Chap 02 (Fluid Mechanic) PDF

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Chapter 2:
Fluid Statics
Contents
2.1.
Objectives ..................................................................................................................2
2.2.
Pressure ......................................................................................................................2
2.2.1.
Fluid pressure at a point.....................................................................................2
2.2.2.
Pascal law...........................................................................................................3
2.2.3.
Equation for the variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under gravity..........6
2.2.4.
Equal level-equal pressure principle..................................................................7
2.3.
Pressure measurements ..............................................................................................8
2.3.1.
Type of pressure measurement devices .............................................................8
2.3.1.1.
Manometers................................................................................................8
2.3.1.2.
Mechanical gauges.....................................................................................9
2.3.2.
Piezometer..........................................................................................................9
2.3.3.
U-tube manometer ...........................................................................................10
2.3.4.
Single column manometer ...............................................................................13
2.3.4.1.
Vertical single column manometer ..........................................................13
2.3.4.2.
Inclined single column manometer..........................................................15
2.3.5.
U-tube differential manometer.........................................................................17
2.3.6.
Inverted U-tube manometer .............................................................................18
2.3.7.
Multiple-fluid manometer................................................................................20
2.3.8.
Bourdon gage ...................................................................................................23
2.4.
Static forces on surfaces...........................................................................................25
2.4.1.
Assumptions.....................................................................................................25
2.4.2.
Definitions........................................................................................................25
2.4.2.1.
Total pressure...........................................................................................25
2.4.2.2.
Centre of pressure ....................................................................................25
2.4.3.
Forces on plane surfaces ..................................................................................26
2.4.3.1.
Schematic diagram...................................................................................26
2.4.3.2.
Pressure diagram......................................................................................26
2.4.3.3.
Total pressure (resultant force) ................................................................27
2.4.3.4.
Centre of pressure ....................................................................................27
2.4.3.5.
Case: Vertical plane surfaces ( = 90) ...................................................29
2.4.3.6.
Case: Horizontal plane surfaces ( = 0) .................................................30
2.4.4.
Forces on curved surfaces................................................................................39
2.4.4.1.
Schematic diagram...................................................................................39
2.4.4.2.
Total pressure (resultant force) ................................................................39
2.4.4.3.
Geometric properties of some basic plane surfaces.................................45
2.5.
Buoyancy .................................................................................................................46
2.5.1.
Buoyancy .........................................................................................................46
2.5.2.
Centre of buoyancy ..........................................................................................46
2.6.
Problems ..................................................................................................................48
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe
1/13/2010
Page 2-1
2.1. Objectives
After completing this chapter students should be able to:
Define the intensity of pressure of a point in a fluid and prove that it acts in all
direction equally.
Write the basic pressure-height relation for a static fluid.
State the equal level-equal pressure concept.
Explain the mode of operation of pressure measurement devices, such as:

pressure tube (piezometer), U-tube manometer, Bourdon gage.
Calculate the difference of pressure in different types of manometers.
Calculate static forces on plane and curved surfaces, including buoyancy

force.
2.2. Pressure
2.2.1. Fluid pressure at a point
Consider an element of area in a fluid
Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.
p=
dF
dA

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The force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area is always

perpendicular to the surface of the area.
If the force is uniformely distributed over the area, the pressure is said to be
uniform.
p=
F
A
Unit: N/m or Pascal (Pa) or atm or bar
1 N/m = 1 Pa
1 atm = 101300 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
2.2.2. Pascal law
Stated by Blaise Pascal.
Pressure at a point in a static fluid is

the same in all directions.
Consider an element of volume in a static fluid.

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Consider one view (from y direction).
Force on each side
Force exerted on the area ABFE (side AE)

Fx = p x dydz
Force exerted on the area CDEF (side DE)

Fz = p z dxdy
Force exerted on the area ABCD (side AD)

Fs = ps dyds = ps dy
dx
cos
Equilibrium of all forces
Equilibrium in x direction
+
Fx = 0
Fx Fs sin = 0
Fx = Fs sin
p x dydz = ps dy
p x dz = ps dx tan
p x dz = ps dx
p x = ps

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dx
sin
cos
dz
dx
Page 2-4
Equilibrium in z direction
Fz = 0
Fz Fs cos = 0
Fz = Fs cos
p z dxdy = ps dy
p z dxdy = ps dydx
p z = ps
dx
cos
cos
Thus,
p x = p z = ps
If now we choose another element of volume with an incline towards y axis,

we will see that
p y = p z = ps
Conclusion
px = p y = pz

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2.2.3. Equation for the variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under

gravity
Consider a cylinder in a static fluid.
Equilibrium of the cylinder in vertical direction
dF2 + dW = dF1 dF2 = dF1 dW
where
dF1 = pdA
dF2 = ( p + dp )dA
dW = element of volume g = gdzdA
( p + dp )dA = pdA gdzdA
dp = gdz
Integrating this equation for points 1 and 2,

p2 p1 =
p2
p1
dp =
z2
z1
gdz
If the density is constant,

p2 p1 = g
z2
z1
dz = g ( z2 z1 )

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o
From this equation, it can be seen that if point 2 is higher than point 1
(or z2 > z1), p2 - p1 will be negative, or p2 is lower than p1.
In any fluid under gravitational

attraction, pressure decreases with
increase of height.
2.2.4. Equal level-equal pressure principle
Consider a horizontal cylinder in a static fluid.
Equilibrium of cylinder in horizontal direction

dF1 = dF2
p1dA = p2dA
p1 = p2
Pressure at two points at the same

level in a fluid will be equal even
though there is no direct horizontal
path between the two points.

