European Draft Recommendation For Racking

Commission of the European Communities
technical steel research
Properties and service performance
European draft recommendations for

pallet rack, drive-in an drive-through
rack design
Commission of the European Communities
technical steel research
Properties and service performance
European draft recommendations for

pallet rack, drive-in an drive-through
rack design
C. J. TILBURGS
TNO
P.O. Box 49
N L - 2 6 0 0 AA DELFT
Contract No 6210.SA/6/602
( 1 . 7 . 1 9 7 4 - 30.6.1978)
FINAL REPORT
Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development
1983
EUR 7612
EN
Published by the
C O M M I S S I O N OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Information Market and Innovation
Btiment Jean Monnet
LUXEMBOURG
LEGAL
NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting
on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of
the following information
ECSC-EEC-EAEC,
Brussels Luxembourg
RESUME
Parmi tous les types de casiers que l'on trouve sur le march, le
programme de recherches ne couvre que les casiers palettes ainsi
que les casiers stockage dynamique. Les structures des casiers
diffrent des constructions en acier du btiment tant par les
charges appliques, que par les types de profils (forms froid,
perfors), les types de connexions (crochets) de mme que par le
fait qu'elles sont le plus souvent non-contreventes.
L'objectif final du programme de recherches consistait en l'tablissement
d'un projet de conception et de recommandations de calcul pour les
types de casiers mentionns ci-dessus. Pour atteindre cet objectif,
il fallait avant tot se rendre compte du comportement, en assemblage,
des membres spcifiques des casiers.
Les recherches tout donc port sur le comportement de poteaux perfors
sous pression et flexion et sur l'influence des paramtres intervenant
dans le comportement des connexions lisse-poteau et sol-poteau. Il
en est rsult une proposition de procd standard d'essai pour
dterminer les valuers conceptuelles de la rsistance et de la rigidit.
Une mthode simplifie a t drive de cette proposition pour
calculer les casiers palettes non-contrevents.
Les propositions conceptuelles pour les casiers pallettes ont t
vrifies par cinq essais pratiques.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Die Untersuchung beschrnkte sich auf Palettenregale, Einfahr- und

Durchfahrregale. Die Regalkonstruktionen unterscheiden sich
von normalen Stahlkonstruktionen in der Art und Grsse der
aufzunehmende Lasten, der Art der verwendeten Profile '(kalt
profiliert, gelocht), der Art der tragenden Verbindungen
(Einhngeverbindungen wegen der Verstellbarkeit) und durch
die meist nicht durch Diagonalen ausgesteiften Rahmentragwerke.
Das Ziel der Untersuchung war die Erstellung einen Empfehlung
fr eine Richtlinie zur Berechnung und konstruktiven Gestaltung
fr die oben genannten Regaltypen. Aus diesem Grunde war es
erforderlich einen berblick ber das Verhalten der verwendeten
Bauteile dieser Regale zu erhalten.
Es wurden deshalb Untersuchungen an gelochter Profilen under
Druck- und Biegebeanspruchung durchgefhrt . Ausserdem wurden unter
Bercksichtigung der verschiedenen Einflussgrssen die BalkenSttzenverbindungen und Boden-Sttzenverbindungen erforscht.
Das Ergebnis ist der Vorschlag fr festgelegde Versuchsmethoden zur
Ermittlung von Ausgangswerte fr die Bemessung (Steifigkeitund Starke-eigenheiten).
Es wurde auch eine vereinfachte Berechnungsmethode fr Regale
ohne Lnagsverbnde entwickelt.
Die vorgeschlagenen Bemessungsregeln fr Palettenregale wurden
durch fnf Versuche an Regalen in natrlicher Grosse
berprft.
SUMMARY
Of all the racking types on the market, the research program was
restricted to pallet racks, drive-in and drive-through racks.
Racking structures differ from steel building structures by the
applied loads, section types (cold-formed, perforated) and
moment-resisting connection types (hooked connections).
The final aim of the research program was a draft design and
calculation recommendation for the above mentioned racking types.
For this purpose it was necessary to get an insight into the
constructional behaviour Of the specific relevant rack members.
Research has been undertaken on the behaviour of perforated
uprights in compression and bending and on the influence of the
relevant parameters with regard to beam-upright and floor-upright
connection behaviour. This has resulted in a proposal for standard
testing procedures to determinate design values with regard to
strength and stiffness of component members.
Also a simplified calculation method has been derived for unbraced
pallet racks.
The design proposals concerning pallet racks have been checked on
five full scale tests.
- I -
SYNOPSIS
This report presents European draft recommendations for pallet
rack, drive-in and drive-through rack design.
This research programme was promoted by the "Groep Stelling
fabrikanten" (GSF) and the study group SG-TC-24 of the Staalbouwkundig Genootschap.
The programme was sponsered by:
- European Community of Steel and Coal
- Staalfcouwkundig Genootschap
- Verband fr Lagertechnik und Betreibseinrichtungen
- Groep Stelling Fabrikanten
- The Dutch Government
The investigations have been conducted by:
- IBBC-TNO (Institute TNO for Building Materials and Building
Structures, Netherlands)
- SERCOM
(Station d'Essais et de Recherches de la Construction

Mtallique, Belgium)
- CETIM
(Centre Technique des Industries Mcaniques, France)
A separate investigation on shelving has been carried out by

the University of Strathclyde in Scotland.
- II -
The contribution of the Netherlands covered investigations

on connections (determination of properties and development
of test procedures), investigations on the properties of
unbolted footings of uprights, full-scale tests on pallet racks
and drafting of recommendations.
SERCOM with CETIM as subcontractor would conduct a study
on overall stability for which a computer program would
be developed, investigations on perforated profiles and was
to draft the main portion of the recommendations. In this
connection' it should be remarked that drafting the
recommendations, had to be taken over by TNO because
of the closure of SERCOM. For budgetary reasons this
necessarily limited other investigations.
The various investigations carried out in the research programme
concerned are listed on Dare III.
Acknowledgement :
For the very helpful discussions and exchange of information
the author wishes to thank:
- The members of the working group for their contribution
in writing the recommendations
- The members of the Groep Stelling Fabrikanten (Netherlands)
- The American Rack Manufacturers Institute, represented by
Professor T. Pekoz who conducted the research for EMI and who
handed over several research reports which have been very
helpfull when drafting the recommendations.
Further we express our thanks to the sponsers who made it
possible to conduct the research and to draft the recommendations!
- III -
LIST OF REPORTS
CETIM report : "Rsultats d'essais visant
caractriser l'influence
des perforations sur la tenue des montants des casiers de stockage"

(no. 1-37-12-0); (see also TNO report no. BI-78-12/63.5.5730).
CETIM report : "Results of an inquiry made among French racking
manufacturers".
CETIM report: "Essais complmentaires pour caractriser
l'influence des perforations sur la tenue des montants des casiers
de stockage (no. 1.4A.13.0).
TNO report: "Study of literature concerning the design and calculation
of pallet racks" (no. 31-76-84/05.3.51251).
TNO report : "Rotation stiffness of hooked connections in pallet,
drive-in and drive-through racks" (no. BI-77-27/05.3.51251) .
TNO report: "Simple design formula with regard to frame instability
of unbraced pallet racks" (no. BI-77-29/05.3.51256).
TNO report: "Tests to investigate the degree of fixity of the
footings of uprights in pallet racks" (no. BI-77-30/05.3.51254).
TNO report: "Remarks with regard to the CETIM report "Rsultats
d'essais visant caractriser l'influence des perforations sur
la tenue des montants des casiers de stockage" (no. BI-78-12/63.5.5730).
TNO report: "Results and interpretation of tests on beam-upright
connections, with reversal of the bending moment" (no. BI-78-18/63.5.5730)
TNO report: "Full scale tests on unbraced pallet-racks" (no.
BI-78-55/63.5.5730)
Report of the University of Strathclyde: "Research programme on
storage racks (Investigations on shelving), Final report, September 1978".
- a -
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF SYMBOLS
INTRODUCTION
1.
GENERAL
1. 1
Scope
1.2
Definitions
1.3
Materials
1.3.1
Ductility requirements
1.3.2
Design values of material yield stress
1.3.2.1
Hot rolled sections and base material
1.3.2.2
Cold formed sections
1.3.3
Long-term quality control for unguaranteed steel
1.3.4
Batch quality control for unguaranteed steel
1.3.5
Other properties
1.3.5.1
Cold-forming
1.3.5.2
Cold-forming and welding
1.3.5.3
Low temperature
1.3.6
Fastener material
1.3.7
Welding
1.3.8
Corrosion
1.4
Tolerances
10
1.4.1
Tolerances of cold-formed sections
10
1.4.1.1
Thickness t
10
1.4.1.2
Width and depth of a section
10
1.4.1.3
Ratio inside bend radius-thickness (r/t)
1'
1.4.1.4
Corner angle
1:
1.4.1.5
Member straightness
11
1.4.1.6
Twist
i:
1.4.2
Tolerances with regard to design and assembly
l'.
1.4.2.1
Sidesway
1'
1.4.2.2
Automatic handling
12
1.4.2.3
Maximum clearance in drive-in and drive-through
12
racks
- b -
page
1.4.2.4 Bracings
13
1.4.2.5
Rack loading
14
1.4.2.6
Clear beam distance
14
1.5
Applicable design specifications
15
1.6
Integrity of rack installations
15
1.6.1
Permissible load
15
1.6.2
Rack configuration
16
1.7
Racks braced against the building structure
16
1.8
Design philosophy
17
1.8.1
Working state
17
1.8.2
Ultimate limit states
17
1.8.3
Test results
18
2.
LOADS
19
2.1
Definitions
2.2
Characteristic loads
20
2.2.1
Self weight
20
2.2.2
Material to be stored
20
2.2.3
Placement load
20
2.2.3.1
Vertical placement load F

pv
Horizontal placement load F .
ph
20
2.2.4
Horizontal loads due to out-of-plumb
21
2.2.4.1
Unbraced frames
21
2.2.4.2
Braced frames
22
2.2.5
Floor loads
22
2.2.5.1
Overall floor load, q,

fo
F l o o r l o a d b e t w e e n f r a m e s . a , , and F .
' f
fp
23
2.2.6
Wind load
23
2.3
Impact factors
24
2.3.1
Unit load
24
2.2.3
SOE-load
25
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
Collisions by forklifts or other moving equipment

Collisions important to the design
Design requirements with regard to collisions
26
26
27
2.2.3.2
2.2.5.2
19
20
23
-ri
paga
2.4.2.1
Upright protectors
27
2.4.2.2
Partial effectiveness of the bottom portion
28
of the upright
2.4.2.3
Full ineffectiveness of the bottom portion of
28
the upright
2.4.2.4
Tests
30
3.
DIMENSIONING - GENERAL
31
3.1
General
31
3.1.1
Method of calculation
31
3.1.2
Load combinations
32
3.1.3
Load via pallets
32
3.2
Calculation of cross sections
33
3.2.1
Requirements
33
3.2.2
Cross-section values
34
3.2.3
Cold-formed profiles without perforations
35
3.2.3.1
Symmetrical stress distribution with regard to
35
the centre of the particular flat element

3.2.3.2
Asymmetrical stress distribution with regard
37
to the centre of the particular flat element

3.2.4
Perforated members
41
3.2.4.1
Area of the cross-section
41
3.2.4.2
Compressive strength
41
3.2.4.2
Moment of inertia
41
3.2.4.4
Bending strength
41
3.2.4.5
Radius of gyration
41
3.2.4.6
Torsion moment of inertia
41
3.2.4.7
Sections with holes at the corners
41
3.3
Beams
44
3.3.1
Dimensioning criteria
44
3.3.2
Span of the beam in pallet racking
45
3.3.3
Lateral buckling
45
3.3.3.1
Box shaped beams
45
3.3.3.2
Calculation method
45
3.3.3.3
Tests
45
3.4
The base plate-upright connection
46
3.4.1
The base plate
46
3.4.1.1
Limitations of the thickness
46
- d -
page
3.4.1.2
Floor fixing by bolts, studs etc.
46
3.4.1.3
Floor anchoring
47
3.4.1.4
Calculation of fixings and anchors
48
3.4.1.5
Base plate packing
49
3.4.1.6
Base plate design
49
3.4.1.7
Continuous base plates
52
3.4.2
The floor
53
3.4.2.1
Data
53
3.4.2.2
Floor material
54
3.4.2.3
Rotation spring constant of the floor-upright
55
connection
3.4.2.4
Floor flatness
55
3.5
Connections
56
3.5.1
General
56
3.5.2
Calculation
56
3.5.3
Tests
56
3.5.4
Use of the test results
57
3.5.4.1
Strength of the connection
57
3.5.4.2
Stiffness of the connection
58
3.6
Uprights
60
3.6.1
Dimensioning criteria
60
3.6.2
Slenderness
60
3.6.3
Overall buckling of the upright
61
3.6.3.1
Overall buckling in the plane of a braced
61
frame-work
3.6.3.2
Overall buckling in the plane of an unbraced
67
frame-work
3.6.4
Part of the upright bordering onto the floor
67
3.6.5
Beam-upright and top tie-upright connection
68
3.7
Cross bracing
68
3.7.1
Diagonals
68
3.7.2
Horizontal members
69
4.
PALLET RAKCINGS
70
4.1
Standard pallet racking
70
e page
4.2
Braced pallet rackings
70
4.3
The beam
71
4.3.1
End conditions in the beam calculation
71
4.3.2
Strength calculation
73
4.4
Beam-upright connection
73
4.4.1
73
4.4.2
Stiffness calculation
77
4.4.3
Beam connector lock
77
4.5
Buckling lengths in braced pallet racks
78
4.6
Load on upright in braced pallet rackings
4.6.1
Buckling in the plane of the upright frame
79
4.6.2
Buckling perpendicular to the plane of the
80
' 79
upright frame
4.7
Unbraced pallet rackings
82
4.8
Buckling lengths in unbraced pallet rackings
82
4.8.1
Buckling in the plane of the upright frame;
83
braced upright frame

4.8.2
83
unbraced upright frame

4.8.3
83
upright frame
4.9
Load on uprights in unbraced pallet rackings
87
4.9.1
87
braced upright frame

4.9.2
87
unbraced upright frame

4.9.3
Buckling perpendicular to the plane cf the upright
87
frame
5.
DRIVE-IN AND DRIVE-THROUGH RACKINGS
90
5.1
The beam rails
90
5.1.1
End conditions
90
Local deformations
90
5.1.3
Rotation about the longitudinal axis
90
5.2
The pallet guides
91
5.3
The cantilever bracket
91
.5.1.2
- f -
page
5.3.1
91
5.3.1.1
The cantilever bracket-upright connection
91
5.3.1.2
The cantilever bracket-beam rail connection
92
5.3.2
Rotation
92
5.4
Cantilever bracket connector lock
92
5.5
Braced drive-in and drive-through rackings
92
5.6
Buckling lengths in braced drive-in and
93
drive-through rackings
5.6.1
Buckling in the plane of the upright frames
93
5.6.2
93
upright frames
5.6.2.1
End conditions at the base of the upright
93
5.6.2.2
End conditions at the top of the upright
94
5.7
Load on uprights in braced drive-in and drive-
95
through rackings
5.8
Deflection of the uprights in braced drive-in
96
and drive-through rackings

5. 9
Unbraced.drive-in and drive-through rackings
5.10
Longitudinal stability of unbraced drive-in
98
. 98

6
TESTS
99
6.1
General
99
6.1.1
Requirements for method
99
6.1.1.1
Number
99
6.1.1.2
Boundary conditions
99
6.1.1.3
The application of the load
99
6.1.1.4
The increase of the test load
100
6.1.1.5
Reporting
100
6.1.2
Interpretation of the test results
101
6.1.2.1
Definition of failure load
101
6.1.2.2
Correction of a failure load
102
6.1.2.3
Determination of a design value
103
6.1.2.4 More accurate determination of a design value
104
- g page
6.2
The yield stress
105
6.2.1
Test coupons
105
6.2.2
The local yield stress
106
Bend test
106
6.4
Compressive-test on stub uprights
106
6.4.1
The specimen
107
6.4.2
The test method
107
6.5
3end-test on profiles
109
6.5.1
Test set-up
109
6.5.2
Test specimen
110
6.6
Testing of pallet beams with regard to lateral
6.3
"
buckling
6.6.1
Test set-up
HI
6.6.2
Application of the load
HI
6.7
Connection test to determine the moment-rotation
H2
diagram of beam-upright connections

6.7.1
Test set-up
112
6.7.2
114
6.7.3
Determination of - diagram
114
6.8
Connection test to determine the shear strength
115
of beam-upright connections and safety-locks

6.9
Connection test on cantilever brackets
115
6.9.1
Test set-up
115
6.9.2
The reaction force on the cantilever bracket
117
6.10
Local deformations of an angle rail in drive-in
117

