What Happens at Which Temperature ?

1200 0C

Hardening of
High-Speed Steel
Baking of so-called
Stoneware (non-porous)
Glazing of
Fired Clay

Melt Point
Gold

Melt Point
Silver

Hardening of
Hot-Work
Steel
Melt Point
of Brass

Boiling Point
Zinc

Forging of
Steel

Hardening
12 % Cr
Punch Steel

1000 0C

Carbonisation

Hardening of
non-alloyed
and low-alloySteel

1100 0C

Clay Baking

900 0C

800 0C

Enamelling

Soft-Annealing of
Steel
Forging of
Copper
Melt Point
Magnesium

Melt Point
Aluminium

Tempering of Hot-Work Steel

and
Hardening and Tempering of
Machining Steel

Melt Point
Zinc

Melt Point
Cadmium

Stress-Free
Annealing

Tempering of
High-Speed
Steel

Annealing of
Copper

Tempering for
Knocks and Impact

Tempering for
Cutting Power
Sulphur
Melt Point

Stress-Relief
of Glass
Burn-In of
Colours in Glass

400 0C

Normalising

Coffee
Roasting

Preserves
are sterilised

Water
Boils

Alcohol
Boils

600 0C

500 0C

Tempering for
Elasticity

Tempering +
Reshaping of.
Aluminium
Melt Point
Lead

Annealing of
Brass

Nitration

Tin
Melt Point

Boiling Point
Naphtha
Melt Point
Sodium
Potassium
Melt Point

700 0C

Flash Point
of Wood

300 0C

Bread
Baking

200 0C

Softening
of PVC

100 0C

20 0C

Ageing

9
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Comparative Table of Vickers-Brinell-Rockwell Hardness and Tensile Strength

Note:
Conversion of hardness values amongst each other is always bound to be inaccurate. Therefore, hardness conversion should only be carried
out, if the required test procedure cannot be applied.
HRC: hardened steel, hardened and annealed alloys.
HRB: materials of medium hardness, steel with low and medium C content, Copper and Zinc alloys, bronze etc.

HV

Vickers
Hardness
Vickershrte
HV 30

HV30
Diamond Pyramid

Diamant Pyramide

80

85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
255
260
265
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
310
320
330
340

HB

Brinell

Brinellhrte
Hardness
HB30
HP 30
Stahlkugel
Steel Ball

80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
255
260
265
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
310
320
330
340

HRB

Rockwell

Rockwellhrte
Hardness
HRB
HRB
Stahlkugel
Steel Ball

36,4
42,4
47,4
52,0
56,4
60,0
63,4
66,4
69,4
72,0
74,4
76,4
78,4
80,4
82,2
83,8
85,4
86,8
88,2
89,6
90,8
91,8
93,0
94,0
95,0
95,8
96,6
97,6
98,2
99,0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

HRC

HV

Strength
HRCSerie Tensile
Rockwell
Zugfestigkeit
HRC
B [N/mm2]
Diamond
Cone
Diamantkugel

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
19,2
20,2
21,2
22,1
23,0
23,8
24,6
25,4
26,2
26,9
27,6
28,3
29,0
29,6
30,3
31,5
32,7
33,8
34,9

270
290
310
320
340
360
380
390
410
420
440
460
470
490
500
520
540
550
570
590
600
620
640
660
670
680
710
720
730
750
760
780
800
820
830
850
870
880
900
920
940
950
970
990
1010
1040
1080
1110
1140

Vickers
Hardness
Vickershrte
HV 30

HV30
Diamond Pyramid

Diamant Pyramide

350

398

360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
720
740
760
780
800
820
840
860
880
900
820
940

HB

Brinell

Brinellhrte
Hardness
HB30
HP 30
Stahlkugel
Steel Ball

350
359
368
376
385
392
400
408
415
423
430
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

HRB

Rockwell

Rockwellhrte
Hardness
HRB
HRB
Stahlkugel
Steel Ball

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

HRC

Strength
HRCSerie Tensile
Rockwell
Zugfestigkeit
HRC
B [N/mm2]
Diamond
Cone
Diamantkugel

36,0
37,0
38,0
38,9
39,8
40,7
41,5
42,4
43,2
44,0
44,8
45,6
46,3
47,0
47,7
48,3
49,1
49,7
50,4
51,0
51,6
52,2
52,8
53,3
53,9
54,4
55,0
55,5
56,0
56,5
57,0
57.5
58,0
58,5
59,0
59,5
60,4
61,2
62,0
62,8
63,6
64,3
65,0
65,7
66,3
66,9
67,5
68,0