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Case different vessels containing the same fluid with same level
Pressure on bottom of different vessels

pa = pb = pc = pd = gh
Case connecting vessel
p1 = p2 = p3 = gh
2.3. Pressure measurements

2.3.1. Type of pressure measurement devices
2.3.1.1. Manometers
Devices used for measuring pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the

column of fluid by the same or another column of fluid.

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Two types of manometers:
Simple manometers: Piezometer, U-tube manometer, single column

manometer
Differential manometers: U-tube differential manometer, inverted U-tube

manometer
2.3.1.2. Mechanical gauges
Devices used for measuring pressure by balancing the fluid column with a
spring or dead weight.
Commonly used mechanical pressure gauges:
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
Dead-weight pressure gauge
Bellow pressure gauge
2.3.2. Piezometer
It consists of a single vertical tube, open at the top, inserted into a pipe or
vessel containing liquid under pressure. If the top of the tube is open to the
atmosphere, the pressure measured is gauge pressure.
Difference of pressure between A and B
pA pB = g ( zA zB ) = g ( h) = gh

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Pressure gauge at A
pA (gauge) = pA patm
patm = pB
pA (gauge) = gh
Absolute pressure at point A
pA = patm + pA (gauge)
pA = patm + gh
2.3.3. U-tube manometer
It is used to measure the pressure (gauge pressure) of liquids or gases.
The U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid of greater density which is

immiscible with the fluid in the pipe or vessel.
Difference of pressure between A and C
pA pC
= ( pA pB1 ) + ( pB1 pC )
= 1g ( zA zB1 ) 2 g ( zB1 zC )
= 1gh1 2 g ( h2 ) = 1gh1 + 2 gh2
Pressure gauge at A
patm = pC
pA (gauge) = 1gh1 + 2 gh2

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Absolute pressure at A
pA = patm 1gh1 + 2 gh2
Example No. 2 - 1
The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the
atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific
gravity 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury
in the right limb. The difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm. The
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. Determine the gauge pressure of fluid in the
pipe.
Solution
Schematic diagram
Specific gravity
S liquid =
liquid
water
0.9 =
1
1000
1
1000
1 = 900 kg/m 3

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S mercury =
13.6 =

mercury
water
2
1000
2
1000
2 = 13600 kg/m 3

p A p C = ( p A p B1 ) + ( p B1 p C )
= 1 g ( z A z B1 ) 2 g ( z B1 z C )
= 1 gh1 + 2 gh2
= 900 9.81 ( 20 12 ) 10 2 + 13600 9.81 20 10 2
= 25976.88 N/m 2
Gauge pressure at A
p A (gauge) = p A p atm
p atm = p C
p A (gauge) = 25976.88 N/m 2
Example No. 2 - 2
Consider the U-tube manometer as shown. Give expression for difference of
pressure between A and B2.

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Solution
Difference of pressure between A and B2

p A p B 2 = ( p A pC ) + ( pC p B 2 )
= 1 g ( z A z C ) 2 g ( z C z B 2 )
= 1 gh1 2 gh2
2.3.4. Single column manometer
It is used to measure the pressure difference between two points of liquids or

gases.
Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which

a reservoir having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as
compared to the area of the tube is connected to one of the limb of the
manometer.
It is intended to be used for small pressure difference.
2.3.4.1. Vertical single column manometer

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Let X - X be the datum line when the manometer is not connected to the
pipe.
Let Y - Y be the datum line when the manometer is connected to the pipe.
When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A,

the liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise the level of
liquid in the right limb.
Difference of pressure between A and the atmosphere at right limb

pA patm
= 1g ( zA zY ) 2 g ( zY zatm )
= 1g (h1 + h) 2 g ( (h2 + h) )
= 1g (h1 + h) + 2 g (h2 + h)
Gauge pressure at A
pA (gauge) = 2 g (h2 + h) 1g (h1 + h)
Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in

pressure, the change in the liquid level in the large reservoir will be very
small which may be neglected.
a
h2
A
A : cross-sectional area of the reservoir
A h = a h2
a
h =
: cross-sectional area of the tube of the right limb
a
h 0
A
pA (gauge) 2 gh2 1gh1
pA = patm + 2 g (h2 + h) 1g (h1 + h)
pA patm + 2 gh2 1gh1

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2.3.4.2. Inclined single column manometer
It has the same principle as vertical single column manometer, but it is

more sensitive.
Due to inclination, the distance moved by the liquid in the limb will be
more.
h2 = L sin
Gauge pressure at A
pA (gauge) = 2 g ( L sin + h) 1g (h1 + h)
pA (gauge) 2 gL sin 1gh1
pA = patm + 2 g ( L sin + h) 1g (h1 + h)
pA patm + 2 gL sin 1gh1
Example No. 2 - 3
A single column manometer using mercury of specific gravity 13.6 is connected
to a pipe containing a liquid of specific gravity 0.9 as shown. The area of the
reservoir of the manometer is 100 times the area of the tube. Determine the
pressure (gauge) of liquid in the pipe.