6.10.1
Test set-up
117
6.10.2
Measurement
118
6.11
Impact test
119
6.11.1
Test set-up
119
6.11.1.1 Charpy test
119
6.11.1.2 Full scale test
119
6.11.2.
Test result
120
120
120
- h -
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbol
Definition.
Cross-sectional area
A,
d
A
mn
A
s
A
sp
c
Nett area of a diagonal
Rotation soring constant of the beam-upright
Minimum nett area of a perforated member

Area of a shank
Stress area of a fixing or anchor
Rotation spring constant of the partial
fixity at a beam end
c
connection
c.
ct
*
'c
Rotation spring constant of a top tie-upright

connection
Equivalent rotation spring constant of the
beam-upright connection (including the bending
stiffness of the adjoining beam- and upright parts)
Rotation spring constant of the floor-upright

connection
Rotation spring constant of the adjoining racking

structure
Rotation spring constant at the top of an upright,

which forms a part of a drive-in or drive-through
racking
Depth of an upright
Young's modulus
Force
F,
Reaction force on a cantilever bracket
- 3 -
Symbol
Definition
Concentrically compressive force in an upright

c
F
cd
due to design loads

Design value of the concentrically compressive
strength of stub perforated members
F .
corrected failure load of test i
ci
F,
fp
F
Point load on a floor

Design load for overall buckling
Is.
Placement load; load directly caused by placement

operations
F .
ph
F
pv
Horizontal placement load

Vertical placement load
Shear force on a fixing or anchor
Tension force on a fixing or anchor
Transversal design load on an upright
F
u
Unit load; maximum load which can be placed in one
F
u
F .
placement operation
Failure load
Failure load of test i
ux
f'
f
m
Design value of the compressive strength of the floor

material
Maximum stress under a base plate, due to design loads
Shear modulus
Horizontal force
H.
Total horizontal load per bay
lv
Distance between the centrelines of the horizontal

members of a cross bracing
- k -
Symbol
Definition
h
c
Clear vertical distance between beam

centrelines ; compartment height
Distance between the floor and the highest
loaded beam level

h
Total upright height
Moment of inertia
I,
b
I
mn
Moment .of inertia of a beam
I
tn
Minimum net
moment of inertia of a perforated
member
Net torsion moment of inertia of a perforated
member
Moment of inertia of a top tie
Moment of inertia of an upright
Radius of gyration
i
mn
Radius of gyration of a perforated member
A
mn
Maximum number of loaded beam levels above the
particular upright part
Effective length factor
Span of a pallet beam; length
Buckling length
2,.
Length of a diagonal
Bending moment
M,
Bottom moment on an upright part
Maximum moment on a connection, due to

c
M
M
design loads
Design value of the bending strength of a
perforated member
Beam end moment in the design state, caused by
pallet loads ; fixing moment
1 -
Symbol
Definition
M.
Extra beam end moment in the design state, caused

by impact
Beam end moment in the design state, caused by

s
sideways displacement of an unbraced pallet
rack; stabilizing moment
Top moment on an upright part
Torsional moment
Total number of bays
Maximum number of loaded beam levels
Number
Point load
Maximum vertical load per bay
Maximum vertical load per compartment, due to

design loads
Maximum load a pallet will bear, including

weight of pallet
Uniformly distributed load
g_
Uniformly distributed floor load
Uniformly distributed maximum floor load between

frames
Uniformly distributed maximum overall floor load
Maximum load per linear metre per beam rail
Uniformly distrbuted wind load
Reaction force
Inside bend-radius
Reduction coefficient of M
of the upright part
bordering onto the floor, due to a partial fixity

at the floor
- m -
Symbol
Definition
Shear force
Sidesway of a racking
Maximum shear force on a connection, due to
design loads
" Design value of the shear strength of a connect
Extra shear force in the design state,
caused by impact
Shear force at the beam end, going with M
s
SM
Section modulus
Standard deviation
uit
Design value of the ultimate pullout strength o
a fixing or anchor
t
Thickness
*b
Thickness of a base plate
t
u
Thickness of an upright
Value of test result i
Design value of an experimentally determined

magnitude
Width of a bay
w
u
Width of a pallet (parallel to the beam)
Local buckling coefficient
Deflection; displacement
Load factor
Slenderness of a strut
Torsional buckling coefficient
Poisson's ratio
Width of an upright
Normal stress
Design value of the ultimate tensile stress
Comparison stress
- n -
Symbol
Definition
Design stress for lateral flexural buckling
Euler buckling stress
Design
stress for overall buckling
Design value for the yield stress
Actual yield stress
ra
Shear stress
Design value for the yield shear stress
Rotation of a member
Rotation of a beam about the longitudinal axis
Angle of looseness; angle over which a connection

rotates at constant or almost constant bending
moment
Ratio between edge stresses of a flat element
Buckling coefficient
Correction factor with regard to a test result
Impact factor for placing a unit load
- o -
INTRODUCTION
Palletracks are being used now for may years, Adequate
recommendations were not available. Recommendations
for steel structures do not sufficiently cover the
special problems in pallet racking, such as: special
beam to upright connections ; perforated uprights and often unbolted
footings. Also the'chance on damage of vital parts due to
impact by forklift trucks is much higher compared to normal steel
structures, and therefore should be taken into account. In
realition to this one should realise that people is working
among these relatively very heavy loaded racking structures.
Also rack manufacturers felt that recommendations were needed
to provide in a base where competition would not effect
safety. In order to take away trade barriers, the research
and the drafting of the recommendations were to be carried
out in European context.
The following issues were considered when drafting the recomnienstaions presented here :
- The construction, loads, and behaviour of pallet racks
differs considerably from usual steel structures. It
takes a considerable time, even from a trained structural
engineer, to get familiar with the special problems in
pallet-racking.
- The smaller manufacturers firms or sales organisations
do not always have available an experienced engineer
for static calculations.
These issues were reasons to include design formulae, and
comments in the recommendations to a large extent.
- -
The presented recommendations have also been based as much as

possible on existing Euronorms or other European recommendations
such as the ECCS recommendations for steel structures (and their
appendices).
- 1-
Comments
1.1
Scope
Particular kinds of loads, which are not really static, can
be considered as static loading after multiplying the load
by a certain impact factor. Some of these factors are given
in Section 2.3.
1.2
Definitions
Design_value_or_characteristic_value
Material or constructional properties differ from one batch
to another. Loads will differ from one case to antoher. These
properties and loads have a certain scatter. For design it
is important to know on which value concerned one shall or
can always depend. The maximum/minimum guaranteed value is
the so called characteristic value, (i.e: characteristic strength:
minimum; characteristic load; maximum).
For example :
n
= number of tensile
specimens with equal
a
rt
rt
= measured yield stress

of a tensile test
specimen
= minimum guaranteed yiel

stress = design value
95% lower confidence limit.
of the yield stress
(excluding > 1.1)

O
Recommendations
1.
GENERAL
1.1
Scope
- 1 -
The recommendations apply to all types of statically loaded

steel pallet racks, drive-in and drive through racks. It
shall not apply to rack-supported buildings (integrated
structures) nor mobile storage systems.
In case of ancillary structures where rack components are employed
for the main structural members, the relevant Sections of these
recommendations are also applicable.
1.2
Definitions
When possible, the terms and descriptions referred to in these
recommendations are based on the FEM publication "Illustrated
terminology of storage devices for unit loads" (FEM: Federation
Europenne de la Manutention). Other definitions are given in
the relevant Sections.
Base Material
The steel after possible cold

reduction galvanizing etc.
of the coils or sheets and before
cold forming of the final member
shape.
Batch of steel
Quantity of steel purchased

in one order.
Characteristic value
A lot of magnitudes do not have
(design value)
a constant value, but are showing

certain scatter. The value on
which one can depend (e.g. materia
properties, strength of a con
structional detail) or with which
one has to charge (e.g. loads),
is called the characteristic value
or design value.
Comments
1.3.1 Ductility_requirements
The ductility requirements prescribed in Section 1.3.1 conform
to appendix 5 "Thin walled cold-formed members" of the
European steel recommendations "Recommendations for steel
constructions; ECCS-EG-76"
These requirements are mainly based upon the publication:
"Ductility criteria and performance of low ductility
steels for cold-formed members"
by A.K. Dhalla and G. Winter
(Proceedings of the first speciality conference on cold-formed
steel structures; University of Alissouri-Rolla; August 1971)
- ? -
Recommendations
Guaranteed steel
Steel with specified mechanical

and chemical properties. In the
case of steel used for cold forming
this refers to the properties of the
base material.
The rectangular "portal" frame formed
Frame
by beams and uprights in beamed pallet

racking or top ties and uprights
in drive-in or drive-through pallet
racking.
Perforated members
1.3
Usually uprights with multiple holes.
Materials
1.3.1 Ductility_requirements
The mechanical properties of hot rolled sections and the base
material for cold-forming shall fulfil the following ductility
requirements :
(a) The ductility on a gauge length of I
= 5.65\/A
on a 12.5
nrm
width strip should be at least 10%.

A
= Cross-sectional area of the tensile specimen
(b) The ductility on a gauge lengt of I , with a minimum of

o
o
12 mm, on a 12.5 mm width strip should be at least 25%.
The value of ( = 1, 2, 3 etc.) shall be chosen in such a
way that the gauge length contains neck and fracture.
(c) The ratio of ultimate tensile stress to yield stress should be
at least 1.1.
To check the above requirements in case of unguaranteed steel,
tensile tests shall be carried out according to Section 6.2.1. The
minimum number of tests shall be as defined in Section 1.3.3.
Comments
=-
Euronorm 25-72: "General structural steels'
1.3.2.1 Hot rolled sections and base material.

A difference has been made between guaranteed and unguaranteed
steel. This has been done because in practice there could be
some benefits from purchasing unguaranteed steel:
- Possibility of buying a relatively small parcel of steel
- Short delivery time
- Lower costs
Regarding all steel grades according to Euronorm 25-72, the
2
minimum value of is 175 N/mm (Fe 310) . In case of hot rolled
constructional steels such a low value is hardly ever present.
2
Therefore 200 N/mm has been adopted for these steels.
In clause R.5 of ECCS-EG-76 the O -values are precribed for
r
design calculations. These are given in Table CI.
Recommendations
- 3
The orientation of the randomly chosen test specimens shall be in

the rolling direction of the coil, sheet, constructional element
etc..
If it is not possible to check the base material on the above
requirements one shall check the material taken from the flat
elements of the finished members.
N.B.: Steels conforming to Euronorm 25-72 fulfil the above,
requirements.
1.3.2
Design_value_of_material_yield_stress
The design value of the yield stress, , is the lowest of
the following two characteristic values:
(a) the yield or 0.2% proof stress
(b) ultimate tensile stress

1. 1
For design calculations or for interpretation of test results
shall be determined according to the Sections 1.3.2.1 and 1.3.2.2,
1.3.2.1 Hot rolled sections and base material

(a) Guaranteed steel:
values are to be taken in accordance
with Euronorm 25-72 (see Comment).

(b) Unguaranteed steel:
can be determined according to
Section 1.3.3, or shall be taken as follows:

(i ) Hot rolled constructional steels : O = 200 N/mm
r
(ii) Other steels
= 175 N/mm
2
2
- 4 -
Comments
Table Cl: Design values of the yield stress .

Steel grade in accordance
, 2
in N/mm
with Euronorm 25-72

Fe
360
(Fe 37)
235
Fe
430
(Fe 44)
275
Fe
510
(Fe 52)
355
1.3.2.2 Cold-formed sections

The coled rolling og steel leads to work hardening mainly
localized in the bends and their vicinity, which improves
the mechanical properties, yield stress and tensile strength.
The improvement in the mechanical properties depends on various
factors:
(a) The shape of the section (number of bends, lengths of flats,

thickness).
(b) The steelgrade (the improvement is smaller for -steels with
a high yield stress).
(c) Pre-deformation (a pre-deformation improves the mechanical
properties of the member as a whole noticeably).
(d) Slitting (a shape built-up of slit strips of steel sheet
benefits from hardening at the strip edges).
(e) The method of cold rolling.
Recommendations
" 4
1.3.2.2 Cold formed sections

In case of coldformed sections
of the base material

r
according to Section 1.3.2.1 can be taken into account. However,

it is also permitted to take into account an increased design
yield stress of the finished crosssection due to the effect
of cold working. The value of this increase shall be evaluated
according to appendix 5 of ECCSEG76, or taken into account
by strength and/or stability tests according to Chapter 6.
1.3.3
ôngterm 2ur1'v_2I}r0i_or unguaranteed_steel

To check rj which is used in calculations and/or test interpretations t
the rack manufacturer shall undertake each year a statistical
analysis on unguaranteed steel to prove:
Comments
1.3.4
- 5 -
Batch quality control for unguaranteed steel

The requirment 1.1 o
<,
is necessary because of the
requirement for ductile constructional behaviour. If local

peak stresses cause local yielding or are in excess of the
0.2% proof
stress (e.g. caused by section weakening)
there has to be enough local deformation capacity to ensure

that no failure will occur before the section (with
absence of peak streses) has also reached tye yield or
0.2% proof stress. Therefore the above requirement cannot
be replaced bv 1.1 g <: rjr .
r Bt
Deformation capacity is especially required for statically
indeterminate structures,
such as rack structures, since
it is very difficult to calculate uncertain conditions which

influence the force distribution in the members (e.g.
sinking of upright footings).
Recommendations
~ 5
r rt " ks '
and 1.1
< ^ ks
r Bt
where,
O
= mean value of the yield stress or 0.2% proof stress

of all the tensile test specimens
Bt
= mean value of the ultimate tensile stress of all the test

specimens
= standard deviation
= coefficient according to Table R 9
, Section 6.1.2.4.
The tensile tests shall be carried out according to Section 6.2.1

The statistical analysis of at least 20 test results shall be
based upon the number of test results required according to
Section 1.3.4 throughout one year, randomly chosen.
*
1.3.4
5'tc}_2uality_control_for_unguaranteed steel
To check
which is used in calculations and/or test inter
pretations, for each batch of steel the rack manufacturer shall

conduct the following quality controls:
and
< ks,
r rt
< ,
r rt
and 1.1 O J < rj__

rt Bt
where,
O
= yield stress or 0.2% proof stress of a test specimen
= ultimate tensile stress of a test specimen
OL
, s, k: see Section 1.3.3
Comments
- 6 -
1.3.5.1 No cracks will originate at the corners if the section

fulfils Table 4 of Euronorm 25-72 (General constructional
r
steels). The ratios of this Table 4 hold only for corners up to
o
o
90 . Above 90 these values have to be incrased proportionally
to the angle of bend. A summary of this table is given in Table C2.
Table C2: Minimum values of the inside bend radii with regard
to forming section corners without cracking
Base material according
t [mm]
. .
r
minimum
to steelquality
t <_ 6
2.0
6 < t <_ 8
2.0
Fe 310
t 6
1.0
6 < t <_ 8
1.5
t < 6
1.5
Fe 360 (A-D)
Fe 430 (A-D)
6 < t <_ 8
2.0
t <_ 6
2.0
6 < t <_ 8
2.5
Fe 510 (B-DD)
with: r = inside bend radius

t = thickness
1.3.5.2 Cold-farming and welding

Besides the properties of the materials, ductility of the con
struction or a constructional detail, will also be dependent on:
(a) Stress level and stress conditions (impact effects; one, two
or three dimensional stress condition).
(b) Welding method and welding quality.
(c) Temperature at working state.
(d) Rate of cold deforming, especially where welding is conducted
in the vicinity of the cold-deformed areas.
Recommendations
- 6 -
The tensile tests shall be carried out according to Section

6.2.1.
For one batch, the minimum number of tensile tests shall be as
follows:
(a) Coils: (i ) One per coil on 30% of the number of coils
supplied in one batch from one mill,
(ii) One per coil on 50% of the number of coils
supplied in one batch from a variety of sources,
(b) Sections and sheets: One per 2 tonnes.
The test specimens shall be chosen randomly, with a minimum of 6.
1.3.5
Otli?r gôgerties
1.3.5.1 Cold-forming
The corners of the section formed by the intersections of flat
elements shall be visually inspected to ensure absence of
cracking.
1.3.5.2 Cold-forming and welding