1170
1200
1230
1260
1290
1320
1350
1380
1410
1430
1460
-

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Heat Treatment
Hardening
The reason for hardening and tempering is to give steel the combined properties of hardness and strength.
Steel is hardened by heating to an appropriate temperature and then subsequent quenching in oil, water or air.
Annealing/Redrawing
This term implies reheating after quenching. This takes place at temperatures between 150 and 300C. During hardening inner tensions are created.
All parts that have been correctly quenched are, therefore, brittle. For use a certain amount of strength is required, so that breakages from simple
knocks do not occur. Annealing reduces these tensions, but also results in a slight loss of hardness.
Tempering
Tempering is also a reheating process after hardening, which, however, can be carried out at temperatures between 450 and 650C depending on the
later use of the material. Construction steels should acquire the following properties by tempering: increased yield point, i.e., increased permissible
tensile force, or an increased bending strength allowing considerable deformation before breaking.
Achievement of certain characteristics depends on the temperature level. For special performance with such required characteristics tempered
steels according to DIN 7200 are used.
Carbonising (Case-Hardening)
Low-carbon types of steel are used for case-hardening. The steel is hereby placed in a medium releasing Carbon (usually a salt bath, gas or powder).
At a temperature of more than 900C Carbon diffuses into the outside of the steel, so that a heat treatable layer is formed (depending on the length of the
carbonising process up to 3mm in depth). After quenching a hard, wear-resistant surface and a high level of core hardness results.
For special performance where such characteristics are required case-hardened steels according to DIN 17210 are used.
Nitride Hardening
During annealing Nitrogen can be diffused into the steel surface by using a Nitrogen releasing medium at temperatures of approx. 400-580C.
Dependent on the nitrifying agent variations are made between gas, salt bath and powder nitriding. Several variations are possible in nitration
processes, which can determine the properties of the layers.
Carbon-Nitriding
In this process absorption of Nitrogen and Carbon occurs, with Carbon as the dominant medium. The working temperature is approx. 750C. Layer
thicknesses of approx. 0.2mm are obtained. This procedure is often applied to non-alloyed steel.
Nitrocarbonising
In this process absorption of Nitrogen and Carbon occurs, with Nitrogen as the dominant medium. The nitriding layer consists subsequently of two
zones. An extremely hard outer layer of approx. 0,02mm with under this an even harder layer of approx. 0,2mm thickness. Other terms also often used
for this procedure are soft nitriding (teniferring), cyanising and powder nitriding.
Plasma Nitriding
The nitriding gas in this process becomes conductive due to the influence of an electric field. The workpieces, which are hung in a furnace, act
as cathodes. The impact of the Nitrogen ions (Plasma) attracted to the steel surface causes penetration and hardening. Thickness, hardness and
homogeneity of the nitriding layer can achieve the best results by this process.
Liquid Nitriding
Liquid nitriding is carried out in a molten salt bath. In this salt bath the Nitrogen contained therein diffuses into the surface of the workpiece. By reason
of the low working temperature of approx. 580C only a very slight dimensional change occurs.
Clean-Gas Nitriding
By means of the Nitrogen dispenser, Ammonia gas, hardening penetrations of up to 0.4mm are obtained. This process can only be applied
to alloyed steels and takes several days.
Vacuum Hardening
This procedure is often employed if a high surface quality of the workpieces is required. Due to the lack of Oxygen the surface remains glossy. After
austenitising in a vacuum Nitrogen is blown under high pressure through the heat charge and then returned through cooling channels. With this
method even steels for which the cooling step is critical can be hardened in the vacuum chamber. After heating in the vacuum it is also possible to
add those active gases required for case-hardening or nitriding.
Inert Gas Hardening
An inert gas which reacts neutrally to steel and protects the surface from erosion, pitting and scaling is fed into special furnaces with heat-resistant
chambers. It is also possible to feed gases required for case-hardening or nitriding into the furnaces.
Fluidised Bed Kiln
These kilns are comparable with salt-bath furnaces with regard to heat transmission. However, Aluminium-Oxide powder is employed, which is fluidised
with air injected through a large number of small portholes in the bottom of the bed. The Aluminium-Oxide powder which is heated to the required
temperature begins to spread quickly and flows around the complete workpiece. The rinsing off of salt deposits is not necessary with this procedure.
Gases for case-hardening or carbonnitriding can also be injected.
Boronising
This thermo-chemical process is related to that of case carbonising, in which hardening takes place in Boron releasing mediums at 900C. This results in
extremely hard surface layers with a penetration of up to 0.1mm. This procedure is applicable for non-alloy and low-alloy types of steel.
Ageing
In order to avoid indifferent, slow changes to the microstructure the hardened steel is kept for a long time (50-100 hours) at a temperature
of 120C with periodic cooling in cold water.
Flame-Hardening
Hereby the steel surface is quickly brought up to the hardening temperature by means of a burner. Thereafter quenching takes place with
powerful sprays. The hardness penetration lies between 2 and 10mm. The treated steel should contain sufficient Carbon. One advantage of
this procedure is that a workpiece can be partially hardened.

399

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