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Solution
Difference of pressure between A and the atmosphere

p A (gauge) = 1 g ( z A z Y ) 2 g ( z Y z atm )
= 1 g ( h1 + h ) + 2 g ( h2 + h )
1 = S1 water = 0.9 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
2 = S 2 water = 13.6 1000 = 13600 kg/m 3
A h = a h 2
h =
a
h2 = 1 0.4 = 0.004 m
A
100
p A (gauge) = 900 9.81 ( 0.2 + 0.004 ) + 13600 9.81 ( 0.4 + 0.004 )

p A (gauge) = 52098.95 N/m 2 = 52.1 kN/m 2
Notes:
If we neglect the change of level in the reservoir,

p A (gauge) 1 gh1 + 2 gh2
p A (gauge) 900 9.81 0.2 + 13600 9.81 0.4

p A (gauge) 51600.6 N/m 2 = 51.6 kN/m 2

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2.3.5. U-tube differential manometer
It is used to measure the pressure difference between two points of liquids or

gases.
The U-tube is filled with a liquid of greater density than the fluid at the two
points.

pA pB
= ( pA pC1 ) + ( pC1 pD ) + ( pD pB )
= 1g ( zA zC1 ) 3 g ( zC1 zD ) 2 g ( zD zB )
= 1gh1 + 3 gh3 + 2 gh2
Example No. 2 - 4
A differential manometer is connected at 2 points A and B as shown. At B the air
pressure is 9.81 N/cm (abs.). Determine the absolute pressure at A.

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Solution
Density of fluids
S oil =
S Hg =
oil
water
Hg
water
0.9 =
oil
1000
13.6 =
oil = 900 kg/m 3
Hg
1000
Hg = 13600 kg/m 3
p A p B = ( p A p D ) + ( p D p C1 ) + ( p C1 p B )
= oil g ( z A z D ) Hg g ( z D z C1 ) water g ( z C1 z B )
p A = p B oil g ( z A z D ) Hg g ( z D z C 2 ) water g ( z C 2 z B )
= 9.81 10 4 900 9.81 0.2 13600 9.81 0.1 + 1000 9.81 0.6
= 88878.6 N/m 2
2.3.6. Inverted U-tube manometer
It is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids.
The U-tube is filled with a fluid (frequently air), which is less dense than the
liquids to be measured.

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pA pB
= ( pA pC1 ) + ( pC1 pD ) + ( pD pB )
= 1g ( zA zC1 ) 3 g ( zC1 zD ) 2 g ( zD zB )
= 1gh1 3 gh3 2 gh2
Example No. 2 - 5
Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential
manometer having an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is connected. The pressure head
in the pipe A is 2 m of water. Determine the pressure in pipe B.

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Solution
p A p B = water g ( z A z C1 ) oil g ( z C1 z D ) water g ( z D z B )

= 1000 9.81 0.3 ( 0.8 1000 ) 9.81 0.12 1000 9.81 0.1
= 1020.24 N/m 2
Pressure at point A
p A = water gh = 1000 9.81 2 = 19620 N/m 2
Pressure at B
p B = p A 1020.24 = 19620 1020.24 = 18599.76 N/m 2
2.3.7. Multiple-fluid manometer
pA pB
= ( pA p1 ) + ( p1 p2 ) + ( p2 p3 ) + ( p3 pB )
= 1g ( zA z1 ) 2 g ( z1 z2 ) 3 g ( z2 z3 ) 4 g ( z3 zB )

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Example No. 2 - 6
Pressure gage B is to measure at point A in a water flow. It indicates 87 kPa.
Assume all fluids are at 20C, with specific weights: wwater = 9790 N/m, wmercury =
133100 N/m, woil = 8720 N/m. Determine the pressure at A.
Solution
Pressure gauge at A
p A p B = ( p A pC ) + ( pC p D ) + ( p D pB )
= w water ( z A z C ) wmercury ( z C z D ) woil ( z D z B )
= 9790 0.05 133100 ( 0.04 0.11) 8720 ( 0.06 )
= 9350.7 N/m 2
Pressure at A
p A = p B + 9350.7
p A = 87000 + 9350.7
p A = 96350.7 N/m 2 = 96.4 kPa

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Example No. 2 - 7
Calculate the gauge pressure above the water in the tank shown.
Solution
Gauge pressure above the water in the tank
p E p A = ( p E p D ) + ( p D pC ) + ( pC p B ) + ( p B p A )
Pressure difference between points E and D

p E p D = water g ( z E z D )
= 1000 9.81 (1 + 0.5 )
= 14715 N/m 2
Pressure difference between points D and C

p D p C = mercury g ( z D z C )
= 13600 9.81 ( 0.5 )
= 66708 N/m 2
Pressure difference between points C and B

p C p B = water g ( z C z B )
= 1000 9.81 0.75
= 7357.5 N/m 2

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Pressure difference between points B and A

p B p A = mercury g ( z B z A )
= 13600 9.81 ( 2 )
= 266832 N/m 2
Gauge pressure above the water in the tank

p E p A = 14715 + 66708 7357.5 + 266832
= 311467.5 N/m 2
2.3.8. Bourdon gage
The fluid pressure acts on the interior of a curved tube of oval cross section,
tending to straighten it and so causing the free end to move in proportion to
the pressure. This movement is amplified and used to rotate a pointer over a
scale from which the pressure can be read.