Welding in the direct vicinity of cold-formed zones can cause
local brittleness. Therefore these welded joint details should
be considered carefully (see Comment).
Comments
- 7 -
Because of this dependance it is not possible to give recommendations

for the required steel quality with regard to an acceptable
combination of cold-forming and welding. In most existing rack
types, the welded connection types are sufficiently ductile. However,
in choosing the proper steel quality the CECM publication II-75-1:
"Steelqualities" will be a good expedient. Some other publications in
this context are:
(a) Klppel, K.: "Sicherheit und Gteanforderungen bei verschiedenen
Arten geschweisster Konstruktion".
Schw. Sehn. 6 (1954), Sonderheft, S. 38 (s)/65 (s).
(b) Bierett, G.: "Gteauswahl der Sthle fr geschweisste Konstruktionen
mit Hilfe eines einfachen Klassifizierungsschemas. Der
Bauingenieur 34 (1959), H. 6, S 213/22, u. 35 (1960), H. 5, S.
230/35.
(c) Veit, H.J: "Probleme des Schweissens im Bereich kaltgeformter
Profile". Ausgabe von Gesellschaft Marktforschung fr Kaltprofile,
MFK, Dsseldorf.
In this context it is also advised to point out to the user, -that
welding activities by himself are not always advisable. Not
every steel is weldable.
If there are welds in the direct vicinity of cold deformed areas
the ductility of the steel will certainly be sufficient if
Table C3 is fulfilled. This table is mainly based upon a publication
of the "Fachverband Deutscher Kaltprofilhersteller - FDK".
Recommendations
- 7 -
Comments
-8
Table C3: Minimum values of the inside bend radii as a function of the
steel quality, if there is welding to a cold-fromed profile.
minimum steel quality
of the base material
t [mm]
minimum r/t
according to
Fe 360
6 -< t <_ 8
>
1.5
t < 6
>
1.0
6 < t< 8
2.5
t < 6"
>
2.0
9 <^Rr
B-quality
Fe 430, Fe 510
B-quality
where,
r = inside bend radius

t = thickness
The r/t ratios of Table C3 hold only for corners up to 90. Above 90
these values have to be increased proportionally to the angle of
bend.
N.B. The beam-upright and cantilever bracket-upright connections
shall be treated carefully within the above described context.
The action of forces at for example, the base plate-upright connection
are such that there will be, in general, no problem.
1.3.5.3 Low temperatures
The beam-upright and cantilever bracket-upright connections are
the first constructional details of a rack which will show brittle
behaviour at low temperatures, because of the combination of:
- cold working
- welding
- stress peaks
- impact effects, due to placing a pallet
Recommendat.i ons
- 8 -
1.3-5.3 Low temperatures

When a rack is used at temperatures below - 10 C, the material
quality shall be chosen carefully with regard to required
ductile constructional behaviour, especially where the constructional
elements form a beam-upright or cantilever bracket-upright
connection (beams, cantilever brackets, uprights, connectors).
If the material qualities of these connections elements are not
equal to D-quality according to Euronorm 25-72, it is recommended
to check the ductility of these connections by one of the
impact tests according to Section 6.11.
Comments
- 9 -
In general, constructions built with steel of D-quality

will show sufficiently ductile constructional behaviour.
D-quality: The material is tested according to the Charpy test at
o
-20 C, and has shown sufficiently ductily behaviour.
Re commendations
1.3.6
- 9 -
F^ste rier_material
The mechanical properties of fasteners shall be taken into
account according to the following ISO Recommendations:
R 898/i - 1968
: "Mechanical properties of fasteners, Part I,

bolts, screws and studs"
R 898/11 - 1968 : "Mechanical properties of fasteners, nuts

with specified proof load values"
The material quality of anchor bolts shall be at least 4.6 .
When a fastener type is not mentioned in the above ISO
Recommendations, the manufacturers' certified mechanical
properties shall be accepted.
1.3.7
Welding
Welding has to be carried out according to Section R 8.3.3
of the ECCS-EG-76.
1.3.8
Corrosion
The metal surface shall be protected against corrosion in
such a way that the nominal section dimensions are not reduced
by amounts exceeding the lower limits of tolerances given
in Section 1.4 . The type of protection dpens on the service
conditions and shall be agreed between the user and the rack
manufacturer.
- 10 -
Comments
.1.4.1
Tolerances of cold-formed sections

It is obvious that discrepancies between the nominal measures
and the actual measures might lead to unacceptable deviations
of calculated stiffnesses and stresses. Particularly if
the actual dimensions are smaller than the nominal measures.
1.4.1.2

The magnitude b'
of the flat members, mentioned in Table Rl
and Tabel R2, is the width including the corner(s):
01
fiSSSSg
kTTTT
02
s s gasa
03
Recommendations
10
1.4
Tolerances
1.4.1
Tolerances of coldformed sections

Tolerances of sections may not exceed the limits given in
Sections 1.4.1.1 to 1.4.1.6.
1.4.1.1
Thickness t
t <_ 5 mm: +_10% of the nominal thickness
t > 5 mm: +_0.25 mm with respect to the nominal thickness
1.4.1.2

The width and depth of a section shall fulfil Table Rl and R2.
Table Rl: Limits of width b' of stiffened flat elements

o
(see Section 3.2.3.1); lengths in mm
Thickness t
b_ < 50
50 <b'o
100 <b'
o
<
100
< 220
t< 3.0
7 5
+ 1.00
+ 1.00
3.0 <_ t < 5.0
+ 1.00
+ 1.00
+ 1.25
5.0 <_ t_< 8.0
+ 1.00
+ 1.25
+ 1.50
Table R2: Limits of width' s b' Of unstiffened flat elements

o
(see Section 3.2 .3.1); lengths in mm
Thickness t
b'
o
< 40
40 < b'
80 <b'
o
< 80
< 120
!
i
+ 1.50
t < 3.0
+ 1.20
3.0 <_ t < 5.0
+ 1.50
+ 1.50
5.0 <_ t <8.0
+ 2.00
+ 2.00
+ 1.50
+ 2.00
+ 2.00
Comments
- 11 -
1.4.1.3 Ratio inside bend radius thickness (r/t)

The inside bend radius can be measured with a radius
gauge.
1.4.2.1 Sidesway
Knowing the maximum possible out-of-plumb is of importance
when designing racks, if sidesway is not prevented; or bracings,
if sidesway'is prevented. Because of sidesway a certain
percentage of the vertical load acts on the structure as
a fictive horizontal load.
It is practically not possible to weld a base plate to an upright
in such a way that the tangent of the angle, between base plate
and upright is smaller than e.g. - . Therefore one shall prevc
a
systematical construction and erection of uDriaht frames.
Recommendations
- 11 -
1.4.1.3 Ratio inside bend radius - thickness (r/t)

+ 20% of the nominal measure
1.4.1.4 Corner angle
I
< 10 mm : +_ 3.0 with respect to n.m.
10 mm <
<_ 40 mm : +_ 2.0 with respect to n.m.
40 ram < 80 mm : +1.5

I
> 80 mm : + 1.0
with respect to n.m.

with respect to n.m.
with:
I
= length of the smallest leg, bordering the corner
n.m.
= nominal measure
1.4.1.5 Member straightness

The initial maximum deviation of a member from the exact
straight line has to be less than 0.0025 of the member
length with respect to the two ends.
1.4.1.6 Twist
The initial twist of a member shall be in general less
o
than 1 per metre. In case of asymmetric sections a
somewhat higher initial twist can be present.
1.4.2
iSEr}S_îri}_eSa_r rfi2B a 2 rr5r55 v
1.4.2.1 Sidesway
The initial sidesway of the rack has to be less than 1/300
of its height from the vertical.
The upright frames shall be constructed or erected in such
a way that no systematical tolerance wil be present in the
angle between upright and base plate:
wrong:
right :
Comments
- 12
1.4.2.3 Maximum clearences in drive-in and drive-through

racks
To prevent the pallets from falling down, the clear
distance between the beam rails of drive-in and drive-through
rackings has to be limited.
Re c o m m e n d a t i o n s
12
1.4.2.2 Automatic handling

If special requirements are demanded with regard to
automatic handling, these have to be agreed.
1.4.2.3 Maximum clearances in drive-in and drive-through racks.
In drive-in and drive-through racks the distance between
two opposite uprights has to fulfil the following:
a. In the absence of pallet guides:
Wp
Wp
a<w'
- Aa - 25 mm
b. Provided with pallet guides:

a < w' - Aa - Aa - 25 mm
The above defined distance a includes the following influences:

(a) .Lateral deflection Aa of the uprights under load. The most
unfavourable sequence of loading shall be taken into
account.(see Section 5.8)
(b) Widering of the distance, as a result of assembly
tolerances.
(c) Lateral deflection Aa
of the pallet guide, caused by horizontal
forces introduced by the forklift, according to Section 5.2.
Comments
- 13 -
1.4.2.4 Bracings
The possibility of (limited) lateral displacement of the joints
of a frame work can influence the effective length factor of
the uprights. A braced frame work, with no displacement
of the joints, posseses lower effective length factors than
where (limited) displacements are possible. Therefore a
braced frame has to be defined carefully. A difference
has been made between upright frame bracing and bay bracing.
This was necessary since:
(a) it is possible to use beams as horizontal members
(b) the horizontal members and diagonals of the upright
frame could hamper the connection to the upright
of the bracing in the vertical plane through the beams.
- 13 -
Recommendations
1-4.2.4 Bracings
A framework may be regarded as braced if the following
are fulfilled:
(a) The intersection point of the centrelines of a horizontal
member and a diagonal falls within an area of two times
the upright depth or width, symmetrically chosen around
the centreline of the upright.
k-*
2w
Where beams are used as horizontal members this.should

be the intersection point of the centrelines of a diagonal
and the top or bottom flange line.
(b) Upright frame bracing: e. <_ 100 mm
Bay bracing
<_ 150 mm
e_: as small as possible, regarding

the bracket dimensions
Comments
- 14 -
Recommendations
/
/
/
SVV
'E.
V
rfloor
/;;;/<>
e 2 ri
777
top flange
-beam
C
bottom
7?
Try ;
1_
flange
: upright centreline
: horizontal member centreline
: diaconal centreline
It is recommended to choose the eccentricities as small as

possible.
1.4.2.5 Rack loading

Rack loading shall be carried out in such a way that the eccentricity
of the resultant of the vertical loads with regard to the centre
of the rack depth, is less then or equal to 50 mm. In case of
higher eccentricities these shall be taken into account in rack
design (different upright loads within one frame).
The maximum eccentricity to be expected shall be agreed between the
user and the rack manufacturer.
1.4.2.6 Clear beam distance
The clear beam distance h
shall fulfil the following:
hc
> hg + hf + 70 mm
14
Comments
1.6.1
- 15 -
Permissible load
In the interests of safety it is desirable to show
the maximum working load clearly to the daily users of the
rack. Because the maximum working load also depends on beam
or cantilver bracket distances, it is also desirable to
show the connection between those two.
Recommendations
- 15 -
where,
h
= maximum height of the goods, including the pallet,

g
wich can be placed in one operation
f *
If the forklift type is unknown the following h -values

have to be adopted:
1.5
a) Rack height <_ 7000 mm
: hf =
b) Rack height > 7000 mm
: h
80 mm
= 130 mm
Applicable design specifications

If these recommendations do not give sufficient information
about the design and calculation of rack installations,
reference is made to:
"Recommendations for steel constructions, ECCS-EG-76"
(and its appendices)
1.6
Integrity
of rack installations
1.6.1
Permissible_load
It is recommended that all rack installations shall display
in one or more conspicious locations a permanent plaque, each
plaque being not less than 250 mm deep by 250 mm wide, and
showing the maximum permissible unit load in clear legible print.
Where the permissible beam loads are not equal for each pair
of beams, it is recommended that these plaques are placed in
such a way that the maximum permissible unit load is known for
each pair of beams. Also, the maximum permissible bay load should
be indicated.
- 16 -
Comments
Example of plaque:
*~q
LO
1000 kg.
Recommendations
1.6.2
~ 16
rEl5_S2nf ^r a r2 n
Load application and rack configuration drawings shall be

furnished with each rack installation of which one copy
shall be retained by the user or owner and another by the
manufacturer, distributer or other local representative
for use by any inspecting body.
If use of the rack is permissible in more than one configuration,
the permissible loads shall be presented as a function of
the different relevant parameters (e.g. beam distance). This
information may optionally be furnished in a table. The user
and owner shall be informed by conspicuous text on the
drawings and/or tables that deviations from stipulations may
impair the safety of the rack installation. The owner is
responsible for changes to the rack configuration which do
not follow the drawings or tables.
1.7
Racks braced against the building structure

If the racks are braced against the building structure, these
two structures will impose forces upon each other. One should
calculate
for these forces. The owner,prospective owner of the
building or the owner's representative snail be informed of these

forces and their locations.
If the owner agrees to bracing against the building, than he is
responsible for the integrity of the building and the rack.
Comments
1.8.1
- 17 -
Working_state
In the working state the serviceability is considered, for
example deflection or overturning. For simplicity, this inves
tigation may be performed, not by carrying out a fresh analysis
in the working state, but by using the forces and moment determined
in the design state and dividing these by the load factor to match.
1.8.2
Hltimate_limit_state
In the past, a construction was calculated for working load
and tested in terms of permissible stress. The margin between
that stress and the ultimate stress was then considered the
inherent safety.
Currently, the European steel specifications are based on
the control of ultimate limit states for the significant
combinations of design loads. A design load is the characteristic
load times the load factor to match.
Some such ultimate limit states are:
(a) a limit state of arithmetically exceeding a limiting stress
or of failure
(b) a limit state due to instability phenomena such as flexural
buckling, lateral buckling or plate buckling
(c) a limit state at the instant of overturning
The load factor with which the load is to be multiplied in
order to yield the design load denotes the margin with respect
to the working load that is required in view of:
(a) desired, minimally inherent safety;
(b) uncertainties as to the load;
(c) uncertainties and idealization in calculations ;
(d) contingencies in performance;
(e) doubt as to properties of materials;
(f) any other dubious issue.
Recommendations
1.8
Design philosophy
1.8.1
Working state
- 17 -
A working state is a possible combination of characteristic

loads, which are prescribed in Section 2.2.
1.8.2
Ultimate 'limit__states
An ultimate limit state is a state in which the component
concerned, which could be
the total rack, is considered
to have become unfit for use (see Comments).

It is not allowed to exceed a limi t state for any possible
combination of design loads. A design load is the charcteristic
load prescribed in Section 2.2, multiplied by a load factor.
This load factor may be determinated by precise analyses
according to the "General principles" of the ECCS-EG-76.
It is always permitted to choose this.load factor
equal to:
= 1.5
An exeption is made for the following ulitmate limit
states :
(a) Ultimate limit state of collisions
: = 1.1 (see
Section 2.4.2)
(b) Ultimate limit state of overturning
In estimating the equilibrium of a rack as a rigid body, the

following load factors shall be taken into account:
(i)
Permanent load not producing an overturning moment: = 0.9
(ii)
Permanent load producing an overturning moment
: = 1.5
(iiii
Live load not producing an overturning moment
: = 0
(iiii) Live load producing an overturning moment
: = 2.0
Comments
- 18 -
Thus :
Design state = Characteristic loads * load factor(s)
Design state _< Ultimate limit state
Overturning
To prevent possible harmful consequences of over-estimating the
permanent load that does not produce an overturning moment,
a lower load factor has to be taken into account with respect
to this load ( = 0.9).
To prevent eventually harmful consequences of under-estimating the
live load that prodeces an overturning moment, a higher load
factor has to be taken into account with respect to this load
( = 2.0).
Recommendations
1.8.3.
Test results
Load factors with respect to test results in determining
the maximum permissible load, are presented in Chapter 6
"Testing".
- 18 -
- 19 -
Comments
2.1
Definitions
The force Q denotes that the load is uniformly distributed and

summated over a given length:
-cS
I I I I + D
o = qi
The beam rail load is defined for drive-in and drive-through racks
For example, when pallets are positioned one at a time, F
= Q .
Recommendations
- 19
LOADS
2.1
Definitions
- Permanent load: load to which the storage-rack is subjected at all
times. Generally, the load that is caused by the self-weight of
the rack components.
Non permanent loads:
- Pallet load: maximum load that pallet can bear, including weight of
pallet.
Denoted by: Q
(N)
- Bay load: maximum load per bay; it should be uniformly distributed

Denoted by: Q
(N)
- Beam rail load: maximum load per linear metre per beam rail.
Denoted by: q
(N)
- Placement load: load directly caused by placement operations.

