Professional Documents
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Calendering
INTRODUCTION
The calendering process is used to produce plastic films and sheets. It
melts the plastic then passes the pastelike melt through the nips of two or
more precision-heated, counterrotating, speed-controlled rolls into webs
of specific thickness and width, as shown in Figs 5.1 and 5.2. The parallel
rolls have extremely flat surfaces and rotate at the same speed or at
slightly different speeds. The web may be polished or embossed (depending on roll surface), rigid or flexible (a range of material properties are
used). Although plastic forming occurs in the calender itself, downstream
equipment is needed to produce the TP film or sheet. Upstream of the
calender, a mixer blends the raw material, usually in powdered form, with
the desired additives, such as plasticizers or fillers (Chapter 1). After
plasticizing, the pastelike melt passes through the multiple-roll mill.
Heavy-gauge products, 0.02 in. (0.6mm) off the rolls, are drawn down
or stretched at takeoff as little as consistent with good stripping from the
final calender roll. Lighter-gauge film, 0.007 in. (0.18mm) off the calender,
is typically drawn down at a ratio of 1.2:1 and wound up at a thickness of
0.006 in. (0.15mm).
Calenders may consist of between two and seven rolls, possibly more.
They are characterized by the number of rolls and their arrangement: I, Z,
or inverted L. Most popular are the four-roll inverted-L calender and the
Z calender. Z calenders have the advantages of lower heat loss in the sheet
(because of shorter travel) and a simpler construction. They are simpler to
construct because they need less compensation for roll bending; this is
because there are no more than two rolls in any vertical line (as opposed
to three in a four-roll inverted-L calender).
Other variations in these massive, multimillion-dollar calender lines are
dictated by the very high forces exerted on the rolls to squeeze the plastic
melt into a thin web. High forces can bend the rolls, producing a web
Blenders
Feed system
Power feeder
Kneader
Conveyor
Calender
Stripper
Embossing rolls Winder
Cooling rolls
Mill
Extruder
Banbury
mixer
Mill
Metal
detector,
Edge
trimmer
Stripper or
takeoff roll
Windup
Thickness
Inclined Z
Cooling drums
gauge
calender
Feed
Feed
Feed
Feed
Fabric
Fabric
Fabric
Feed
Figure 5.2 Arrangements of parallel rolls for calender coating: (a) one-sided coating with vertical three-roll; (b) one-sided coating with inverted-L four-roll; (c)
double-sided coating with inverted-L four-roll; (d) double-sided coating with two
three-rolls; (e) one-sided coating with Z-configuration four-roll; (f) one-sided
coating with S-configuration four-roll; and (g) one-sided coating with modified-S
four-roll.
MATERIALS
A wide variety of plastics can be used; about 80 wt% is PVC but others are
ABS, PE, PP, and styrenes. When calendering other plastics, there is a
trade-off in economy and quality. The basic plastic limitation of the
calendering process is the need to have a sufficiently broad melt index to
allow a heat range for the process. This permits the material to have a
relatively high viscosity in the banks of the calender (banks indicating
where two rolls meet, or the nip of the rolls). As a result of the viscosity,
a shear effect can be developed throughout the process, especially between the calender rolls. Thus, the calender forms the web as a continuous
'extrusion' between the rolls. Unlike the process in an extruder (Chapter
3) or an injection molder (Chapter 2), the plastic mass cannot be confined
when being calendered. Because of the lack of confinement, the shear
effect and a broad melt band are essential aspects of calendering.
The blending or compounding of the plastic with different additives
and fillers is a critical part of the process. The blending must produce a
uniformly colored and stabilized product, in powder form. After blending, the rate of consumption dictates the temperature of the melt. Because
the plastic is processed between the process heat and its critical heat of
degradation, the time at heat becomes extremely critical and an important
part of the process. For example, the processor will minimize the amount
of melt in the bank (nip) of the rolls. The residence time of the plastic flux
at high heat must be limited. PVC is especially heat sensitive.
The plastic mix fed to the calender may be a simple hot melt, as with PE.