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Bourdon gage
Bourdon gage for absolute pressure measurement

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2.4. Static forces on surfaces

2.4.1. Assumptions
No relative motion between adjacent or neighbouring fluid layers.
No velocity gradient.
du
=0
dy
Shear stress
=
du
=0
dy
Forces action on the fluid particles:
due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface.
due to gravity (weight of fluid particles).
2.4.2. Definitions
2.4.2.1. Total pressure
It is the resultant force exerted by a static fluid on a surface when the fluid
comes in contact with the surface.
2.4.2.2. Centre of pressure
It is the point of application of the total pressure (resultant force) on the

surface.

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2.4.3. Forces on plane surfaces

2.4.3.1. Schematic diagram
2.4.3.2. Pressure diagram

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2.4.3.3. Total pressure (resultant force)
Pressure on an element of area dA at the depth h from the free surface
p = gh
Force exerted by the fluid on an element of area dA

dF = pdA = ghdA
h = y sin
dF = gy sin dA
Total pressure (resultant of forces) on the surface area
F = dF = gy sin dA = g sin ydA
ydA = ydA = y (centroid of the surface)

A
dA
ydA = yA
F = g sin yA
y sin = h
F = g hA
2.4.3.4. Centre of pressure
Initial system

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Moment about O due to force dF
dM D = ydF = y gy sin dA = gy 2 sin dA
Total moment about point O
( M D )initial = dM D = gy 2 sin dA = g sin y 2dA
dA = ID (moment of inertia of the surface about O)
( )
ID = I G + A y
(parallel-axis theorem)
I G : moment of inertia of the surface about G (centroid)
( M D )initial = g sin I G + A ( y )
Equivalent system
Moment about point O due to resultant of force F
( M D )equivalent = y* F = y* ghA

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Equivalence of both systems
( M D )initial = ( M D )equivalent
( )
g sin I G + A y = y*ghA
sin I G + A y = y* hA
( )
y sin = h
y* sin = h*
y=
h
sin
y* =
h*
sin
h
h*
sin I G + A
hA
=
sin sin
I sin 2
h* = G
+h
hA
2.4.3.5. Case: Vertical plane surfaces ( = 90)
Total pressure
F = ghA
Centre of pressure
I
h* = G + h
hA

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2.4.3.6. Case: Horizontal plane surfaces ( = 0)
Total pressure
F = ghA
h=h
F = ghA
(weight of liquid above the surface)
Centre of pressure
h* = h = h
Example No. 2 - 8
A rectangular plane surface 2 m wide and 3 m height lies in water in such a way
that its plane makes an angle of 30 with the free surface of water. The upper
edge is 1.5 m below the free water surface. Determine the total pressure on the
plane surface and the centre of pressure.
Solution

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Schematic diagram
Total pressure on the plane surface

F = g hA
h = 1.5 + 1.5sin 30 D = 2.25 m
A = 23 = 6 m2
F = 1000 9.81 2.25 6 = 132435 N
Centre of pressure
I sin 2
h* = G
+h
hA
IG =
h* =
bh3 2 33
=
= 4.5 m 4
12
12
4.5 sin 2 30D

+ 2.25 = 2.33 m
2.25 6

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Similar problem
Gate of a dam with hinge
Example No. 2 - 9
A rectangular plane surface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical plane in
water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure on the
plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal and:
a. coincides with water surface.
b. 2.5 m below the free water surface.
Solution
Case: upper edge of the rectangle coincides with water surface
Schematic diagram
Total pressure

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F = g hA
h=
3
= 1.5 m
2
A = 23 = 6 m2
F = 1000 9.81 6 1.5 = 88290 N
Centre of pressure
I sin 2
I
+h= D
h* = G
hA
Ah
bh3 2 33
=
= 18 m 4
3
3
18
=2m
h* =
6 1.5
ID =
Similar problem

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Case: upper edge of the rectangle is 2.5 m below the free water surface
Schematic diagram
Total pressure
F = g hA
h = 2.5 +
3
=4 m
2
A = 23 = 6 m2
F = 1000 9.81 6 4 = 235440 N
Centre of pressure
I sin 2
I
h* = G
+h= D
hA
Ah
2
ID = I G sin 2 + Ah =
h* =
bh3
sin 2 90D + 6 42 = 100.5 m 4
12
100.5
= 4.1875 m
6 4

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Similar problem
Example No. 2 - 10
A tank contains water up to a height of 0.5 m above the base. A liquid of specific
gravity 0.8 is filled on the top of water up to 1 m height above the water surface.
Determine:
a. the total pressure on one side of the tank which is 2 m wide.
b. the position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank which is 2 m wide.
Solution
Total pressure
Schematic diagram