Example: bumping against storage rack, or against already positioned
pallets, during placement. Denoted by: F (N)
- Unit load: maximum load of a unit which can be placed in one

operation.
Denoted by: F
(N(kgf))
- Floor load:
Denoted by: q
2
(N/m )
- SOE-load: load exerted by SOE connected to rack(SOE = Storage

operating equipment: e.g. a crane). Loads on a rack that are
generated by disturbances or incorrect handling of goods etc., are
not considered.
Denoted by: F ()
o
Comments
2.2.3.1 Vertical placement load F

r
pv
Wether an upward force will act on the connection, depends upon the manner
in which the unit load is placed. With use of a fork lift truck this will
certainly be so.
Where hooked connections are used the safety locks shall be designed for F .
The action of
forces between a safety lock, an upright and the end plate
of a beam is considerably influenced by local eccentricities. Tests have

shown that the failure load of different safety lock-upright-connection type
combinations, but with the same safety lock, can differ about 30 %. Therefore
the upward force a safety lock can bear, has to be determined experimentally.
2.2.3.2 Horizontal placement load F
Realistic values for loads caused by placement operations are not

known at present. This load type furthermore depends on several variables,
such as :
(a) unit load, F , to be placed;
(b) weight of fork lift truck;
(c) driving speed of that truck
at the very moment of bumping against
the rack, or friction forces caused by sliding the pallet over the
Recommendations
20
'Working load: maximum load which can be present when using a rack structure
(= characteristic load).
Design load: load obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads
according to Section 2.2 by load factors according to Section 1.8.2, and
in case of impact also by the impact factors according to Section 2.3 .
2.2
C haracteristic loads
2.2.1
Selfweight
The selfweight of each structural component is to be determined through
calculation or by weighing. Where the height of a rack does not exceed
10 metres or the number of beam levels does not exceed 8 then the
selfweight of the rack may be ignored unless circumstances dictate
that it is essential to take selfweight into account.
2.2.2
5rrÊir1_t2 E e _S2E e d
The user should specify the maximum weight of the goods to be stored
(pallet loads etc.).
2.2.3
lrE emen r_25
2.2.3.1 Vertical placement load F
The beamupright and cantilever bracketupright connection, must

be able to absorb the following upward force:
F
= 5.0 kfJ
pv
This has to be proved experimentally according to the sections 6.1
and 6.8 .
2.2.3.2 Horizontal placement load F

Ph
At the most unfavourable location the following horizontal placement
load shall be applied :
F . = 750 N,
ph
once in the plane of the frame and, seperately, once in the plane perpen
dicular to this frame.
F
shall also be taken into account in beam design, when acting on a pair
of beams at midspan in the horizontal plane through the neutral axix.
- 21 -
Comments
beams, during placement operations ;

(d) height of truck-mast during placement;
(e) mast's moment of inertia, and mast's fixity on the truck.
Therefore the placement load F
is determined more or less arbitrarily

: F . = 750 N
ph
(a) Normal conditions
(b) Pallet stops or -foot supports : F
= 0.25 F , but _> 750
Where pallet stops are need, in practice the forklift truck driver is often less
careful when placing a pallet, because the pallet stop will warn him if
he might place the pallet wrongly. This causes a higher placement load.
In case of pallet foot supports the forklift truck driver often slides
the pallet into its position, while two pallet feet are carried by the
supports. This causes also a higher placement load.
Assumptions in these cases:
(a) Friction coefficient between pallet and beam: 0.5
(b) Half the pallet load is still carried by the forklift.
This results in:
F , = 0.5 * 0.5 * F
ph
= 0.25 F
u
u
2.2.4.1 Unbraced frames

A structure with a certain out-of-plumb and loaded by a vertical
force, is actually loaded by this vertical force plus an additional (fictive)
horizontal force:
a
Fh=f^ tana
s\\W
Recommendations
21
In case of pallet stops and pallet foot supports this load shall
be:
F . = 0.25 F
ph
u
(F = unit load),
u
in the plane of the frame.
Also the connector and the beams shall be designed for F . In

ph
this case it is important to consider if one or both beams are
carrying F .
The effect of F
2.2.4
on the axial upright forces may be ignored.
52E52Dirc_ loads _ du 2_2rrl2fZEumt)
2.2.4.1 Unbraced frames

At the location of each beamupright or cantilever bracketupright
connection, a horizontal load shall be applied of 0.5% of the reaction
force at the location concerned, in the case of unbraced frames. This load
shall be considered once in the plane of the unbraced frame and, seperately,
once in the plane of the unbraced frame, if any, perpendicular to these frames.
Also a horizontal force of s 100% of the reaction force at each beamupright

and cantilever bracketupright connection, shall be applied at these locations
in the plane is acting.
Comments
- 22 -
According to Section 1.4.2.1 the maximum permissible out-of-plumb of an

unbraced rack is -r-r-r. For calculation purposes an initial out-of-plumb
of -ITT- (0.5 %) is prescribed.
When a rack is loaded, the looseness of the connections (see Section 3.5.3),
if any, will cause an extra out-of-plumb in the vertical plane in which these
connections are acting. Because several connections are involved it is allow
ed to take the mean angle of looseness.
Due to these horizontal loads and those prescribed in Section 2.2.3.2, the
rack gains also some highly desirable lateral stiffness.
2.2.4.2 Braced frames
Bracings are important constructional elements. To prevent the application
of too slender bracing members which can be distorted easily during the use
of the rack, relatively high horizontal loads have been prescribed to pro
portion the bracing.
2.2.5
Floor loads
For archives, soft industries, chain stores etc. in the various national
2
standards, a floor load is specified of 4 to 5 kN/m .
The minimum floor loads, prescribed in Sections 2.2.5.1 and 2.2.5.2, are
based upon these values. In these sections a distinction is made between
overall floor load and floor load between frames-.
Recommendations
- 22 -
where,
" = mean angle of looseness of the beam-upright or top tie-upright connection,
derived from the connection tests required according to Section 3.5.3.
point (c) (. in radians).
2.2.4.2 Braced frames

At the location of each beam-upright or cantilever bracket-upright connection,
a horizontal load shall be applied of 1 % of the reaction force at the loca
tion concerned, when all frames are braced.
When a bracing system provides overall stability (frame instability)
of a racking for more than six bays, then the extra vertical upright
loads shall be taken into account as a consequence of their function
of vertical member of the bracing
system.
Where a central bracing system provides horizontal stability for 'N' parallel
rows of bays then the bracing shall be proportioned to resist 'N' times the
force calculated as above for one single row of bays.
Bracing shall be provided between such rows and proportioned to transmit the
concerning horizontal load.
2.2.5
Floor loads
If the floor construction falls under the national regulations, the
floor load(s) to be applied shall be in accordance with these regulations.
If not, minimum floor load's) according to Sections 2.2.5.1 and 2.2.5.2 shall
be applied. However, the designer shall always check, through consultation
with the prospective owner and/or user, whether higher floor-loads are
likely to occur in practice. If so, those higher values shall be applied.
The owner of the rack is ultimately responsible for the value, (s)
finally established.
Comments
23
(a) Overall floor load
>*qfc
t i
y1
(b) Floor load between frames
As a floor will never bear the maximum floorload across the entire floor
surface, a lower value may be considered to suffice for overall behaviour
of the floorsupporting structure.
2.2.6
Wind load
Where a large number of rack members have to be taken into
account, which are positioned in different flat planes, the
national standards could be too conservative.
This appeared f rom the following publication:
R. Moll, F. Thiele: "Windkanalversuche am Modell eines Stahl
skelett Hochregals zur Bestimmung des Widerstandsbeiwertes
c nach DIN 1055 fr ein filigranartiges Bauwerk".
Der Stahlbau, Mrz 1972.
Recommendtations
_ 23 -
2.2.5.1 Overall floor load, q,. .
The following minimum overall floor load, q f o , which includes all types
of load acting on a floor (e.g. stored goods, concentrated loads
from frames, hand trucks, weight of men etc.), shall be applied:
(a) q r = 5 kN/m 2
to
(b) In the case of considering the overall behaviour of the
floor supporting structure (e.g. bracings, frame instablity):.
q, = 4 kN/m
fo
2.2.5.2 Floor load between frames, q_- and F .

II
IP
When the floor spans from frame to frame, the following minimum
floor loads shall be applied:
2
(a) q _ = 2 . 5 kN/m
q
= 3.0 kN/m
(no hand trucks)

2
, r
(presence of hand trucks)
(b) In the case of considering overall behaviour of the floor

supporting structure (e.q. bracings, frame instability):
qff
(c) Seperately from q
= 2 kN/m 2
a point load F
at the most unfavourable
location:
F. = 1 kN
fp
2.2.6
Wind load
When racks are to be erected for use in the open air, a wind
load, q^f
shall be applied, given by the national standards:

%
= c<5'
acting on a surface area affected by the wind.
where,
q = dynamic wind pressure

c = dynamic wind pressure coefficient
Comments
2.3.1
- 24 -
Unit load
It is known from U.S. research that the rack experiences 1.5 - 1.6
times the load placed by a forklift truck at the instant of placing.
This means that at the instant of placement, the central moment will
be about 25 % and the maximum reaction force about 50 % greater
than at any time after placement (percentages in case of 2 pallets
per pair of beams).
- 24
Recommendations
The c-value which has to be taken depends on the loading situation

of the rack. The following combinations are recommended:
(a) Rack half loaded, combined with a wind load on a surface area
equal to the rack's overall dimensions (height * width)
(b) Rack not loaded, combined with a wind load on a surface area
equal to the summated projections of all rack members (frames,
beams etc.) on that surface area.
Where a large number of rack members have to be taken into account,
which are positioned in different flat planes (e.g. in case of nonloaded drive-in or drive-through racks), the national standards
could be too conservative (see also the Comment).
For stability, consideration shall be given to loading conditions which
produce large wind forces together with low gravity loads.
2.3
Impact factors
Impact factor: factor with which loads due to abrupt handling (e.g.
positioning and hoisting loads, braking of a crane)
shall be mulitplied.
2.3.1
Unit_load
One unit load per pair of beams shall be considered as an impact load,
if this load is placed by a fork lift truck and when dimensioning the
rack's direct load bearing components (beams, cantilever brackets etc.)
The most unfavourable position of the factored unit load with regard
to impact, shall be examined.
The following impact factor, , shall be applied:
= 1.25
This impact factor shall only
be taken into account for the strength
calculation of the beam, beam-upright connection, cantilever bracket and
Comments
f
S
l -
16
i_
Op
1.5Qp
1
$2
7
s
25
L_
Mr
J
s
S = 1.38 Q
M = 16
^p
1.38
-
M
= reaction force
M = central moment
c
= beam length
The increase of D and M
at the instant of placement, with
reference to the static situation, is not negligible: so an impact

factor must be applied. Since steel can absorb stresses due to
shortterm loads (e.g. those caused by impact) more easily, it
has been decided to use 1.25 as an impact value and not 1.5 or 1.6
Actually, 1.25 is also laid down in the U.S. National Standard
entitled: "Specification for the design, testing and utilization
of industrial steel storage racks".
Recommendations
- 25 -
cantilever bracket-upright connection.

It is allowed to replace an accurate calculation with = 1.25 by
the following in case of pallet racking:
a) Beam strength calculation:
= 1.0, if the partial fixity at the beam ends is ignored
b) Connection strength calculation:
= 1.0, if the following forces are taken into account:
- 2 pallets per pair of beams: M
+ M. = 1.2 M-
i = i" **
- 3 pallets per pair of beams: M.- + M. = 1.1 M_

s
i = TT *
where,
M , = maximum fixing moment at the beam ends and caused by q
according to Section 4.1.2.1
M. = extra fixing moment at a beam end, caused by impact
S. = extra shear force at a beam end caused by impact
q
2.3.2
= uniformly distributed beam load.
SOE-load
Loads exerted by cranes or other moving equipment shall be considered
in terms of impact load. The relevant loads and impact factors to be
applied shall be determined as specified in the relevant national
standards.
For SOE-loads not covered by national standards, the load values and
impact factors supplied by the manufacturers of SOE may be used, pro
vided such data are given in writing. A copy of the pertinent documen
tation should be annexed to the calculation.
26
Comments
2.4.1
C ollisions important_to_the_design
Collision of the bottom portions of the uprights at the corners
of gangways and aisles (see figure beneath), occurs regularly.
Therefore it has been decided to take collision of these uprights
into account as a "manner of loading", to keep the possibility
of accidents as small as possible. Collision of other uprights
has to be accepted as careless use of the rack installation, for
which the rack manufacturer cannot held responsible. However,
because of the persued safety of personal and stored goods it is
recommended to design all the uprights on the "loading type" colli
sions. In case of unbraced pallet racking one can often fulfil this
"loading type" simply by adopting the panel height of the frame
bracing. For it is allowed to take an effective length factor into
account of 1.0 in case of this "loading type", instead of factors
equal to or higher then 1.4 (see Sections 2.4.2 and 4.8) .
gangway
M
gangway
M
fr
fr
>
'
< m
1 I1
<
'
$
CT
C
O,
CTT
'
I
>
gangway
>
I 1
1 >
<
< 1 1
gangway
HIIILJIL
Pallet rack
Drive-through rack
>: Upright susceptible to collision as a "manner of loading'
Recommendations
2.4
Collisions by forklifts or other moving equipment
2.4.1
ili2D_i5E22 r2_te_eE22
- 26 -
At locations where it is possible to run into an upright with a

forklift or other moving equipment, one shall design for the conse
quences of such a collision in accordance with Sections 2.4.2 .
Uprights likely to be damaged are those at the corners of gangways
and aisles (see the Comment), in cases where the trucks are not '
guided. However, it is recommended to design all the uprights accor
ding to Section 2.4.2.
Besides, the user has to be told that damage by collisions might decrease
the carrying capacity of the rack considerably and that the following
measures are recommended to diminish the chance on accidents:
(a) Immediate unloading of the rack on both sides of the damaged
uprights.
(b) The damaged portion of the rack shall be adequately repaired
or replaced.
(c) Replacement is necessary if visible permanent deformations are
evident. This applies also to upright protectors if any.
Comments
2.4.2
- 27 -
S~:ig} e SHi2 m 2!} t _ir h _ re 2r^_i 0 _ c 2iii s 2!} s .
The requirements prescribed in Section 2.4.2 with regard to collisions

are mainly based upon the American National Standard "Specification
for the design, testing and utilization of industrial steel storage
racks", and a 1976 proposal for adjustment.
If no upright protectors are provided, the rack structure itself
must be able to absorb collisions without collapse. Note that "without
collapse" is not identical with requiring the rack to sustain no damage
whatever from collision. The entire emphasis is on safety of personnel
and goods, i.e. on the requirement that the rack will be capable of
standing without collapse after being exposed to such a collision, so
that it can be repaired and continued in use. For this reasons the
"loading type": collisions, shall be applied with a load factor of 1.1.
2.4.2.1 Upright protectors

The forces and bending moments for which upright protectors shall be
designed depend on the weight and velocity of the particular truck,
the height of the forks with regard to the floor, and also on such
energy absorbing bumpers as may be provided on the truck itself.
In the above mentioned 1976 proposal for adjustment to the American
National Standard, the upright protectors shall be designed for:
(a) a static horizontal force of 8.9 kN, acting in the 3 directions
prescribed in Section 2.4.2.1 at a level 250 mm above the floor
without permanent deformations.
(b) a static horizontal force of 13.3 kN, acting in the 3 directions
prescribed in Section 2.4.2.1 at a level 250 mm above the floor
without exceeding the design value of the yield stress or other
relevant stress with regard to the strength of the material used.
The force F
= 15 kN, to be applied on an upright which is connected
to or shall be hit by an upright protector, is based upon the above

value of 13.3 kN.
Recommendations
2.4.2
- 27 -
Design equirements_with_regard_to_collisions
The "loading type" collisions shall have a load factor = 1.1,
according to Section 1.8.2 .
The consequences of collisions shall be taken into account according
to Sections
2.4.2.1, or 2.4.2.2, or 2.4.2.3, or 2.4.2.4 .
Only the vertical load as a result of the.stored goods and the

permanent loads have to be applied on the impacted frame.
2.4.2.1 Upright protectors

The bottom portions of the uprights mentioned in Section 2.4.1, shall
be protected by upright protectors (u.p.), satisfying the following
requirements :
(a) the u.p. shall be situated with respect to the upright in such
a way that it is impossible to hit the upright b y a forklift
along the protectors' length.
(b) Minimum length of the u.p.: 300 mm above the floor.
(c) The u.p. shall be designed in such a way to be able to absorb an
energy of 400 Nm.
(d) The u.p. shall be positioned in such a way that contact between u.p.
and upright is prevented at the instant of collision. If not, or if
the u.p. is connected to an upright, this upright shall resist the
following horizontal force F
:
r
in the design state without exceeding
Comments
- 28
2.4.2.2 Partial effectiveness of the bottom portion of the upright

Partial effectiveness applies when the impacted upright is strongly
bent out of line, but continues to be in contact with the floor.
The exact amount of the partial loss of carrying capacity cannot be
predicted. An arbitrary loss of 68 % or the original carrying capacity
is chosen.
original load factor
*-. -
new load factor
.
1.5

. _
* loss = -- * 0.5 * 100% = 68 %
1.1
2.4.2.3 Full ineffectiveness of the bottom portion of the upright

Full ineffectiveness applies when the damaged upright has lost its
contact with the floor. The load has to be transmitted to the floor by
alternate load paths, e.g. by the diagonals and other upright of an
upright frame.
Recommendations
- 28
= 15 kN, acting at a level 250 mm above the floor and in

the following directions, not concurrently:
(i)
Parallel to the strong axis of the upright section.
(ii) Parallel to the weak axis of the upright section.