For PVC it is obtained by premixing the plastic, stabilizers, plasticizers,
etc., in ribbon blenders, then passing the blend to a Banbury mixer where
the mass is gelled for about 5-10min at 120-16O0C (248-32O0F). The
gelated lumps are made into a rough web on a two-roll mill and the web
is fed to the calender. If fabric, paper, or other material is fed through the
rolls, plastic can be pressed into the surface of the web; then the calender
becomes a coating machine (Fig. 5.2).
Ingredients for PVC film can include solid and liquid raw materials.
Solids are weighed in batches and dropped into a high-speed mixer.
Liquids are metered into the mixer by piston pumps or other volumetric
metering devices. A batch mixing system is generally inline with a continuous fluxing system, starting at the holding bin. Some operations do
not use batch mixers for blending. Continuous metering systems, using
loss-in-weight feeders and pumps, meter directly into the fluxing machine, a continuous mixer.
Films
The PVC film industry distinguishes between two calender types and roll
arrangements that are rigid and flexible PVC. Rigid PVC manufacturers
prefer the L configuration with four to seven rolls being fed from the floor
level. Since there are no disturbing vapors from lower calender rolls
within the pickoff area, i.e., condensation on rolls and film, it is preferable
to have the pickoff rolls on an elevated level.
Flexible PVC is commonly fabricated using a four-roll inverted-L
calender or an F calender. These systems enable the plasticizer-saturated
vapors to escape via the suction hood above the calender, where they are
filtered before being released into the atmosphere.
A universal five-roll L calender is used for rigid and flexible PVC film.
It provides heat stability and superior film control for good surface appearance. The major difference between this universal calender and the
other calenders is in mounting and placement of the first roll. Although
the first roll is generally mounted horizontally beside the second roll, the
latest design still has the first roll mounted horizontally but now it is next
to the third roll, resembling a four-roll L calender. The second roll remains
in action underneath the third roll, so four gaps are still available. Roll/
film wrap length, however, is reduced so dwell time is 40% less, decreasing PVC heat loss and shrinkage.
Modern designs for rigid or flexible PVC lines currently show few
significant differences. Both consist of the same roll groups, but arranged
at different elevation levels. The pickoff section has up to 15 rolls, each
with an OD of 6 in. (15cm), driven and temperature controlled in sections.
This roll arrangement drops film vertically into an embosser with three
rolls (the embossing roll itself, a cooled rubber roll, and a contact cooling
roll to the rubber roll). For tempering and cooling the film, another set of
up to 19 roll is arranged following the embosser; they have diameters of
6-10 in. (15-25 cm). These rolls are driven and temperature controlled
in sections of between two and five rolls. Temperature accuracy can
be controlled within 2 0F (1C). A beta-gauge controls film or sheet
thickness.
Recycled
Handling scrap and cold trim from the product line can pose a very
difficult problem. The scrap and trim could represent 10-40 wt% of the
mix with virgin material. The actual amount depends on the width of the
calender in relation to the sheet width. The flux rate and energy required
to remelt the scrap are considerably less than required to flux the virgin
plastic. With this differential, there is the potential danger of material
decomposition whenever scrap is processed. But optimum uniformity
and product standardization require a blend of new and old material.
Reprocessed material is best added to the blender when a standard can
be established, although some plants feed it directly to the fluxing equipment. Careful control of the scrap percentage in the total mix is essential
Contamination
Vital to this process is the removal of any metal, including microscopic
metallic particles that usually occur in granulated scrap. These contaminants would destroy the very expensive precision surfaces of the calender
rolls. Damage would also occur to the downstream cooling rolls. All kinds
of precautions are taken to remove any contaminants, starting with the
incoming raw materials, the fillers, and the additives. Materials are passed
through an extensive battery of screens and metal detectors.
The compound is usually fed through an extruder with multiple
screens. Metal detectors tend to be used along the flow line of the plastic
on its way from the compounder to the first nip rolls. Detectors are
included under the belt that conveys the final melt, perhaps in a ropelike
form of diameter 2-4in. (5-10 cm).