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Density of liquid
S liquid =
liquid
water
0.8 =
liquid
1000
liquid = 800 kg/m 3
Pressure at the border between liquid and water
p1 = liquid g 1 = 800 9.81 1 = 7848 N/m 2
Pressure at the border between water and bottom of tank
p 2 = p1 + water g 0.5 = 7848 + 1000 9.81 0.5 = 12753 N/m 2
Force due to liquid pressure
F1 = area of triangle 1 width of the tank
p 1
7848 1
F1 = 1 2 =
2 = 7848 N
2
2
Force due to water pressure
Rectangle 21
F21 = area of rectangle 21 width of the tank
F21 = p1 0.5 2 = 7848 0.5 2 = 7848 N
Triangle 22
F22 = area of rectangle 22 width of the tank
F22 =
( p 2 p1 ) 0.5
2
2 =
(12753 7848 ) 0.5

2 = 2452.5 N
2
Total pressure
F = F1 + F21 + F22 = 7848 + 7848 + 2452.5 = 18148.5 N

Centre of pressure
Moment about point O of initial system
( M D ) initial
= h1* F1 + h21* F21 + h22 * F22

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h1* = 2 m
3
h21* = 1 +
0.5
= 1.25 m
2
h22 * = (1 + 0.5)
( M D ) initial
= 2 7848 + 1.25 7848 + 4 2452.5 = 18312 N.m

3
3
Equivalent system
( M D ) equivalent
0.5 4
= m
3
3
= h * F = h * 18148.5
Equivalence of systems
( M D ) initial = ( M D ) equivalent
18312 = h * 18148.5
h* =
18312
= 1.009 m
18148.5
Example No. 2 - 11
Figure below shows a tank full of water. The width of the tank is 2 m. Determine:
a. the total pressure on the bottom of the tank.
b. the weight of water in the tank.
c. the hydrostatic paradox between the previous results.

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Solution
Total pressure on the bottom of the tank
Depth of water to the bottom of the tank

h = 3 + 0.6 = 3.6 m
Area of the bottom of the tank
A = 4 2 = 8 m2
Total pressure (resultant force)
F = ghA = 1000 9.81 3.6 8 = 282528 N

Weight of water in the tank
W = mass of water gravitational acceleration

W = ( volume) g
W = (1000 ( 3 0.4 2 + 0.6 4 2 )) 9.81 = 70632 N

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Hydrostatic paradox between the previous results
From the previous results, it is

observed that the total weight of water
in the tank is much less than the total
pressure at the bottom of the tank. This
is known as Hydrostatic paradox.
2.4.4. Forces on curved surfaces

2.4.4.1. Schematic diagram
2.4.4.2. Total pressure (resultant force)
Pressure on an element of area dA
p = gh
Force exerted by the fluid on an element of area dA (normal to the surface)
dF = pdA = ghdA

1/13/2010
Page 2-39
Projection of dF in horizontal (x) and vertical (y) directions

dFx = dF sin = ghdA sin
dFy = dF cos = ghdA cos
Total force in x and y directions
Fx = dFx = ghdA sin = g hdA sin

Fy = dFy = ghdA cos = g hdA cos
Enlargement of dA
Observation
o
Total horizontal force
Fx = g hdA sin = total pressure force on the projected area

of the curved surface on the vertical plane

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Page 2-40
Fx = gA v hv
Av
: Area of vertical projection of AB
hv
: centre of gravity of vertical projection of AB
Total vertical force
F y = g hdA cos = total weight of liquid supported by the

curved surface
F y = g volume of CDAB
Total pressure (resultant of forces) on the surface area
F=
Fx 2 + F y 2
Example No. 2 - 12
A curved surface AB in the form of a quadrant of a circle of radius 2 m is
submerged in water as shown. The width of the surface is 1 m. Determine the
horizontal and the vertical components of the total force acting on the curved
surface.

1/13/2010
Page 2-41
Solution
Schematic diagram
Fx
= total pressure force on the projected area

Fx = gA v hv
Av = 2 1 = 2 m 2
hv = 1.5 + 2 = 2.5 m
2
Fx = 1000 9.81 2 2.5 = 49050 N
Fy
= total weight of liquid supported by the

curved surface
F y = g volume of CDAB
volume of CDAB = volume of CDAO + volume of OAB
= 1.5 2 1 + 1 2 2 1
4
= 6.1416 m 3
F y = 1000 9.81 6.1416 = 60249 N

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Page 2-42
Example No. 2 - 13
Figure below shows a gate having a quadrant shape of radius 2 m. Determine the
resultant force due to water per meter length of the gate and the angle at which
the total force will act.
Solution
Schematic diagram

Fx
= total pressure force on the projected area

Fx = gA v hv
Av = 2 1 = 2 m 2
hv = 2 = 1 m
2

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Page 2-43
Fx = 1000 9.81 2 1 = 19620 N

Fy
= total weight of liquid supported by the

curved surface
F y = g volume of AOB
volume of AOB = 1 2 2 1 = 3.1416 m 3
4
F y = 1000 9.81 3.1416 = 30819 N
Total force
F=
Fx 2 + F y 2 =
F = 36534.3 N
(19620 ) 2 + ( 30819 ) 2
Angle of the total force

tan =
Fy
Fx
30819
= 1.5708
19620

1/13/2010
= 57.52 D
(with horizontal)
Page 2-44
2.4.4.3. Geometric properties of some basic plane surfaces