(iii) At 45 degrees to the strong and weak axis of the upright
section.
(e) It is recommended to make the upright protector suffiently flexible
(absorption of kinetic energy) and to place them in such a way that
they can be repaired or replaced easily, after occurance of pernia ment deformations.
In calculating the upright on this "manner of loading" it is permitted
to take an effective length factor of 1.0, in both braced and unbraced
frame design (e.g. in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
upright frames).
2.4.2.2 Partial effectiveness of the bottom portion of the upright

The rack structure shall be designed to carry the design loads, while
the bottom portions of the uprights mentioned in Section 2.4.1 have
lost one-half of their carrying capacity.
The remark in Section 2.4.2.1 about the effective length factor also
applies.
2.4.2.3 Full ineffectiveness of the bottom portion of the upright

The rack structure shall be designed to carry the working loads with
a load factor of 1.1, while the bottom portions of the uprights men
tioned in Section 2.4.1 have lost all carrying capacity.
The remark in Section 2.4.2.1 about the effective length factor also
applies.
- 29 -
Comments
In case of full ineffectiveness of one of the bottom portions of the

uprights of a frame, special provisions shall be made to prevent
overturning of impacted frames :
rVs1
"s2
;;';;/;>;
compression diagonals
777777777
tension diagonals
a) The frame has to be connected to one ore more frames by (a) top tie(s)
However, those top ties can cause pallet handling problems. Besides,
they have to be connected to the frames in such a way that the im
pacted frame can displace over a certain length downwards without
restraint by the top ty. The stabilizing frame(s) and the top tie
shall be calculated at the stabilizing force , which is transmitted
by the top tie.
b) The frame has to be connected properly to a frame with which it is

connected back to back by run spacers. The non impacted frame has
to carry the stabilizing forces H ., H
etc. This will give problems
if the non impacted frame carries hardly any load and is not anchored
to the floor (anchoring is not always possible). This problem can be
solved by connecting the two frames to one member with sufficient
bending stiffness.
c) The frame has to be connected to a wall by (a) proper wall tie(s).
The wall construction has to be calculated at the stabilizing forces.
Recommendations
- 29
Comments
- 30
Dependent on their direction the diagonals of an impacted frame

will be in compression or in tension. Tension diagonals are the most
optimal, since in general the diagonals have a higher slenderness
compared to the horizontal members. However, in case of tension
diagonals one has also to count for the bending moment in the upright
at intersection point A of diagonal and horizontal member (see the
above figure) . To limit this bending moment one of the run spacers
or wall ties has to be positioned as near as possible to point A.
2.4.2.4 Tests
Depending on the configuration of the rack structure, accurate calcu
lation for the "load type": collisions may be too complicated.
In such cases tests can give the required information.
Recommendations
- 30
2.4.2.4 Tests
Tests shall prove that the rack structure will be capable of standing
without collapse with a load factor of 1.2, while the bottom protions
of the uprights mentioned in Sections 2.4.1 have lost all carrying
capacity.
Comments
31
3.1.1 Method of calculation

The constructor himself will often have to evaluate if deformations or
displacements have to be regarded as intolerably large so that an ul
timate limit state is reached. For example:
deflection of a beam of length has reached the value of =
an unbraced racking has reached an outofplumb of radians;

the deformation at the location of the beamupright connection, have
become too large and permanent.
This limiting situation is often of importance in the experimental deter
mination of the loadbearing capacity, since in that case one can observe
which part is deformed and to what extent.
Recommendations
3.
DIMENSIONING- GENERAL
3.1
General
- 31 -
3.1.1 Method_ofcalculation
The calculations have to be carried out according to the usual methods
of applied mechanics and according to the theory of elasticity. However,
it is allowed to replace the calculations by tests, as long as they are
carried out and worked out according to Chapter 6. Plastic behaviour of
the tested components is allowed.
- Strength and stability calculation.
Upon calculating the strength of a racking the characteristic loads
according to Section 2.2 have to be multiplied by the load factors to
match according to Section 1.8.2, which provides the design loads. As a
resultof a design state which is a combination of design loads, it"is not
allowed to exceed one of the following ultimate limit states:
(a) limit state due to large elastic or plastic deformations or ab
normal displacements.
(b) limit state due to instability phenomena, such as flexural buck
ling., lateral buckling, plate buckling.
(c) limit state of arithmetically exceeding a limit stress or of
failure.
(d) limit state at the instant of overturning.
- Stiffness calculation.
As a result of a working state, which is a combination of working
loads, the deformations laid down in this recommendation should never
be exceeded.
32
Comments
.3.1.2 Load combinations

A clear example of a decisive loadcombination through omission of
certain compartmentload is given in the following situation:
4^
'1
n
\
' " " "
t,
E T T T U W T 35
iimuff
V i / t'llT
w w w invan
* * manu
1
tr. w i ' m o t t W I H
(IIllIIIII i i i i i i i i i i i r i x i i a i a
e mmm
nnmn
mmm
7 Tfrf V f
UIVifl'ili'lflllilil'iT
l-i ] lJT
mam
I>
I i C f 111'
f
7777777777777 77777777Z7777^777777777
C7TT
-*LfH<TjOT
umnn
77X777/
manga
&
() symmetrically
loaded uprights
(S) two asymmetrically

loaded uprights
In the case of a racking consisting of many levels, F2 will not be

much smaller than F. (e.g., F2 = 0.8 Fj), while F2 has to be combined
with the end moment M, which acts on the particular part of the up
right, as a result of the asymmetric load. The combination of F2 and
M can be decisive in relation to the case, of the concentrically loaded
upright with F.. This is also apparent from the design formulae given
in Section 3.6.3.
3.1.3 Load_via_pallets
It is permissible to account for the load acting via the pallets on the
beams as a uniformly distributed load, since the occurring central ben
ding moment M, with simply-supported ends, on the assumption of infinetely rigid palites so the pallets are carrying on two points, will al
ways appear to be smaller or equal to i q 2 .
1
i1 4 M
y U
LUI
77777
Mf4''2
7777
i" * b1 h' b1
LUU
^r
7&-
Mf=l,Z2
In the case of drive-in and drive-through racks, the rail length is

usually equal to the pallet-depth. If a pallet is unfavourably placed,
a point-load will act at mid span of the rail. With simply supported ends
the following applies:
Recommendations
- 32
3.1.2 Load combinations

The dimensions of the rackings has to be determined by the most
unfavourable load-combinations with respect to the various parts,
as they can occur in practice. It should be mentioned that compartments
not being filled can lead to a decisive load-combination.
3.1.3 Load_via_pallets
It is allowed to apply in the calculations the load exerted by the pallets
on the beams as an uniformly distributed load q. The resultant of the
uniformly distributed load to be taken into account, has to be equal to the
sum of the pallet loads, which is replaced by the uniformly distributed
load.
(a) pallet rackings:
q =
21
(b) drive-in and drive-through rackings: q = - ( w <_ 5,)

w
p
p
'
If w
> I, point loads have to be applied which are in accordance with
the used pallet type.
32
Comments
i"
<!/ <l
1
8
^
2
2w
V!
1
16 p
Roughly equal central bending moment.
3.2.1 Requirements
Examples of the comparison stress
(a) A flexurally loaded beam without lateral loads:

' ' z2
= ,
c x
+ 3
z2
xy
(b) A point of zero bending moment in a flexurally loaded beam:
<
xy
-*
xy
< 0.58
(c) A member purely in tension:
<
The determination of the plastic moment by tests will be expecially

profitable if a relatively large amount of material of the cross
section is situated around the neutral line, e.g. ancle steel. In the case
of rolled I beams, the profit will only amount to about 15 %. The
plastic moment has to be determined by tests because a real possibility
exists of buckling during the development of the plastic moment, also
if the section appear to satisfy Section 3.2.3 .
Recommendations
- 33
where:
3.2.
= pallet-load (see Section 2.1)
= Width of pallet parallel to the beam
= span of beam
= number of pallets per pair of beams
= uniformly distributed laod per beam
Calculation of cross-sections
3.2.1 Requirements
The stress in a cross-section as a result of the design-loads, has to
comply with the following conditions in case of a plane (two-dimenslnal;
x-and y-axis) state of stress:
lo
, r
2
\
+
+. 3
= <
_i_
rr 2 +
.
_
_.
2
y
xy
xy
c r
<
xy
<
r
< 0.58
In case of web design of flexurally loaded racking components, O must not

exceed 1.2
(contrary to the requirement abovel
where,
= normal stress
= shear stress
= comparison stress
= design value of the yield stress
Comments
3.2.2 Cross-section_values
The minimum cross-section is situated at the location of a hole or
slot in the profile (e.g. at a connection).
- 34
Recommendations
- 34
N.B. In reality the bending strength of single or double asymmetric sec

tions can be much higher compared to the calculated strength.
This is caused by a possible important difference between the
elastic and plastic strength. In these cases this higher strength
can be determined by tests.
3.2.2 Cross-section_values
In the case of sections under tension, the minimum nett cross-section
has to be taken into account. The minimal nett cross-section is situ
ated at the place of weakening.
In the case that a cross-section will also possess compression, then
the cross-section values of unperforated and/or thin-walled cold formed
profiles, which satisfy Section 3.2.3, have to be determined on the basis
of the following points:
(a) Compressed cross-section.
The full cross-section can be taken into account.
(b) Cross-section in bending.
The compressive and tensile parts of the cross-section in bending
have to be regarded according to resp. point(a) and according to a
profile under tension.
In the case of perforated profiles, one is referred to Section 3.2.4 and
in the case of thin-walled cold-formed profiles, which do not satisfy
Section 3.2.3, one is referred to appendix 5 "Thin walled cold-formed
members" of the ECCS recommendations for steel structures (see Section 1.5)
Comments
- 35
3.2.3.1 Symmetrical stress distribution with regard to the centre of the

particular flat element.
b
The in Section 3.2.3.1 prescribed - limits are copied from appendix 5
"Thin walled cold formed members" of the ECCS recommendations for steel
structures, except in case of = -1.0. The latter limits are derived
from the formula given in Section 3.2.3.2, which is conservative in case
of the points (b) and (c).
In case the edge stiffener consists of a folding over 90

simple lip), then the two relations which I
has to satisfy can be
replaced by:
'6/
he
. 2.8 t
and
h
> 4.8 t
e
where,
h
= height of the simple lip
h"
' (-Vt
<
r
(so called
35
Recommendations
3.2.3
ol l 2E52d_E2ii2s_~rh2r:r_2?EE0rti25s
It is permissible to determine the crosssection values of unperforated
coldformed profiles according to Section 3.2.2, if the totally or part
ly compressed flat elements of the section satisfy Sections 3.2.3.1 and
3.2.3.2.
If the section dimensions do not satisfy Sections 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.2,
then one has to reckon with the possibility of plate buckling according
to appendix 5 "Thin walled coldformed members" of the ECCS recommen
dations for steel structures (see Section 1.5).
3.2.3.1 Symmetrical stress distribution with regard to the centre of the

particular flat element.
(a) Unstiffened flat elements
/ukkkukuuu-f r
-.o-f &
c
(b) Flat elements supported on a web and an edge stiffener
edge stiffener
'
S S S 5 5 3
is-
= 1.0
JE. < 6 2 5
t - 7~~
. n
o
= - 1 .0 -*
1424
< va-7=
The moment of inertia, I , of the edge stiffener, moreover, has

es
to satisfy the following 2 conditions:
and
I
>
es
1.83 t 4
I
>
es
9.2 t'
(^) 2 t
2ZI00
If these conditions have not been satisfied, then the flat element has
to be considered as an unstiffened flat element.
- 36 -
Comments
In the case of an asymmetrically placed intermediate stiffener, the

following relations with respect to I
jol
IS
> L83 t 4
is
(-^) 2
t
have to be maintained:
27500
frl^
02 2 _ 27500 -,
t
nd
I.
> 18.4 t'
is
Examples with respect to the -value:
M*
v=i
Vrs-1
36
Recommendations
(c) Flat elements bordering onto two webs
\\\\\
= 1.0 ->
SSS5?
o
t
<
625
va"
c
1424
o
<
t
/"
b
= - 1 . 0 ->
c
(d) Flat element with intermediate stiffeners
I_
bn
/ ^ m m
J^
^s^3
J^
-fri
intermediate
stiffener
6'
web or edge
stiffener
h
b'
1.0 * (resp. ) < -j~
fs
c
The moment of inertia of the edge stiffener I
moreover has to sa
tisfy the conditions stated in point (b). If this is not the case,
then the flat element has to be regarded as an unstiffened flat
element without intermediate stiffeners.
The moment of inertia of the intermediate stiffeners I, has to

is
satisfy:
I. > 3.66 t 4
is
'
^ )
t
2JB0P_
and
I.
> 18.4 t'
is
If these conditions in relation to I. are not satisfied, then the

is
flat element should be regarded as a flat element without interme

diate stiffeners.
Comments
- 37
3.2.3.2 Asymmetrical stress distribution with regard to the centre of the

particular flat member
Contrary to the complex formulae given in appendix 5 of the ECCS
recommendations to calculate the -factor, in these recommendations
a more simple way of determining a_ is prescribed (Figure Rl, Table R3)

The formula given in Section 3.2.3.2 is in some cases unconservative
with regard to appendix 5 of the ECCS recommendations. Therefore the
reduction factor r has to be taken into account.
Recommendations
- 37 -
where,
b
= width of partly or totally compressed flat element
b'
o
= width of a subelement of a flat element with intermediate
= thickness of material
t^
fs
= fictitious
I
es
I_
fs
stiffeners
121^
fs
;
, b
o
= moment of inertia of the edge stiffener about the axis
*
parallel to the particular flat element
thickness =
= moment of inertia of the flat element with width b ,

o
inclusive of the intermediate stiffeners, about the
axis parallel to the particular flat element
I.
is
= moment of inertia of the intermediate stiffener about

the axis parallel to the particular flat element
2
= maximal compression stress in N/mm
present in the parti
cular flat element, as a result of the design loads. It is
always allowed to account 0" as 0"

c
r
= design value of the yield stress in N/mm
2
1
= largest compressive stress at the edge of the particular flat

element
= stress at the other edge of that flat element
3.2.3.2 Asymmetrical stress distribution with regard to the centre of the

particular member
b
b.
-T (resp. _ ) < 0.67 r
IT E
12 (l - 2)
Comments
38
Recommendations
where,
b , b', t, : see Section 3.2.3.1
o
o
c
E
= Young's modulus
= reduction coefficient
unstiffened flat elements: r = 0.87
flat elements with intermediate stiffeners : r = 0.73
= Poisson's ratio (steel: V = 0.3)
= local buckling coefficient according to Fig. Rl and Table R3.
T a b l e R3: L o c a l b u c k l i n g c o e f f i a i e n t s
'///////
V////. i
^Q
<r
U]
'
afe
\
-0
-1
the edges a are supported

as indicated below
== <f\
y^- com
pression
'=a6'
1he edges b' are

simply supported
<*=
o
*Bj\
0.0
+1
Vf
0,7
13,6
0,7
7,0
0.7
0,8
9,9
0,8
5.4
0,8
1,6
1.7
1,3
1.7
5:5
0,43
^5
cc
'j
40
i
'f
^0.5
13.6
25
^0,7
12.2
|
*>?.
2.1
2
1,7
6,3
1,6
1,7
0,85
For smaller values of the coefficient kd is larger than the values given.
0,57
Comments
-39
39 -
Recommendations
O"
1i- I
l)
1/
CM
7\
.j*
CM
m
Cst
/
CM
CM
-"/
fa
/y\A/\
/ / \
v/W
rr\
*
CS
/
/ /
^.
il
Ll
y
/
^ -
//
ui
CM
/
/
'
^*
>Q
,9
is s
o
+--
-y
O OO
/
>
.J-
o"
CM
o" o
CM
/V
y
o
cx
co
fs
/l
'
7}//
1
rv.
tn
.Q
en
CM
feggg t
.
I
^*
iw
O
0)
!
3
ra
>
41
Comments
3.2.4
p r
_5SS_lrE2^r5l
Perforations influence the stress distribution in a member lengthwise

in such a way that a part of the section becomes ineffective. Also
peak stresses will be present at the corners of the perforations.
These peak stresses will cause premature local yielding, which also means
that a part of the section becomes ineffective. The magnitude of the
peak stresses depend, of course, on the shape of the perforations.
However, in most cases the distance between the perforations is rela
tively small and they are found in one row. This results in relatively
low peak stresses :
^LJLU'
\t \
a A A
stress trajectorie
Cp = peak stress
S t r e s s c o n d i t i o n i n case of one perforation.
Recommendations
3.2.4
- 41 -
Perforated members (uprights)
3.2.4.1 Area of the cross section

The area of the cross section of perforated members has to be taken
equal to the minimum nett area (A ).
mn
3.2.4.2 Compressive strength
The design value of the compressive strength (F
) of axially loaded
perforated stub columns has to be determined experimentally according

to Sections 6.1 and 6.4 .
3.2.4.3 Moment of inertia
The moment of inertia of perforated members has to be taken equal to the
minimum nett moment of inertia (I ), present at a certain cross section.
mn
In case of a deflection calculation in the working state, it is allowed
to determine the moment of inertia experimentally, according to Sections
6.1 and 6.5 (seel also the Comments belonging to Section 6.5).
3.2.4.4 Bending strength
The design value of the bending strength (M ) of perforated members has
to be determined experimentally according to Sections 6.1 and 6.5 .
3.2.4.5 Radius of gyration
The radius of gyration of a perforated member (i ) has to be taken equal
mn
to
=
-,
I
mn
=
mn
A
mn
3.2.4.6 Torsion moment of inertia
The torsion moment of inertia of perforated members (I ) has to be caltn
culated from the cross section with the area A
(see Section 3.2.4.1).
mn
3.2.4.7 Sections with holes at the corners
One should be careful
with sections with holes at the corners. In these
cases it is recommended to do flexural buckling tests to check the rules
- 42 -
Comments
W ^7]l M M M
fff'/ M M W
nuui
/l /k / /k /k
stress trajectorie
Cprpeak stress
Stress condition in case of more perforations, in one row

Perforations influence also the bending stiffness of the perforated flat
elements, in a negative way. This means that plate buckling of this par
ticular flat element could appear at lower stresses, compared with the
unperforated case. Also by plate buckling a part of the sections becomes
ineffective.
When during the stub column tests on the perforated members the shortening,
and during the bending test the deflection over the traject with constant
moment is accurately measured, one obtaines the relationship between the
axial compressine force F and the effective area A , and between the
c
e
bending moment M and the effective moment of inertia I
I
according to the tangent modulus theory, because I
(N.B. value of
is needed for the
flexural buckling calculation of the perforated uprights. For example:
Recommendations
- 42 -
given in Sections 3.2.4.1 to 3.2.4.6 , in combination with a calculation

according to Section 3.6.3 .
If the test results are not satisfying, it is recommended to do stub
colum tests and bending tests to determine the F - A and M-I curves
c
e
e
(see the Comments) . On the ground of these-curves and the buckling tests
proper A - F
and I - M^ combinations shall be chosen.
43 -
Comments
r
ra
mn
'ud
cd = F ud .
provided < . . .
provided < ...