1
2
3
4
347
352
353
363
Light-gauge product
Roll speed
Roll temp.
ftmin'1
mmin1
175
178
181
184
125
128
138
148
38
39
42
45
338
343
349
354
170
173
176
179
Roll speed
ftmin'1
263
269
279
289
mmin1
80
82
85
88
Design aspects
Design improvements in calenders have advanced the art of calendering.
A preloading device eliminates the main bearing clearance (play) of the
penultimate calender roll. A four-roll L calender also eliminates the third
roll. Another aid is an air knife to firmly hold down the film on the first
section of pickoff rolls and to minimize neck-in, shrinkage and plate-out.
Neck-in is the difference between the width of the hot web as it leaves the
hot rolls and the width of the cooler web downstream. This 'shrinkage'
dimension is used as a guide to ensure the processing conditions are
correct. Plate-out is an objectionable coating gradually formed on
calendering rolls during processing. It is caused by the extraction and
deposition of certain components in the compound such as pigments,
lubricants, plasticizers, and stabilizers; it requires immediate cleanup.
Another improvement, the compact universal embosser, is used for
horizontal or vertical film drop, embossing on the top or bottom side.
The air knife was developed to meet rising quality demands and increased production speeds. At high speeds, more air is drawn between the
film and the pickoff roll, preventing the film from making contact with
the roll. Since pickoff roll to temperatures are lower than calender roll
temperatures, liquids in the compound tend to condense and transfer
from the roll to the film, causing surface deficiencies. The air knife ensures
contact between the film and the pickoff roll. Air blown over the film
creates pressure, preventing air entrapment between the film and the
pickoff roll.
Surface finishing
Calenders provide styling or finishing on films and sheets. PVC surface
calendered goods require depths of matt or provide an even roughness,
which can be measured with a device such as a profilometer. Different
markets use different terms to describe their finishes, e.g., satin, Sheffield,
and light matt. A one-sided matt finish may be applied with an embossing
roll. A sharper, deeper, and more precise matt finish can be applied to film
or sheet on the calender. To make two-sided matt products, such as the big
market for two-sided credit card stock, the last two calender rolls are matt.
Only the last calender roll is matt for one-sided matt goods meeting
critical specifications, such as special print film and one-sided credit card
stock. To produce these products, the last two calender rolls are sandblasted with aluminum oxide grit of controlled particle size, such as
120-180 mesh. The heavier matts, coarser grit, and more passes of the
sandblasting action on the rolls are required. Proper selection of metal for
the calender rolls is also necessary. Chilled cast-iron rolls take a sharp
matt, which wears off slowly.
Coating
One special and important application of the calender is the coating of
paper, woven and nonwoven textiles, plastic film and sheet (Fig. 5.2). A
calender with three rolls is usually sufficient for one-sided coating, but
four rolls are used for extremely thin coatings. Double-sided coating can
be applied simultaneously on both sides of a fabric, using a four-roll
calender, or sequentially by two three-roll calenders.
Roll configurations are shown in Fig. 5.2. The most popular configuration is the inverted L. However, these and other configurations are used to
meet different product requirements.
So-called frictional calender coating takes a material such as an
elastomer and forces it into the interstices of the woven or cord fabrics
while passing through the rolls of the calender.
CONTROLS
Many control features in calenders provide versatility, better quality, and
higher operating rates. Complete control of friction ratios gives good
tracking of stock via individual drives on all calender rolls. Close tolerances on film profiles are obtained from axis crossing, roll straightening,
Table 5.2 Examples for producing PVC film and sheet by different manufacturing methods
Calender
Extrudercalender
155
lowest
1-6
800-8000
0.002-0.050
3 (1-5)
6
2-5 min
seconds
yes
5-30 min
80 (150)
Blown
film
Flex-lip
extruder
2
low
1-2.5
500-1500
0.002-0.005
3 (1-5)
5
10 min
seconds
yes
10-40 min
60 (80)
90
higher
0.3-0.6
600 (4V2 in.)
0.001-0.003
10
3
2h
5-30 min
no
30-60 min
15 (20)
40
higher
0.3-0.6
750 (4 V2 in.)