Plane surfaces
Area
A = r 2
( IG ) x =
r 4
4
A = bh
( IG ) x =
bh3
12
A=

1/13/2010
Moment of inertia
bh
2
bh3
( IG ) x =
36
Page 2-45
2.5. Buoyancy
2.5.1. Buoyancy
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on

the body.
This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and
is called force of buoyancy or simply buoyancy.
Principle of Archimedes1:
The upthrust on a body immersed in a

fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced.
2.5.2. Centre of buoyancy
It is a point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the centre of gravity
of the fluid displaced.
Archimedes
born c. 290 - 280 BC, , Sicily [now in Italy]

died 212/211 BC, Syracuse
the most famous mathematician and inventor of ancient Greece.
Archimedes is especially important for his discovery of the relation between
the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cyclinder. He is
known for his formulation of a hydrostatic principle (known as Archimedes'
principle) and a device for raising water, still used in developing countries,
known as the Archimedes screw.
Except for a brief period early in his career in Alexandria, Egypt, Archimedes
spent most of his life in the Greek city-state of Syracuse. War machines of
his construction greatly delayed the capture of the city by Roman forces in
212 or 211 BC, at which time Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier.
Source: Encyclopdia Britannica

1/13/2010
Page 2-46
Example No. 2 - 14
A wooden block of 2.5 m wide, 6 m length and 1.5 m height floats horizontally in
water. The density of the block is 650 kg/m. Determine the volume of the water
displaced and the position of centre of buoyancy.
Solution
Schematic diagram
Weight of the block

W = mass of the block gravitational acceleration
W = ( block volume of the block) g
W = ( 650 ( 2.5 1.5 6 )) 9.81 = 143471 N
Volume of water producing the same weight

W = mass of the water displaced gravitational acceleration
W = ( water volume of the water displaced) g
143471 = (1000 ( 2.5 h 6 )) 9.81
h=
143471
= 0.975 m
1000 2.5 6 9.81
Centre of buoyancy
h=
0.975
= 0.4875 m
2

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Page 2-47
2.6. Problems
2-1.
Water and SAE30 oil flow in two pipelines as shown. Using the double Utube manometer as connected between the pipelines, find the pressure
difference pA - pB.
2-2.
Find the pressure of the air above the water in the tank as shown.
2-3.
Water and oil flow in horizontal pipelines. A double U-tube manometer is

connected between the pipes as shown. Calculate the pressure difference
between the water pipe and the oil pipe. Take specific weight of water
9800 N/m, specific gravity of mercury 1.6, specific gravity of oil = 0.9 and
specific gravity of air 0.

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Page 2-48
2-4.
In figure below all fluids are at 20C. Determine the pressure difference
between points A and B.
Properties of fluids at 1 atm and 20C:

Fluid
Mass density Specific weight

w, N/m
, kg/m
Benzene
881
Mercury
13550
Kerosene
804
Water
9790
Air
11.8

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Page 2-49
2-5.
The U-tube mercury manometer which is shown below is used to measure

the pressure of the liquid at A. If the liquid has a density of 995 kg/m,
determine the pressure at A.
2-6.
Determine the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
2-7.
For the manometer arrangement shown, find the specific gravity of

unknown fluid.

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Page 2-50
2-8.
At a hill station, the barometer reading is 600 mm of mercury. What would

be the absolute pressure of steam in the boiler in kPa, in mm of mercury,
and in m of water, when the pressure gauge reads 981 kPa? Assume
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
2-9.
Determine the absolute pressure pA of the gas above the oil in the figure
shown.
Given:
Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6
Density of water = 1000 kg/m
Specific gravity of oil 0.86
Atmospheric pressure = 101 kPa
2-10. Figure below shows a manometer arrangement. The pressure at A is 175

kPa. All fluids are at 20C. Determine the air pressure in the closed
chamber B in kPa. Assume density of water = 1000 kg/m, specific gravity
of oil = 1.042 and specific gravity of mercury 13.6.

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Page 2-51
2-11. Figure below shows a differential manometer. Fluid A is water and fluid B
is oil of specific gravity 0.9. If the difference in levels h and z are 69 cm and
23 cm respectively, determine the pressure difference in kN/m between M
and N.
2-12. A differential manometer is used to measure the pressure difference in two

different pipelines as shown. Calculate the pressure difference in the two
pipelines.
2-13. Figure below shows a tank of oil with one side open to the atmosphere
and the other side sealed with air above the oil. Specific gravity of oil is
0.90. Calculate the gauge pressure at point A, B, C, D, E, and F.

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Page 2-52
2-14. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of the water flowing
in the pipe as shown. Determine the pressure of the water pipe. Specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6.
2-15. Find the pressure in the water pipe shown. Specific gravity for different
manometric fluids are denoted as S1 = 1.59, S2 = 0.8 and SHg = 13.6.