Mu
It is obvious that there has to be a limiting ratio between F and F ,,

'
n
cd
and between M and M,, that it is allowed to take into account
n
d
A = A
and I = 1
(see the figure above). Yet, in the recommendations
e
mn
e
mn
there are neither shortening - and deflection measurements required (see
F
M
cd
d
Sections 6.4 and 6.5), nor are limiting
and
ratio's prescribed.
F
M
n
n
This is based on flexural buckling tests (axially and non-axially loaded)
on two sections with representative shape, carried out at the "Institute TNO
for Building Materials and Building Structures" (IBBC-TNO, Rijswijk,
Netherlands). All the calculated buckling loads (according to Section
3.6.3, with A , 1 , i , F , and M ,) appeared to be smaller than the
mn
mn
mn
ud
ud
test results evaluated according to Section 6.1 . However, there has to
be noticed that the number of tests was relatively small (nine tests) and
that only buckling with respect to the weak axis was considered.
In Section 3.2.4.5 it is stated that the radius of gyration i
shall be
mn
L
mn
taken equal to
It is possible that A
and I
belong to different
"mn
mn
mn
cross sections. In that case i
has no physical
signification.
However,
the actual values for A and I can also differ a little from the calculated
values A
and I
mn
mn
Recommendations
- 43 -
Comments
If the effectiveness of a section depends on the applied loads, the

elementary beam
theory does not apply any longer.
Therefore no rule has been given for the section modulus (SM). The
bending strength is now checked as follows :
<
M,
, instead of
<
SM r
- 44 -
Recommendations
3.3
Beams
3.3.1
Dimens io_ning_cri teria
- 44 -
Beams have to be designed on the following criteria:

(a) Strenth of the cross section. Reference is made to Section 3.2 .
(b) Loacal plate buckling of the web and/or flanges.
Hot-rolled profiles and cold-formed profiles with dimensions
satisfying Section 3.2.3 and a plane weg (e.g. not a -profile)
need not be checked for local buckling of the weg and
or flanges.
If the profile has been cold-formed and the dimensions do not satis
fy Section 3.2.3, then the influence of local plate buckling has to
be taken into account according to appendix 5 "Thin walled coldformed
members" of the ECCS steel recommendations (see Sections 1.5)
(c) Lateral buckling of the beam. Reference is made to Section 3.3.3 .

(d) Bending stiffness of the beam. At working load the deflection shall
span
not exceed f.
, measured with respect to the tow ends of the beam.
(e) Rotational stiffness of the beam. At working load the beam shall not
rotate from the vertical by more than -rrr radians.
45 -
Comments
3.3.3
Lateral_buckling
In case the plane of bending does not coincide with the symmetry-plane,
the beam is not only bent but also subjected to torsion. The torsion is
caused by the lever arm between the applied loads and the shear centre
(s.c) of the section. The torsion has a reducing effect on the lateral
buckling load.
Bending in the symmetry-plane
t
S.C
Bending not in the symmetry-plane:
N.B. Usually it is supposed that the beam load applies in the plane of
the web.
The analytical solution of the lateral buckling problem with the combi
nation of bending and torsion is no simple matter. In addition, the
increasing influence of the pallets on the lateral buckling load (see
Comments to Section 6.6.2) has more effect if the beams are not loaded
through the shear centre. This means that the analytically calculated
lateral buckling load in these cases, generally, is considerably less
than the occuring one in reality. Because of these two problems (no
simple matter, conservative approach) it is recommended in Section
3.3.3.3 to check the lateral buckling criterium by tests.
Recommendations
3.3.2
- 45 -
Span_of_the_beam i_gallet_racking
The span of the beam in pallet racking shall be taken equal to the
distance between centres of the connecting devices (hooks and/or bolts)
of the beam-upright connections.
3.3.3
Lateral buckling
3.3.3.1 Box-shaped beams.

Box-shaped beams do not have to be checked for lateral buckling.
By box-shaped beams are also meant beams which are built up from two
__-beams, as long as they are sufficiently interlocked or stitched to
each other. This means that both Q - p a r t s have to undergo the same
rotation in all circumstances.
3.3.3.2 Calculation method.
The lateral buckling calculation shall be carried out according to:
(a) "ECCS-Manual on the Stability of Steel Structures" (Chapter 5 ) , in
case of hot rolled
I-sections
The manual has been published as "Introductory report" to the

"Second International Colloguium on Stability 1976/77".
(b) ECCS-Steel recommendations (see Section 1.5), appendix 5 "Thin walled
cold-formed members", in case of cold-formed beams
3.3.3.3 Tests
If lateral buckling determinates the allowable beam load on the ground of
Section 3.3.3.2, tests are recommended according to Sections 6.1 and 6.6,
because of:
(a) a positive influence of the pallets on the lateral buckling load;
(b) conservative design rules with regard to lateral buckling in appendix
5 of the ECCS Steel recommendations.
Comments
3.4.1.1 Limitation of the thickness

A too rigid base plate will cause an unintentional eccentric transfer
of forces, when no grout-filling or shims are present and when the floor
material has the property of no yielding on the spot of locally high
loads (e.g. concrete):
17/77/77
e caused by unevenness
e caused by tolerances
of the floor material

This eccentricity moment, Fe, will cause higher stresses in the lower
upright part compared with the calculated stress at design. So, a
large eccentricity moment has to be prevented. Therefore the base
plate has to be able to deform plastically. For this reason an upper
limit for the base plate thickness has been prescribed.
The base plate thickness needs a lower limit to be sure of the necessary
spread of load.
3.4.1.2 Floor fixing by bolts, studs etc.

By fixing a base plate to the floor is understood: the mounting of a
shear-resistant connection, so that the place of the upright is fixed.
Drive-in and drive-through racks must always be provided with bolts
studs etc. because the variation in the distance between the uprights
must be within narrow limits. Failing that, there is the possibility
of pallets falling down, or of difficulties arising placing them.
Recommendations
3 .4
The base plate-upright connection
3.4.1
The base plate
- 46 -
3.4.1.1 Limitation of the thickness

The bottom of all uprights shall be furnished with base plates satisfying
Sections 3.4.1.2 to 3.4.1.7 . The thickness t, of the base plate has to
satisfy the following:
t
>_ 3 mm
8 mm
The upper limit of 8 mm is abrogated in one of the following cases:

(a) A soft floor material with regard to concrete (e.g. bitumen)
(b) A filling with grout under the base plate
(c) Shims, which have been placed in such a way that the base plate is
in sufficient contact with the floor.
3.4.1.2 Floor fixing by bolts, studs etc.

Drive-in and drive-through racks must at least be fixed to the floor
by fixings, capable of resisting in the design state a horizontal shear
load of not less than 7.5 kN and a tensile force of not less than 4.5 kN.
Pallet racks need not be fixed to the floor, when 1.2 times the horizon
tal reaction forces can be absorbed by means of friction between the base
plates and the floor.
The fixings shall be calculated according to Section 3.4.1.4 .
Comments
- 47 -
3.4.1.3 Floor anchoring

By anchoring a base plate to the floor is understood: the mounting of
a shear - and tensile resistant connection, so that the upright can
also transfer tensile forces towards the floor.
In case of slender racks, large height-depth ratios, there is a greater
chance on overturning, so that one of the uprights of a frame may be
tensile-loaded.
For this reason it has been established that racks having a -znzi. > 5
frame width
always must be anchored.
A frame of a single sided run with 10 < *
. - < 20
frame width
is properly
e e
restrained if this frame is connected at the top of a double sided run

frame. The tie/strut connecting the single sided run frame to the double
shall be designed to withstand a tensile or compressive force equal to
2 % of the single sided run frame load plus any additional loads and
moments imposed by the handling equipment. This 2 % is in accordance with
Section 2.2.4.2 .
Recommendations
47
3.4.1.3 Floor anchoring

The rack should always be anchored in the following cases:
ght
(a)
rrrr > 5
frame width
The height of a rack for the purpose of assessing height to depth

ratios shall be the height to the top of the topmost beam.
The frame width shall be the overall widht of the frames. Where
racks are joined together back to back to form double sided runs,
the frame width shall be the overall depth of the two frames and
the space between, provided that the links joining the frames pro
perly together are spaced at not more than 2.0 metres centres verti
cally.
N.B. Where single sided runs exceed a height to depth ratio of 10
but not exceeding 20, each frame shall be restrained by connec
tions to other substantial structures capable of providing the
support necessary.
(b) The racks are subjected to specific horizontal forces such as from
cranes, or trucks which have mast steady devices.
When the resultant of the vertical loads is not satisfying Section 1.4.2.5
one shall check the ultimate limit state of overturning to find out the
necessity of anchors.
The anchors shall be desicned for a tension force as a consequence of a
horizontal workina load of 750 { F , , see Section 2.2.3.2) in
ph
the plane of the frame and at the highest loaded level, in combination with ar
empty rack. In case of racks falling under point (b) the specific
horizontal loads shall be added to the load of 750 N.
(N.B. Section 1.8.2: = 2 in case of anchor design)
Comments
- 48 -
3.4.1.4 Calculation of fixings and anchors

The calculation method given in Section 3.4.1.4 is in accordance
with Section R 8.1 "Normal bolts" of the European steel recommen
dations (see Section 1.5).
Recommendations
- 48 -
3.4.1.4 Calculation of fixings and anchors

The forces in fixings or anchors due to the design loads shall satisfy
the following conditions :
(a) Only tension forces
F^. < A
t
sp
ult
(b) Only shear forces

F
s
F
<
<
(case i)
sp
A
(case ii)
rs
(c) Combined tension and shear forces

' 2
F. = ' F t
i
/ t
+ 2 F
F^_
t
<
^
ult
F^
t
<
2
s
\
< 0 A
r sp
(case i)
(case ii)
ar
Ag
(case ii)
sp
where,
A
= area of the shank
s
A
sp
F.
= stress area of the fixing or anchor

= equivalent force
= shear force due to the design loads, but F
> 7.5 kN
s
= tension force due to the design loads, but F
>_ 4.5 kN
= ultimate pullout strength of the fixing or anchor (depends also

on the floor material)
case i: shearing plane intersects the screw thread

case ii: shearing plane does not intersect the screw thread
49
Comments
.3.4.1.6 Base plate design

The base plate must bu sufficiently strong and stiff.
In general the base plate is sufficiently strong in combination with
the upright profile if the base plate thickness t
is larger or equal
than 5 mm.
The effective part of the base plate is sufficiently stiff if the pro
truded part of the base plate outside the upright profile satisfies the
following:
Maximum moment
1
2
2
f
< 0.67 Plastic moment
<_ 0 . 6 7
1
* 4
v2
1 E3J5J3-/-f
3 f
In case the base plate is anchord to the floor by two anchors, one on
each opposite upright side, the base plate has also to fulfill:
Maximum moment <_ 0.67 Plastic moment
Assumptions in this case:
The vertical force V is carried by the floor materia.'
The moment M is carried by the anchors and the floor material around
the by M compressed upright; anchor force F
a
= l_ .
d
l
Maximum bending moment in the base plate caused by the transfer of F

to the upright is equal to:
d
2
F d = M
a 2
d1
Recommendations
- 49 -
3.4.1.5 Base plate packing

Where upright base plates are packed to level and plumb the frames,
all packing material shall be steel or other material which will
satisfactorily transfer the loads to the floor. Where packing is
used it shall be fixed so that it cannot be dislodged from beneath
the base plate.
3.4.1.6 Base plate design
In base plate design, distinction must me made between uprights under
compression with and without two opposite anchors, and uprights under
tension with anchors.
(a) Uprights under compression without anchors
where,
f' , f' : see Section 3.4.2.2
m
t. = thickness base plate
t
= thickness upright
ri" 1
= t.
3f!
( = of base plate material)

M
= moment on the base plate in

the design state
= vertical load at the gravity

centre of the upright in the
design state
'm'f
e+t
Û.
It is only allowed to take the shaded base plate area into account
(= effective base pl^te area).
Comments
50
This maximum moment acts over a certain length of the base plate.
Assuming a spread of load over 45
this length d
is equal to
2d, but a ^_ < w .

2
eff
u
Maximum moment <_ 0.67 Plastic moment
d
2
1
2
< 0.67 * t
a
d.
4
r b
eff
, /
%
In
6~d2_M
a .. d,
eff 1 r
eff - W u
case of an upright under tension the anchor force(s), F , has to be

cL
transferred to the upright by the base plate.

Maximum moment < 0.67
Fd
a
<
>
0.67x7
4
Plastic moment
0
tj
b
6 F d
a _.
eff r
a
eff
; a __ < w , or d
eff
u
u
The anchors are often placed at the inner side of the upright frame
to prevent damage. In this case the transfer of the anchor force to
the upright is complicated.
Therefore there has been refered to the theory of thin plates.
- 50 -
Recommendations
When the distance from the upright to the edge of the base plate is
smaller than e, this smaller edge distance must of course, be taken
into account for the base plate side concerned.
Depending on the assumed end condition at the base plate when designing
the rack, the following values for the eccentricity moment M must be
taken into account:
- simply supported
M = 0
- partially fixed
M =
(= d
+ e) V
o(see Section 4.8.3, point (c))or an
(N.B. simply supported means c

Rl
effective length factor belonging to a bitumen floor).