0.001-0.125
10
3
5h
5-30 min
no
30-60 min
15 (30)
High capital
cost, heat
time
Lower rate,
versatility
problem
Versatility,
high rate,
accuracy,
ease and,
adjustment
ease at
reprocess
Accuracy,
gauge
adjust,
reduced cost
Low investment,
multiplant capability,
thin gauge (0.003 in.
and under) and heavy
gauge (0.050-0.125 in.)
Plastisol
cast
Melt roll
60
higest
0.3-0.7
750
0.001-0.012
7
V2
10 min
seconds
no
15 min
20 (40)
5
low
0.3-1.3
100-1000
0.0015-0.020
5 (2-10)
3
2-5 min
lmin
no
30-60 min
20 (30)
Fumes,
inefficiency,
high energy
cost, resin
cost, release
paper cost
Grain retention
(pattern cast in),
soft hand and
drape
Reduced rate
and range,
soft materials
only slow
manual
gauge change
Good on wall
covering, thin
material,
coated fabric,
accuracy,
reduced
investment
amount to $450-550 per hour. Taking PVC as an example, these lines have
a throughput of 90-6000 Ib rT1 (400-270ORgIT1); the average range of
componding costs for calendering PVC is about $1.08-2.47 per pound
($0.49-1.12 per kilogram).
Not including material costs, the expense of operating a large calender
line may be $350-560 per hour, depending on the degree of automation,
investment, labor, power costs, and overheads. For PVC sheet 7.1ft
(2.13m) wide and 0.02in. (0.51mm) thick traveling at 91ftmin 4
(27.4 mmin"1) and wound up at a rate of about 1076IbIT1 (489 kg h"1), the
conversion cost is about $0.46 per pound ($0.21 per kilogram). These costs
are based on PVC resin at $1.70 per pound ($0.77 per kilogram) and
plasticizer at $2.42 per pound ($1.10 per kilogram). Table 5.2 provides a
general manufacturing comparison of calendering with combination
extruder/calender, extrusion blown film, extruder with flexible-lip die,
plastisol-cast, and melt roll.
Calendering costs that will affect product costs include (1) bank marks
and shiny patches on the surface; (2) cold marks (crow's feet) caused by
the stock being too cold; (3) blistering due to high temperature or a large
bank of rolls; thicker sheets are more vulnerable to blistering; (4) pinholes
caused by foreign matter or by the presence of unplasticized plastic particles; and (5) watermarking usually due to lubrication contamination.
To reduce the cost of products, aim to calender under conditions that
yield the highest windup speed consistent with good quality. However,
there are numerous factors which limit calender speed. At a given speed,
more frictional heat is generated by the more highly filled and rigid
stocks, and by reducing web thickness. Excessive speed produces degradation or sticking of many products on which the stock temperature is
limited. Optimal speeds of the final calender roll for double-polished,
clear melt viscosities at a given temperature degrade at about the same
maximum temperatures as the rigid stocks. Air occlusion limits the speed
for some heavy-gauge products, whereas the matt quality or microroughness of the film, or melt fracture in the last calender nip, limits the
speed on others.
Bank marks are minimized by optimizing formulations, calendering
speeds, and roll temperatures so as to obtain the most orderly behavior of
the rolling banks of stock at the calender-nip entrances. Proper use of
drawdown permits windups to be run substantially faster than the final
calender roll on many thin, unsupported film products. Calenders and
takeoffs are run almost synchronously on heavy-gauge products.
Films and sheets with a high gloss taken off a highly polished final
calender roll tend to stick to the roll more than their matt counterparts.
Very soft webs also tend to stick to the final calender roll. The fastest
calender speeds are generally obtained using medium stiffness, moderately filled, matt products in a median thickness range.
The amount of edge cutting influences costs. Edge cuts in excess of 3 in.
(76 mm) are normal to avoid undesirable edge effects. On critical products
it is realized that close control of the rework ratio is necessary for uniformity of output. Excess rework from critical products is used in those whose
specifications permit this practice [9].
TROUBLESHOOTING
Earlier sections of this chapter cover an extensive range of calendering
problems and their remedies; collectively they should provide an adequate troubleshooting guide.