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2-16. For the open tank, with piezometers attached on the side, containing two
different immiscible liquids as shown, find:
a) the elevation of the liquid surface in piezometer A.
b) the elevation of the liquid surface in piezometer B.
c) the total pressure at the bottom of the tank.
2-17. For a gauge pressure at A of -10.84 kPa (gauge), find the specific gravity
of the liquid B as shown. You may neglect the density of air.
2-18. Show that the intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same
in all direction.
2-19. In figure below, if the local atmospheric pressure is 755 mm of mercury
(specific gravity = 13.6), calculate:
a) the absolute pressure of air in the tank.
b) the pressure gauge reading at L.

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2-20. In following figure, fluid A is oil (specific gravity = 0.85) and fluid B is
mercury. If a = 1 m, b = 30 cm and the pressure difference between M and
N is 35 kN/m, what is the level h?
2-21. A U-tube mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure of the fluid
at X. If the fluid (oil) has a density of 850 kg/m and the specific gravity of
mercury is 13.6, determine the pressure at X.

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Page 2-55
2-22. The closed tank in the following figure containes oil of specific gravity 0.75.
Determine the reading of gage at A in Pa, if the specific gravity of fluid in
manometer is 13.57.
2-23. A mass of 50 kg acts on a piston of area 100 cm. What is the intensity of
pressure on the fluid in contact with the underside of the piston, if the
piston is in equilibrium?
2-24. A closed vessel is divided into two compartments; the left part contains oil
of specific gravity 0.8 up to 4 m and the right part contains water up to 1 m.
The two compartments are connected by a U-tube manometer filled with a
liquid of specific gravity 1.6. The pressure of air above the oil in the left
compartment is 35 kPa below atmospheric pressure (vacuum), and the
pressure of air above the water in the right compartment is 15 kPa above
atmospheric pressure (gauge). Determine the difference of liquid level in
the manometer (h).
2-25. Calculate the pressure difference between A and B in the manometer

shown.

1/13/2010
Page 2-56
2-26. A U-tube manometer, as shown has one limb 30 mm in diameter and the
other limb 5 mm in diameter. The density of the manometric fluid is =
780 kg/m3. The large limb is open to the atmosphere and the narrow limb
is connected to an air duct. Calculate the pressure in the air duct (pd) if the
manometer fluid in the narrow limb rises by 20 mm. What is the
percentage of error if the movement of the fluid in the large limb is
neglected?
Air duct,
pd
Atmosphere
5 mm diameter
30 mm diameter
20 mm
A
A
A
h
= 780 kg/m3
2-27. What do we mean by the "center of pressure" in hydrostatics?

2-28. A water storage tank measuring 6 m in length, 2 m in height and 2.5 m
width has an inlet pipe on the top. This tank is designed so that it remains
full all the time.
a) Calculate the magnitude and the position of the pressure force reacting
on the floor.
b) Calculate the magnitude and the position of the pressure force reacting
on the lateral sides of the tank (abcd).

1/13/2010
Page 2-57
2-29. A vertical dock gate is 5 m wide and has water at a depth of 8 m on one
side and to a depth of 3.5 m on the other side. Find the resultant horizontal
force on the dock gate and the position of its line of action.
2-30. An opening in a dam (2 m wide and 1.2 m high) is used as a vertical sluice
gate. On the upstream of the gate, a liquid (sp. gr. = 1.45) lies up to a
height of 1.5 m above the top of the gate, whereas on the downstream
side, water is available up to a height touching the top of the gate.
Determine:
a) the resultant force acting on the gate and the center of pressure.
b) the horizontal force at the top of the gate, which is required to open it.
Assume the gate is hinged at the bottom.
2-31. Determine resultant force and its point of application due to the water on
both sides of the gate shown. The gate is 1.2 m wide and the centroid of
the gate is 1 m from the bottom.

1/13/2010
Page 2-58
Water free surface

Water free surface
3m
G
1m
2m
2-32. As water rises on the left side of the rectangular gate, the gate will open
automatically. At what depth above the hinge will this occur? Neglect the
mass of the gate.
2-33. If the gate shown is circular, determine the moment of the hydrostatic force
about the hinge pin.
2-34. The gate shown is hinged at H. The gate is 2 m wide normal to the plane
of the diagram. Calculate the force required at A to hold the gate closed.

1/13/2010
Page 2-59
2-35. A rectangular sluice gate, 1.2 m wide by 2.0 m long, with its upper edge at
a depth of 1.5 m below the water surface, opens by sliding on guides. The
gate and guides are inclined at 45 to the vertical. If the coefficient of
friction between the gate and its guides is 0.15, what force parallel to the
guides is required to open the gate?
2-36. The 2 m-wide gate shown is hinged at point B and rests against a smooth
wall at point A. Determine:
a) the force on the gate due to sea water pressure.
b) the horizontal force exerted by the wall at point A.
c) the reaction at hinge B.

1/13/2010
Page 2-60
2-37. The gate shown is 60 cm wide and is pivoted at O. The gate weighs 2224
N (i.e. W = 2224 N) and is acting at a distance of 36 cm from the pivot O.
For what range of values of water depth x above O will the gate remain
closed? Neglect the friction at the pivot.
2-38. A rectangular gate 3 m wide and 5 m height is hinged at the bottom of a

dam as shown. For analysis the gate can be considered massless. For
what depth of water will this rectangular gate be in equilibrium as shown?