(b) Uprights under compression with two opposite anchors
- plane of the upright frame
'45
u
<:
<
'eff.
SSB333S35BgB
\- anchor
di
h*
um
It is allowed to take the two anchors into account in determining

the stress distribution under the base plate if the base plate
Comments
- 51 -
Recommendations
- 51 -
thickness, t, , satisfies the following:

b
t
>
6 d M
5
eff dl
;a < w
eff
where,
M
= eccentricity moment in the design state according to the

upright calculation in the plane perpendicular to the upright
frame, but M >. ( d
+ e)V (see point (a))
= design value of the yield stress of the base plate material
= width of the upright
d , d_, a
: see the above figure
The stress distribution under the base plate shall satisfy the
following:
(i)
the effective base plate area shall be determined according to

point (a), (shaded area).
(ii)
The resultant compression force F shall be situated at the by M

SL
M
compressed upright flange; F = - .
a
dj
(iii)
The vertical design load V shall be uniformly distributed over

the effective base plate area minus the area used by F
N.B. The anchors shall be able to resist F
according to Section
3.4.1.4 .
(c) Uprights under tension
In case of an upright under tension the thickness of the base plate
shall satisfy the following:
t <
a
6 F d
a
a ,.,
eff r
where,
F
a
d, a
= anchor force
= see point (b)
: according to the following figures:
; a __ < w or d
eff u
u
Comments
- 52 -
.3.4.1.7 Continuous base plates

Continuous base plates (base plate profiles) have some advantages.
For example:
(a) Higher frame stiffness, which is desirable in relation with mounting,
transportation and erecting frames.
(b) Smaller tolerances in distance between the uprights
(c) Higher ability of taking impact by collissions
(d) Higher possibility of spread of load in case of sufficiently rigid
base plates (e.g. Q-profiles).
However, continuous base plates have also some important disadvantages.
For example:
(a) No spread of loads in case of a positive curvature of the floor
surface. On the contrary, the upright loads will theoretically
only be transferred by the two contact lines between floor and
frame, in case of a rigid base plate and rigid floor material:
Recommendations
52
-anchor
U
d
f'"Taeff
/>>>>//>>/
fr t
V)J/j
> > > >> >
shall be determined according to the theory of thin plates.
3.4.1.7 C ontinuous base plates

A continuous base plate (profile) is a base plate which is connected
to both uprights of a frame.
Designing continuous base plates the following shall be taken into

account (see also the C omments)
(a) The possibility of a positively curved floor surface

(b) The possibility of a negatively curved floor surface
(c) The ratio between the bending stiffness of the base plate and the
stiffness of the floor material against pushing in.
53
Comments
(b) Negative influence on overturning of a total frame in case of a

negative curvature of the floor surface in combination with a rigid
base plate and a rigid floor material:
5
^?^
*
(c) The extent of spread of load depends on the ratio between the bending
stiffness of the base plate and the stiffness of the floor material
against pushing in. For example:
7?p7777777777F7
Floor material infinitely rigid

load directly transferred from
the upright to the floor.
Part of the upright load trans

ferred by the base plate part
between the uprights depends on f.
Recommendations
3.4.2
- 53 -
The floor
3.4.2.1 Data.
The future owner of the rack must provide the strength data of the floor
to the rack designer, in terms of the load per unit-area and the com
pressive strength of the floor material.
Failing that, this matter should be regulated and established through
consultation with the future owner. The owner remains responsible for
these strength data to be handled in the rack design.
Comments
- 54 -
3.4.2.2 Floor material

Rackings are built in practice on several floor types.
In general the following types are found:
(a) Flat reinforced concrete
(b) Plain concrete on consolidated ground
(c) Concrete plates on consolidated ground
(d) Paving stones on consolidated ground
(e) Bitumen on consolidated ground
The properties of the consolidated ground depend on the manner and
measure of consolidation. Because these properties of the consolidated
ground influence the properties of the floor, the latter are not constant
in the cases (b) to (e). For these cases on the moment there is less
knowledge about the behaviour of these floors as a function of the con
solidation.
Floor type (d) has the disadvantage of no spread of load over a larger
floor surface. This can result in important differences in local sinking
of base plates.
The properties of floor type (e) are also considerably influenced by the
properties of the bitumen.
A lot of bituminous floor materials are available.
Because of all these reasons the rack manufacturer shall be very careful
in determining the floor properties.
In most existing codes the follwoing is stated with regard to concrete
floors:
f I = f',
f
ek
( < 1)
e.g. - concentrically loaded base plate : = 0.7 5

- eccentrically loaded base plate
: = 0.67
Recommendations
- 54 -
3.4.2.2 Floor material

The design value of the compressive strength of the floor material must
satisfy the following:
' > f'
f m
where,
f'
= design value of the compressive strength of the floor material;

concrete: f' = f',
f
ck
If the strength properties of a non concrete floor are not known,
it is recommended to take into account as maximum value:
2
f' = 3 N/mm (but caution is still needed).
f'
- characteristic compressive strength of the concrete which, unless

otherwise brought to the attention of the rack fabricator, shall
2
be assumed to be 14 N/mm .
f
m
= maximum stress under the base plate according to Section 3.4.1.6

due to design loads.
In case of bituminous floors the creep behaviour must also be taken into
account.
Comments
- 55 -
To prevent eccentric load transfer from the upright to the concrete

floor (see Comments of Section 3.4.1.1) local failure of the concrete
surface will be helpful. Therefore in Section 3.4.2.2
there has been
prescribed: = 1.0
It should also be noticed that due to the' reinforcement the guaranteed
f'
-value in general will be rather conservative.
CJC
3.4.2.3 Rotation spring constant of the floor-upright connection

From component tests and full scale tests carried out at the "Institute
TNO for Building Materials and Building Constructions" (IBBC-TNO) it
has been appeared that in case of base plates without fixings or anchors
a c -value is active of 50-60 kNm/rad. Because of the relatively small
number of tests, somewhat lower values are allowed to take into account.
A minimum number of bays are prescribed because the above mentioned
c -values are average values.
The c,p-value depends also on the number of beam levels, because one
should be more careful with the prescribed c -value in case of a few
beam levels because of the relatively large influenc of c on the overall
stability.
55 -
Recommendations
3.4.2.3 Rotation spring constant of the floor-upright connection

Without doing tests it is allowed to take into account in case of normal
flat concrete floors, the following rotation spring constant of the floor
-upright connection, even if there are no fixings or anchors applied:
If
< 2
If m
> 3
fl
n < 2
: c . = 30 kNm/rad
n > 3
: c = 40 kNm/rad
where,
m
= total number of bays
= total number of beam levels
'f
= rotation spring constant of the floor-upright connection
Without doing tests one shall take into account c ^ = 0 , in case of other
'f
floor materials.
3.4.2.4 Floor flatness

If the flatness of the floor on which racks will be erected do not satisfy
the follwoing conditon, levelling is necessary:
d [ml
1
4
[mmj
<
10
4-15
< 12
> 15
15
Comments
3.5.3
- 56 -
Tests
The in Section 3.5.3 mentioned connections consist mostly of hooked
connections. Hooks which form part of the connector fit into perforations,
which have been punched in the upright. These connections distinguish themselves
from the types used in steel building practice for the connection between
beams and columns by the following:
(a) Weldings
or bolts do not form the fasteners, but hooks. The strength
and the deformation of the fastener hook cannot be calculated, be

cause the many applied hook types make it impossible to derive general
emperical calculation rules.
(b) The connection is not infinitely rigid compared with the bending stiff
ness of the applied beams and uprights (columns). This is a result of
both the important deformation of the hooks and the connector plate
at increasing load, as well as the required play for hooking-in such
a connection.
For these reasons it appeared necessary to determine the strength and/or
stiffness properties of the beam-upright, top tie-upright and cantilever
bracket-upright connections by tests.
Recommendations
3.5
Connections
3.5.1
General
- 56 -
It must be proved that the connections are sufficiently strong to carry

the forces and moments affecting them, and sufficiently stiff to ensure
the overall stability (no frame instability) in case of unbraced racks.
3.5.2
Calculation
If the strenth of the connection can be determined and is determined by
calculation, then this calculation has to be in accordance with:
R 8 "Connections and structural details" of the ECCS Recommendations
for Steel Constructions (see Sections 1.5)
3.5.3
Tests
The strenth and stiffness properties of the beam-upright, top tie-upright
and cantilever bracket-upright connections shall always be determined
experimentally according to Sections 6.1, 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9 .
The number of tests have to be at least six. Besides, it is recommended
to take the samples randomly throuhgout one year.
The behaviour of such connections is characterized by a moment-rotation
(-) curve, which has been shown qualitatively in the figure below:
-top flange
^^q
0.67 M
-1
connector>
beam
*\M
Comments
- 57 -
Sometimes bolts are used as fasteners. In this case tests are also
necessary because of the deformations of the connector. The looseness
traject wherein
develops will not be at M is zero or almost zero,
because of the friction forces caused by the always present prestress

in the bolt. For bolted connections it is therefore important to know
the maximum moment which occurs at the connection. Because this moment
depends on the stiffness properties of the connection it can be neces
sary to determine the moment iteratively:
Contrary to Section 6.1.1.1
, a minimum number of six tests are pres
cribed. The reason for this is that the experience learned that test
results of connection tests are usually showing a
considerable scatter.
Because the strenth - as well as the stiffness properties of some con

nection types appeared to depend considerably on the tolerances of the
connection parts, it is recommended to take the samples randomly
throughout one year.
3.5.4.1 Strength of the connection

(a) M < 0.67 M^
c
d
Besides the strength also the rotation stiffness c
is of importance
in case the connection is one of the stabilizing components of an

unbraced frame. From connection tests on several connection types it
has appeared that the tangent value of c
(= c
tgy , see the
figure given in Section 3.5.3) decreases rapidly with increasing moment,

if M > ca. 0.67 M . Because in stability problems the relevant tangent
stiffness has to be taken into account (because of the second order
effects), it is decided for practical reasons that M shall be < 0.67 M
c
d
because in that case it is allowed to take a constant c -value into
c
account (or this constant c -value will become very small)
Recommendations
- 57
Line (1) : A straight line from the intersection point of the straight
part of the - curve with the -axis (point A), in such a
way that area A ( e f t ) area A r ( . g h t )
Line (2) : A straight line from the origin 0, in such a way that A- = A
where,
M
u
= ultimate moment of a test result
= angle of looseness = angle about which the connection rotates at a

constant or almost constant moment.
3.5.4'' Use of the test results
3.5.4.1 Strength of the connection

The connection is sufficiently strong if the following equations are
satisfied:
M
<_ 0.67 M
, in case the connection is a stabilizing component

in unbraced frames
<_ 0.8
, in all other cases
Cl
< 0.8
s,
d
where,
M
= maximum bending moment on the connection as a result of the

design loads.
M,
= design value of the bending strength according to Sections 6.1,

6.7 and 6.9.
= maximum shear force on the connection as a result of the design

loads.
S.
= design value of the shear strenth according to Sections 6.1, 6.8

and 6.9.
Comments
(b) M
< 0.8 M 3 ; S
__
_d
58 -
< 0.8S,
__3_
_9
The bending and shear strength
of a connection depend also on the
actual yield stress of the components concerned and the measure

tolerances. Especially in case of the, in many cases appeared to
be decisive, connector material this actual yield stress is very
difficult or not to obtain from finished products. It is in general
also difficult to get sufficient insight in the influence of the
mutual tolerances of the connection components. These two influences
are arbitrarity taken into account with the factor 0.8.
3.5.4.2 Stiffness of the connection

On the moment it is usual to take into account constant c -values. These
c
values are inclusively possible looseness.
In case of beam and connection design this is not correct, especially
when relatively important looseness occurs. For the consequence of
looseness
hinged
end condition
forminimum)
< . have to be taken into
Extreme
. is a
and
c -values
(maximum or
account, because one beam has only two connections and both can be very
well extreme rigid or weak.
If
is too large, the foult by determining c
given in Section 3.5.3) by the requirement A
~ A
= tgY
(see the figure
becomes too large,
because tangent siffness values are required in stability problems :
Path (a) leads to smaller

second order deformations,
compared with these in case

of path (b) .
Therefore in point (c) a limit is mentioned for {
in relation with
using a mean c -value from the origin of the - curve.

In Section 3.5.4.2 nothing has been said about the stiffness of the
cantilever bracket-upright connection. The stiffness of this connection
Recommendations
- 58 -
3.5.4.2 Stiffness of the connection

Only the stiffness properties of the following connections shall be
determined:
(i) The beam-upright connection, because these properties are influencing
the load carrying capacity of the beam, the required strength of the
connection and the effective length of the uprights in case of unbraced
pallet racks,
(ii) The top tie-upright connection, because these properties are influencing
the effective length of the uprights.
The stiffness behaviour is characterized by the following two properties
(see also the figure, given in Section 3.5.3)
,. >
.
.
dM
(i) Rotation spring constant : c = -rrc
d
It is allowed to use a constant c -value, when determined as presc
cribed below
(ii) Angle of looseness : .
In case < : c = 0
*
c
Depending on the rack part that is designed the following design values
of these two stiffness properties shall be taken into account (see also
the figure given in Section 3.5.3):
- 59 -
Comments
type is only of importance in the working state to satisfy Section 5.1.3 .

The rotation stiffness of the beam-upright connection in case of unbraced
pallet racks and the top tie-upright connection have an important influ
ence on the buckling length of the upright.
Possible instability is a very undesirable thing. Therefore one has to
be very careful with the determination of the design values of the stiff
ness properties.
It appeared that especially the angle of looseness
shows often an
important scatter. A possible reason for this is the non constant position
of the connector with regard to the longitudinal axis of the beam. Of
course this will be better in case of automatically welded connectors.
A theoretically exact method to take the complex stiffness behaviour of
hooked connections into account is not available on the moment, even not
in the form of a computer program.
Especially in case at a certain load the bending moment acting at the
connection decreases and even reserves its sign. This happens for example
in unbraced pallet racks. The bending moment acting at one of the connec
tions of a beam will decrease, because of the lateral displacements of the
rack. In case of connections with small rotation spring constants (c <
about 50 kNm/rad) the bending moment even reverses its sign before failure
occurs by frame instability.
UUSUUUE 3
M caused by pallet loads
M caused by lateral displacement
Recommendations
- 59 -
(a) Pallet rack beam design

either
, - c
= c
cl
- ? =
or
- minimum
- maximum
= 0
(b) Beam-upright connection design:

- c = c , - maximum
c
cl
- . = . - minimum
(c) When checking flexural buckling or frame instability of uprights in
unbraced frames :
- c = c . - mean
c
cl
- . = .
- mean
If
5 * 10
<
- c = c - mean
c
c2
- =
(of the six test results)

(=)
(of the six test results)
rad, then it is also allowed to take into account:
Comments
- 60 -
Recommendations
3.6
Uprights
3.6.1
- 60 -
:i
i5 e !} s
-2 }iEi2_ r ir r i5
Uprights shall be checked for the following criteria:
(a) The strength of the decisive cross section.

Reference is made to Section 3.2 .
(b) Local buckling of web and/or flanges.
Reference is made to Section 3.3.1, point (b). If the uprights are
provided with perforations, the influence of local buckling must be
determined experimentally in accordance with Section 3.2.4 .
(c) Flexural buckling of the uprights.
Reference is made to Section 3.6.3 .
(d) Torsional buckling.
In general there will be an interaction between flexural and torsional
buckling. Therefore the influence of torsion buckling must be taken
into account in combination with flexural buckling by. the a- and
V-
factor (see Section 3.6.3).

(e) Collision of the uprights.
The results of a collision shall be investigated in accordance with
Section 2.4 .
3.6.2
Slenderness
The slenderness of the uprights shall not be more than 250 .
Slenderness =
Ijl
bucklin(
(K = effective length factor)
? len9th
radius of gyration
Comments
3.6.3
61

(a) Braced framework
A braced framework has the property of negligible sideways
displacements of the node points of the bracing.
node point
of the bracing
sryr
Yl, --rft
<5 1 << $2
Braced framework
(2
/
77777
Unbraced frame-work
order moments = F S.)

c 1
(2
o r d e r moments = F J
c 2
(b) Given design rules

The given design rules have b>ren copied from the European steel
recommendations (see Section 1.5). The given rules apply to bending
about one axis. According to these racking recommendations this will
be the situation if no special horizontal loads have te be taken
into account (e.g. special horizontal loads due to SOE). In case of ben
ding about two axes the given design formulae have to be replaced
by:
(i) Braced framework:

m
-
+
^
r
|M+M
1x2
oxl
SM
2 + [
SM
r
| M _ + M |
1 y2
oy|
SM
yr
The xa:cis is the stronger axis.
| BM y2
SM
Vi
+ M
oyl
y r
< 1
Recommendations
3.6.3
61
3.6.3.1 Overall buckling in the plane of a braced framework.

The following three conditions have to be satisfied in case of
bending about the xaxis only:
F
S-+
i M + M
-iUjLJi2.
] <
y-
SM
r
y < 1
r
F
c
A"
r
V M _ + M
x2
ox
SM a
r
., .
1 1
' l f Mox = 0 :
In case of perforated uprights the following strength properties shall

be substituted, acoording to Sections 3.2.4.2 and 3.2.4.4:
AO
SM
=F
cd
,
r
where,
r
= buckling coefficient =
CTj^
= design stress for overall buckling corresponding to
r
( = )
a
*
Ky
x Ix
X
and determined from the lowest situated ECCS buckling
curve.
experimentally as a
r
function of the slenderness and satisfying Section 6.1 .
It is also allowed to determine the magnitude
- 62 -
Comments
(ii) Unbraced frame work

m
+ 0.85
M
AO
SM
x2
y -
22
SM
IM.
y2
SM
y r
+ 0.85 y -1
r
y
y2l
<1
yr
SM
< 1
The x-axis is the stronger axis.

