Chemistry Textbook Notes Chapter 2

2.1 Elements, compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

o Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition
Elements
Compounds
Mixtures
o Substance matter whose composition is fixed
o Element the simplest type of matter with unique physical and
chemical properties, only consists of one kind of atom
Macroscopic Qualities
Color, density, and combustibility
o Molecule an independent structure of two or more atoms bound
together
o Compound consists of two or more different elements that are
bonded chemically
Many consist of molecules
The elements are present in fixed parts by mass
Each unit of the compound consists of a fixed number of
atoms of each element
A compounds properties are different from the properties of its
component elements
Can be broken down into simpler molecules
o Mixture consists of two or more substances that are physically
intermingled
Not a substance
The components of a mixture can vary in their parts by mass
A mixture retains many of the properties of its components
Physical changes can separate mixtures
2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter
o Law of mass conservation the total mass of substances does not
change during a chemical reaction
The number of substances may change and, by definition, their
properties must, but the total amount of matter remains
sonstant
Matter cannot be created or destroyed
o Law of definite composition no matter what its source, a
particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same
parts by mass
o Fraction by Mass the part of the compounds mass of each element
by the mass of the compound
o Percent by mass the fraction by mass expressed as a percentage
o Mass fraction is fixed no matter what size of the sample
o Law of Multiple proportions if elements A and B react to form two
compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass
of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers
2.3 Daltons Atomic Theory

John Dalton created postulates of the atomic theory

All matters consist of atoms, tiny individual particles of an
element that cannot be created or destroyed
Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of
another element. In chemical reactions, the atoms of the original
substances recombine to form different substances
Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties
and are different from atoms of any other element
Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific
ratio of atoms of different elements
2.4 Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model
o Discovery of the Electron and its Properties
For many years, scientists knew that matter and electric charge
were related
Didnt know what that current was made of
Some investigators tried passing current through nearly
evacuated flass tubes fitted with metal electrodes
When turned on, a ray could be seen at the phosphor
coated end of the tube
Called cathode rays
o Mass/Charge of the Electron
Mass
JJ Thompson measured the ratio of the mass of a cathode
ay particle to its charge
Estimated that the ray particle weighed less than 1/1000
as much as hydrogen
o Implied there were even smaller particles than
atoms, contrary to Daltons atomic theory
Charge
Robert Millikan measured the charge of an electron
o Observed the movement of oil droplets in an
apparatus that contained electrically charged
plates and an x-ray source
o Electrons from gas molecules were knocked off and
suck to oil droplets
o Measured the mass of the droplet from its rate of
fall, and used the fields strength to make the
droplet hand suspended in the air
o Found that the total charge of the varius droplets
was always some whole-number multiple of a
minimum charge
o Reasoned that this minimum charge was the
charge of an electron
o -1.602X10-19 Coulombs
Calculating Mass
o

The electrons mass/charge ratio and the value of the

charge was used to find mass
o -5.686X10-12 kg/C X 1.602X10-19 = 9.109X10-28 g
o Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus
Thomson propose a plum pudding model
A spherical atom composed of diffuse, positively charged
matter with electrons embedded like raisins in a plum
pudding
Rutherford tested a new model
Gold foil experiment
Alpha particles emitted from radium are aimed at a gold
foil, and a zinc sulfide screen registers the deflection by
emitting light flashes when particles strike it
Flashed occurred backwards
Concluded that alpha particles were propelled by
something small, dense, and positive
o Showed an atom is mostly space occupied by
electrons
o The center is a tiny region called the nucleus
Proposed that positive particles lay within
the nucleus and called them protons
Chadwick then discovered the neutron
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today
o Structure of the Atom
An electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of positively
charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively
charged electrons
Atoms are 20,000 times the diameter of the its nucleus, but
99.97% of the atoms mass is the nucleus
o Atomic Number, Mass number, and Atomic Symbol
Atomic Number (Z) - equals the number of protons in the
nucleus
All atoms of an element have the same atomic number,
and the atomic number of each element is different from
that of any other element
Mass number (A) the total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom
Each proton and neutron contribute to the mass number
Atomic Symbol representation of an element based on
English, Latin, or Greek name
Atomic number is written as a left subscript
Mass number is written as a left superscript
Neutrons = mass number atomic number
o Isotopes
All atoms of an elemnt have the same atomic number but not
the same mass number

Isotopes - atoms that have different numbers of neutrons and

therefore different mass numbers
Chemical properties of an element are primarily determined by
the number of electrons, so isotopes of an element have nearly
identical chemical behaviors
o Atomic Masses of the Elements, Mass Spectrometry
Mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of an atomic
standard
The modern standard is the carbon-12 atom, who is
exactly 12 atomic mass units
AMU 1/12 the mass of carbon-12
Absolute mass of 1.66054X10-24 g
The isotopic makeup of an element is determined by mass
spectrometry
Atoms of a sample are bombarded by a high energy
electron beam
One electron is knocked off, and the resulting particle has
a +1 charge
o Its mass/charge ratio equals the mass of the
elements atom divided by 1+
Mass to charge are measured to identify the masses of
different isotopes of the element
2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table
o Organizations of the Periodic Table
Each element has a box that contains its atomic number
The boxes are arranged into grid of periods and groups
Period (horizontal row) has a number from 1 to 7
Group (vertical column) number from 1-8 and either the
letter A or B
The eight A groups contain the main-group elements
The ten B groups, located between contain the transition
elements
o Classifying the Elements
One of the clearest ways to classify the elements is through
metals, nonmetals, and metalloids
The metals lie in the large lower-left portion of the table
o of the elements are metals
Shiny solids at room temperature that
conduct heat and electricity well, malleable
and ductile
Nonmetals lie in the small upper-right portion of the table
o Gaseous or dull, brittle solids, conduct heat and
electricity poorly
Metalloids have properties between nonmetals and metals
o Group (family) names
1A Alkali metals

2A Alkaline eart metals

7A halogens
8A noble gases
2.7 Naming compounds
o Ionic compounds bonds formed from the transfer of electrons
o Covalent compounds bonds formed from the sharing of electrons
o The formation of Ionic Compounds
Typically forms when a nonmetal reacts with a metal