1/13/2010
Page 2-61
2-39. Determine the resultant force (total pressure) and its location (centre of
pressure) due to the water acting on:
a) 2 m-height and 1 m-wide rectangular gate AB.
b) 2 m-height and 1.25-wide triangular gate CD.
2-40. A circular opening in the sloping wall of a reservoir is closed by a disc

valve 0.3 m diameter. The disc is hinged at O and balance weight W is just
sufficient to hold the the valve closed when it is empty. Find the weight
required on the arm 3 m from the hinge in order that the valve shall remain
closed till the water level 0.4 m above the center of gravity of the valve.

1/13/2010
Page 2-62
2-41. A sluice gate 3 m wide consists of a quadrant of a circle of radius 1.5 m

pivoted at its centre O as shown. G is its centre of gravity. When the water
is level with the pivot O, calculate:
a) the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the gate due to
water.
b) the turning moment required to open the gate. The gate has a mass of
6000 kg.
2-42. A quarter cylindrical gate AB, radius 2 m and 3 m long, is fitted to the
water tank as shown. The gate is hinged at B and held closed by a force P
at A. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the gate
and the force P required to keep it closed. Neglect the weight of the gate.

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Page 2-63
5m
O
2m
B
2-43. A 90 sector gate of 5 m radius is subjected to water pressure as shown.

Find the magnitude and direction of resultant force acting on the gate.
2-44. A cylindrical gate is 3 m long and has water on its both sides as shown.
Determine the magnitude, location and direction of the resultant force
exerted on the gate. Also calculate the minimum weight of the gate so that
it will not float away from the floor.
2-45. Figure below shows the cross-section of a dam with parabolic face. The
vertex of the parabola is at O. The axis of the parabola is vertical and 12.5
m from the face at the water level. Determine the resultant force in newton
per horizontal meter run due to the water, its inclination to the vertical, and
how far from O its line of action cuts the horizontal OP. The centroid of the
half parabolic cross section of water is 4.68 m from the vertical through O.

1/13/2010
Page 2-64
2-46. If a steel pipeline conveying gas having an internal diameter of 1.2 m and
an external diameter of 1.3 m, is laid completely immersed across the bed
of a river and is anchored at intervals 3 m along its length, calculate the
buoyancy force in newtons per meter run and the upward force in newtons
on each anchorage. Take density of steel as 7900 kg/m.
2-47. A cube (0.5 m 0.5 m 0.5 m) is made of bronze having specific weight
of 86.9 kN/m. Determine the buoyancy force when the cube is held in
mercury (specific gravity = 13.6). Also determine the magnitude and
direction of force required to hold the cube completely submerged.
2-48. A cube (80 mm 80 mm 80mm) is made of rigid foam material and float
in the water with 60 mm below the surface. Calculate the magnitude and
the direction of the force required to hold it completely submerged in
glycerin, which has a specific gravity of 1.26.
2-49. A wooden block of specific gravity 0.7 having a size of 2 m wide, 0.5 m
length and 0.25 height is floating horizontally in water. A concrete of
specific weight 25 kN/m is placed on the block. Determine the minimum
volume of the concrete which will immerse the block completely in water.
2-50. A steel cube having sides of 15 cm is to be held in equilibrium under water
by attaching a plastic buoy to it. If the density of the steel is 8009 kg/m
and the density of the plastic is 80.09 kg/m, calculate the volume of
plastic required.
2-51. A cube of steel having sides of 300 mm floats in mercury. If the specific
gravity of steel is 8.0 and the specific gravity of the mercury is 13.6,
determine the submerged depth of the cube.

1/13/2010
Page 2-65

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MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Write the basic pressure-height relation for a static fluid.

State the equal level-equal pressure concept.

Explain the mode of operation of pressure measurement devices, such as:

Calculate the difference of pressure in different types of manometers.

Calculate static forces on plane and curved surfaces, including buoyancy

Consider an element of area in a fluid

Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

The force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area is always

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Unit: N/m or Pascal (Pa) or atm or bar

2.2.2. Pascal law

Stated by Blaise Pascal.

Pressure at a point in a static fluid is

Consider an element of volume in a static fluid.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Consider one view (from y direction).

Force on each side

Force exerted on the area ABFE (side AE)

Force exerted on the area CDEF (side DE)

Force exerted on the area ABCD (side AD)

Equilibrium of all forces

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

If now we choose another element of volume with an incline towards y axis,

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

2.2.3. Equation for the variation of pressure vertically in a fluid under

Consider a cylinder in a static fluid.

Equilibrium of the cylinder in vertical direction

dF2 + dW = dF1 dF2 = dF1 dW

( p + dp )dA = pdA gdzdA

Integrating this equation for points 1 and 2,

If the density is constant,

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

In any fluid under gravitational

Consider a horizontal cylinder in a static fluid.

Equilibrium of cylinder in horizontal direction

Pressure at two points at the same

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Pressure on bottom of different vessels

Case connecting vessel

2.3. Pressure measurements

Devices used for measuring pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wirachman Wisnoe

MEC441 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Two types of manometers:

Simple manometers: Piezometer, U-tube manometer, single column

Differential manometers: U-tube differential manometer, inverted U-tube