velocity V of the flow, the density of the flow,
and the strength of the vortex G that is established by the rotation.
L = GV

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The equation gives lift-per-unit length because the flow is two dimensional.
(Obviously, the longer the cylinder the greater the lift.) Determining the vortex
strength G takes a little more math. The vortex strength is given by,
G = 2r2
Where, is the angular velocity of spin of the cylinder.

3. Camber & Angle of Attack Effects

In the case of an increase in either camber or angle of attack there will be a resultant
downwards movement of the leading edge stagnation point (see Fig 3.1). This will mean
that the stream tube squashing effect (described above in 2.2) will be more pronounced.
This will lead to a larger speed imbalance across the upper and lower surfaces (continuity),
a bigger pressure imbalance (Euler or Bernoulli) and hence more lift. This will always be
the case provided stall doesn't occur (see later).

Fig 3.1 Movement of LE stagnation point due to camber or angle of attack change
The net effects are that the lift varies with camber and angle of attack as shown in Fig 3.2.

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Fig 3.2 Lift curves for subsonic cambered & symmetrical aerofoil sections

3.1 Stall
The relationship with angle of attack is virtually linear until the stall angle is
approached. The stall angle is defined as the angle at which the CL curve peaks, i.e. when
CL, max occurs. Beyond this, there is a dramatic loss of lift until it becomes reasonably
constant at much higher angles of attack. For the symmetrical section, the curve passes
through the origin, i.e. there is zero-lift at zero-, as would be expected. The effect of
camber is to vertically raise the curve so that there is a certain amount of lift present even
at zero-. There is also a slight reduction in the stall angle.

Fig 3.3 Subsonic aerofoil stall

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3.2 Pressure Variations with Varying Angle of Attack

This is shown below, in Fig 3.4.

Fig 3.4 Pressure variations with angle of attack

The following should be noted:
Negative (nose-down) pitching moment at zero-lift (negative a).
Positive lift at a = 0o.
Highest pressure at LE stagnation point, lowest pressure at crest on upper surface.
Peak suction pressure on upper surface strengthens and moves forwards with increasing
a.
Most lift from near LE on upper surface due to suction.

3.3 Centre of Pressure Movement with Angle of Attack

The centre of pressure is a point on the chord line through which the overall lift
force may be considered to act. In the case of a cambered aerofoil section, its position is
highly variable (Fig 3.6). As the angle of attack is increased, the peak suction pressure
moves further and further forwards on the upper surface until the stall angle is
approached. This must then also mean that the centre of pressure moves forwards with

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increasing angle of attack. Post-stall the upper surface pressure distribution flattens out
and the centre of pressure moves rearwards.
Consequently the centre of pressure position is not best suited for moment, trim and
stability/control analysis; what is required is a fixed position and for these purposes the
aerodynamic centre is used instead. This is covered in more detail in the Stability section
of the notes.

Fig 3.6 Centre of Pressure Movement with Angle of Attack f or Ca mbered Section

3.4 Normal Force & Lift

While it is mostly convenient to deal with aerodynamic lift, there are occasions when it is
best to make use of a different resolution of the aerodynamic force in which it is broken
down into normal force and axial force instead of lift and drag. It should be recalled that lift
and drag are the resolved components relative to the airflow direction (lift is perpendicular
to it, drag is parallel to it). If the total force is resolved relative to the chord line of the wing
instead, then the components are known as the normal force and axial force. The vector
sum of the two components will always be the same, of course, i.e. equal to the total
aerodynamic force.
A pair of general trigonometric relationships between the components may easily be
derived:
L = N cos - X sin (3.3a)
D = N sin + X cos (3.3b)

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Basics of Flight 2

Clearly, in cases where the chord line and airflow are coincident (i.e. when = 0o), then L =
N and D = X. The use of N instead of L is especially useful when it comes to dealing with the
stability and control aspects of an aircraft.

Fig 3.7 Resolution into Lift & Drag, Normal Force & Axial Force Components
It is a relatively straightforward process to calculate a wing's normal force by measuring
the static pressure distribution around it (Fig 3.8).

Fig 3.8 Static Pressure Tappings used to Measure Wing Normal Force
The measured static pressures are then converted into pressure coefficient values, using:
Cp = (p - p) / ( V2 )

(3.4)

Cp is thus the ratio of the gauge static pressure to the freestream dynamic pressure.
In conditions where p > p, Cp is positive. Conversely, where p < p, Cp is negative.
Negative Cp values should therefore be expected on the upper surface of a lift-producing
wing.
By plotting local values of Cp against distance/chord (x/c), as shown in Fig 2, it is possible
to determine a value for the overall normal force for the given set of conditions. This is
done by simply calculating the enclosed area of the plot, giving a value for the normal force
coefficient (CN). This may then be translated into a value for the normal force itself by
making use of the standard aerodynamic force definition:

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Basics of Flight 2

N = V2 S CN

(3.5)

Fig 3.9 Pressure Coefficient Plot and Resultant Wing Normal Force

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