An upright can be axially compressed and bent by the presence of
horizontal loads and/or by chess board loading (see Section 3.1.2).
An upright shall for example in the plane of the upright frame
in general be laterally loaded by the horizontal placement load F
Ph'
Y'
m
axially
loaded

.\LJMi
"o-j^b
(c) Lowest ECCS buckling curve

The ECCS buckling curves have been derived for the European series
hot-rolled I-profiles. In case of cold formed upright profiles
sucht curves could differ from the ECCS curves. This is caused by:
- different shape ;
- different residual stress pattern
- possible different initial deviations from the nominal section
and member shape.
Because of too little knowledge about buckling curves of upright
profiles, there has been decided to use the lowest situated ECCS
buckling curve.
Recommendations
62
= effective length factor with respect to the xasis (will be given

in Chapters 4 and 5)
K I = buckling length (= .)
xx
b
X
*T ///////
77777
= length of the particular upright part
= radius of gyration with respect to the xaxis.
0.
= torsional buckling coeffient in case of axially loaded struts,

according to Tables R4 to R6 (pages 64 to 66)
= concentrically compressive force in the upright due to the design

loads.
= section area
= torsional buckling coefficient in case of eccentrically loaded

struts.
5
r
V =
M
a
(8
FT >
x2
concentrically loaded struts : V = 1.

a
= design stress for lateral flexural buckling

In case a
taken
more precise calculation is disregarded, CT shall be
equal to the design stress for overall upright buckling

0.8S
corresponding to =
.
ce
ce
= slenderness of the compressed edge due to M
(see also the Comments).
63
Comments
(d) Torsional buckling is involved

The applied upright sections are in most
cases thin walled, perforated,
open, Ushaped sections. These section types are in general suscep

tible to torsional buckling. Because there is an interaction between
torsional and flexural buckling, this is taken into account with the
overall buckling check by the torsional buckling coefficients and V.
Because of its simplicity, the ctcoeffiecient is copied from the Bri
tish standard "Specification for the use of coldformed steel sections
in buildings" (Addendum No. 1 (march 1975) to BS 449: Part 2: 1969).
Tnis coefficient takes into account the different shape of the upright
sections with regard to Isections.
The vcoefficient has been included in combination with the contribution
of first order bending moments, because in case of a considerable
moment contribution the overall buckll ng problem changes into a lateral
buckling problem. In case of equal and moments (M . = M _) : V =
(e)Determination of
The given design rule to determine the lateral buckling stress ,
wicht is a part of the
vformula, leads to a conservative approxi
mation of the exact value.

Exact design rules to determine
in case of mono symmetric, thin
walled and perforated sections (possiblility of web deformations) are

very complicated and not available at the moment in some workable form
(e.g. problem of determining the warping rigidity).Therefore the
lateral buckling calculation has bên replaced by an overall buckling
calculation of the "compressed edge" of the upright due to M . This
is in accordance with appendix 5 of the European ECCS recommendations
(see Section 1.5).
Examples of compressed edges:
1/7
compressed
edge "
f-rt
y'
w
1
perforation
Recommendations
This
63
compressed edge is defined as:
The section consisting of the compressed flange plus the adjacent

7 part of the web and the edge stiffener, if any, exclusive
o
possible present perforations (see the Comments)
i
= radius of gyration of the compressed edge with respect to the

y'axis, which is parallel to the yaxis of the total section
(yaxis = weak axis)
M
= 0.6 + 0.4 i
M
> 0.4
M . and M _ should be introduced with the correct algebraic sign

xl
x2
M .
xl
to calculate the
ratio (see the Comments)
M
x2
M .
xl
= smallest end moment about the xaxis.
= largest moment about the xaxis.
= largest "midspan" moment in the particular upright part due to the

transverse load in the design state, if any, perpendicular to the
xdirection;
for determining M
the upright should be regarded as simply
supported at both ends; but if M
has the opposite algebraic sign
to Mx2
and if moreover I
< I2
_I' , then M ox should be taken
' Mox '
1 M x2
as zero.
yx
_
E
SM
_
F
c
= Euler buckling stress =
TT E
= section modulus with respect to the xaxis
64
Comments
(f) Effective length factor of 0.8 with regard to

The effective length factor with regard to Cf has been chosen smaller
than 1, namely 0.8 . The reason for this is the presence of torsional
restraints at theends of the particular upright part, such as:
friction between base plate and floor
bracing membersupright connections (in the plane of an upright frame)

(g) The coefficient and algebraic sign of
M,
1
M,
The moment distribtuion over an upright part influences the flexural

buckling behaviour of the upright. Therefore the parameter shall
be taken into account.
The end moments M
and M have to be introduced to the formula with
the correct algebraic sign, because these end moments can have both a
positive and negative influence:
I
\
First order deflection caused by the end

moments has the same form as the second
order deflections of an axially compressed
pin ended strut. This means a negative
influence of the end moments (lower buckling
M.
load), and thus 1 = positive.
M,
First order deflection caused by the end
moments has not the same form as the second
order deflections of an axially compressed
pin ended strut. This means a positive in
fluence of the end moments (higher buckling '
M
l
load), and thus = negative.
(h) Lower limit of the ratio, used in Table R4.
In the Addendum No. 1 to BS 449 (see point (d) above) no lower limit
D
of ratio has been given. However, such a limit is necessary because
Recommendations
Table R 4
- 64 -
-values with regard to torsional buckling of concentrically

loaded channel sections, in case =- > 0.75
.D
Plain channel
Inwardly lipped
channel
Outwardly lipped
channel
1.00
1.25
> 1.30
1.00
1.25
> 1.30
1.26
1.03
1.00
1.32
1.09
1.00
1.22
1.01
1.30
1.08
1.22
1.18
1.00
1.27
1.06
1.17
1.14
1.23
1.04
1.08
1.09
1.20
1.02
1.05
1.05
1.17
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.25
1..26
1.30
1.02
1.14
1:24
1.00
1.11
1.18
10
1.09
1.14
11
1.07
1.10
12
1.04
1.06
13
1.02
1.03
14
1.01
1.01
15
1.00
1.00
1.00
In case of different -ratios one shall inter- or extrapolate.
ti jlip size 0.2 Bî-^

f
J)
B
*
t
*
|"T
Comments
- 65 -
D
also sections with low -ratio's are susceptible to torsional
o
buckling. A lower limit of 0.75 has been
prescribed. This is based
upon the
step of 0.25 (Table R4: = 1.00 and = 1.25) and the

B
B
B
following publication:
Symposium on the Application of Sheet and Strip
Metals in Building, 1959;
Institute of Sheel Metal Engineering;
by Kenedi, R.M. and Chilver, A.H.
Recommendations
- 65 -
Table R 5 : -values with regard to torsional buckling of

concentrically loaded angle sections
L t
1.5
1.0
IB
4
1.29
1.04
1.00
1.27
II
1.17
It
1.11
1.31
11
1.08
1.24
10
II
1.06
1.19
11
11
1.05
1.15
12
II
1.04
1.11
13
II
1.03
1.09
14
II
1.02
1.08
1.01
1.07
15
1.00
In case of different -ratio's one shall interpolate
"I
I
2.0
4'
Comments
66-
Recommendations
- 66 -
Table R 6 : -values with regard to torsional buckling of concentrically

loaded double angle and tee sections
Vf'
A
B
0.25
0.33
0.50
1.04
1.10
1.39
1.00
1.00
1.00
i '
1.00
0.75
1.33
1.30
1.16
1.34
1.10
1.20
1.06
1.13
1.30
1.05
1.09
1.20
1.04
1.06
1.15
1.03
1.05
1.12
10
1.02
1.04
1.09
11
1.01
1.03
1.08
12
1.00
1.02
1.07
13
1.01
1.07
14
1.00
1.05
1.00
1.04
15
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
In case of different , -ratio's one shall interpolate
Comments
- 67 -
Recommendations
3.6.3.2 Overall
67
buckling in the plane of an unbraced framework.
The following two conditions have to be statisfied in case of no

transverse load and bending about the xaxis only:
F
m
~
r
lMx2
+ 0.85 y
^V '
< 1
1 SM
x r
IM I
I x2I
SM
.
< 1
In case of perforated uprights the following strength properties shall

be substituted, according to the Sections 3.2.4.2 and 3.2.4.4 :
= F .
cd
SM
x r
= MJ
where,
= the larger of the two buckling

coefficients and .
3
x
y
The other notations are defined in Section 3.6.3.1
3.6.4
Part of upright bordering onto the floor

Upon determining the effective length factor of the upright part
bordering onto the floor, is is allowed to take into account a complete
or partial fixity at the floor, provided it is shown that the strength
and the stiffness of both the base plateupright connection as well as
the floor is sufficient (see also Section 3.4)
It is always allowed to assume a hinge at the floor in determining K.
If a more precise calculation is disregarded, one shall take the Kfactors
into account, which have been given in Sections 4.5, 4.8 and 5.6 .
Comments
3.7
- 68 -
Cross bracing
In Sections 3.7.1 and 3.7.2 it is assumed that for all diagonals and
all horizontal members the same sections are applied, so that the given
formula is related to the heaviest loaded, lower part of the rack. In
deriving the formula it has been assumed i.a. that the slenderness of
the diagonals applied is such that the contribution of the compressed
diagonals to the carrying capacity can be neglected in relation to
the contribution of the diagonals in tension.
In case one wants to include the compressed diagonal in the carrying
capacity of the bracing the total system shall be calculated as a
frame-work with diagonals under tension and compression.
Example:
- Each compartment is equally loaded -* per bay V,
b
- Horizontal load per level per bay = H
2 bracings
5 bays
j->- b = 2.5
j
->-
Vw = 2.5 V,
br
b
3 loaded beam levels > H. = 3 bH

br
68
Ree ommendations
3.6.5
Beamupright and top tieupright connection

Upon determining the moments and forces on the upright from the pallet
beams the stiffness properties of the beamupright connection must be
taken into account according to Section 3.5.4.2 point (b).
Upon determining the effective length factor K the stiffness properties
of the beamupright and top tyupright must be taken into account
according to Section 3.5.4.2, point (c).
If a more precise calculation is disregarded, one shall take the fixing
moments and/or Kfactors into account, which have been given in Sections
4.5 to 4.8 and Sections 5.5 and 5.6 .
3.7
Cross bracing
The cross bracing may be considered as completely effective, i.e.
sideways displacements of the node points of the frame work can be
neglected, if the tolerances of the bracing members satisfy Section
1.4.2.4 .
The cross bracing shall satisfy Sections 3.7.1 and 3.7.2 .
3.7.1
Diagonals
The cross section of the diagonals which are designed as tension members
shall satisfy the following condition:
A, >
~
d w,
b r
%r
V,
br
zri
\
2<
*r
\
r
-^
horizontal
member
. beam as a
horizontal
member
diagonal
\I
\ /
\
\
jx
7777777777777777
? y> J J ? >
- 69 -
Comments
bHp
bHp
K-
bHn
<-
9\
,*
(,
^ j
5#r
^7*
^
///////?///////////////////////////
>/yt
>//r
Recommendations
- 69 -
where,
A
= the nett section of the diagonal
= the length of the diagonal
W,
b
= the width of the braced bay
h,
b
= distance between the centre lines of the horizontal members
H,
= the resultant of the horizontal design loads which has to be
of the bracing
transfered to the floor by the bracing considered.

V
= the resultant of the vertical design loads of which the bracing

provides for the overall stability.
3.7.2
Horizontal members
The horizontal members shall be calculated for a compressive force
equal to H, , with a buckling length to match of K
fulfil the function of a horizontal member.
Notations: see Section 3.7.1 .
= w . .Also beams can
70
Comments
4. 1
S tandard pallet racking
J.
* -
7
7
"Cw
t"
bc
ETr
-EI u
y777777777777777777777777777yy7777777777
4. 2
77/7///////

In the definition of braced pallet rackings it is assumed that the
sideways displacement of the racking by lengthening and shortening
of struts (diagonals, horizontals, beams and uprights of the braced
bay or frame) and the deformation of the horizontal and diagonal
upright connections in a frame, can be neglected.
pr
4< node point

-"
(2)
(D
r^
in case (2) this level is

unloaded
r*
///x\\-
frame-work a
frame-work
n o plan bracing
deformed upright
frame-work b
- 70.
Recommendations
PALLET RACKINGS
4.1
Standard pallet racking

A standard pallet racking is a pallet racking with the following
properties:
(a) Constant compartment height h
(b) Constant beam length A
(c) Constant moment of inertia of the uprights I
(d) Constant moment of inertia of the beams I,
(e) One beam-upright connection
(f) Braced upright frames
type
(see Section 1.4.2.4)
(g) No vertical loads, besides those prescribed in the Sections

2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3.1
(h) No horizontal loads besides those prescribed in the Sections
2.2.3.2 and
4.2
2.2.4

By braced pallet rackings are meant rackings, of which the node
points of both frame-works 'a' and b cannot be displaced sideways in
the down-aisle direction, and of which the frames are fully braced
In case of pallet racking with constant compartment height h , the
frame perpendicular to the upright frames can be regarded as braced if
the following bracings are present:
(1)
liitti
frame-work a
frame-work b
(2)
-1
-7\
system length'
ST
<
down - ais I e
direction
::
(1) = back bracing

(2) = plan bracing
"system length"
upright frame
(3) = horizontal of the back bracino
Comments
~ 71
If in a pallet racking the plan bracings are absent, the sideways

displacement of the frame-work without back bracing (frame-work b)
can only be opposed by the pallets present. For the friction between
pallets and beams and the diaphragm action of the pallets cause a
coupling between frame-work b and the braced frame-work 'a'. Since
the possibility exists that one or more levels contain none, or too
few pallets, the plan bracings are necessary to couple frame-work b
to frame-work 'a'.
If none or too small coupling with frame-work 'a' is present at
the place of level A (see the figure above), then the node
points of frame-work b at the place of this level can indeed be
displaced sideways and the buckling length of the particular upright
part will become twice as large on the assumption of hinged ends.
Since the normal force in the upright decreases with the height, it
is however not necessary that a plan bracing is applied at each beam
level.
4.3.1
End conditions in the beam calculation

The stiffness of the beam in the upright is determined by the stiffness
of the connection and by the adjoining racking construction:
= + 0
b
M
'
_M__
'
r
-> -L
_+ !
c, = Jc
c
b
= -adjoining racking construction
= -connection
_M_
C C
rc
+
r
Recommendations
The plan bracing (2) has to be applied to enable framework b to be

regarded as braced, with the exception of:
n _< 5 : at the place of the two highest loaded beam levels
5 < n _< 8: at the place of the three highest loaded beam levels
8 < n <_ 11: at the place of the four highest loaded beam levels
where: n = number of loaded beam levels
If the situation of a beam in relation to the accompanying diagonals,
does not satisfy Section 1.4.2.4, then a separate horizontal member has
to be applied which does satisfy Section 1.4.2.4.
4.3
The beam
4.3.1
D_2Diri2 ns i2 *?. 5e55_2Hiri2}

It is always allowed to account for a beam uprightconnection as a
hinge in dimensioning the beam.
If the partial fixity at the beam ends is taken into account, then one
has to take into account the looseness and the rotation stiffness of
the connection itself, and also the rotation stiffness of the adjoining
racking construction. This means that the rotational spring constant
at the beam end, c , is equal to:
c, =
"b
c c
c r
c
+ c
where: c = rotational spring constant = / = moment/rotation

c
= rotational spring constant of the beam
71
Comments
Moreover, c
~ ?2
is in general only effective after an occurring rotation
equal to the angle of looseness , over which rotation the beam has
to be considered as simply supported (see Section 3.5.4.2, point (a)).
The smallest value for c
occurs near the top beam in an end bay
since in that case the adjoining racking construction at one beam end
consists of only an upright, while the uprights do not extend above
the beam at both ends. For the beams in an end bay the c values are
r
given.
Example of an optimal beam dimensioning, in which the semi rigid joint
is taken into account:
rh
/
d 0\
rcr2
q
, , , , , ,. ,
JQs|
Mline: 1^.
i M ma;
Vx = 1 2 - ^
= L2*_ _ L+
max
384 EL
b
"f * * 2
1)2
16 EI
b
M
f
where:
q
= beam load according to Section 3.1.3
= see Section 4.2, in which c accordinq to Section 4.1

;
3
r2
= see Section 4.2, in which c , and c according to Section 4.1
3
rl
r2
q
o
= see Section 4.2

= angle of looseness according to Section 3.5.4.2, point (a)
(necessary for determination q )
a2
gTj g^
extra moment on the basis of Section 2.3.1; this value

applies to two or more pallets per pair of beams
72
Recommendations
rotational spring constant of the beamupright connection.

This has to be determined according to Section 3.5.4.2,
point (a).
c
= rotational spring constant of the adjoining construction

(N.B.: c can differ at both ends of the beam).
r
When a precise calculation is desregarded then the following values for

c
have to be taken into account:

r
2 EI
(top beam)
'rl
4 EI
(other beams)
'rl
2 c I.
2 1
o b
u,
c
o = ( P T + ~ ~ Z ) E
r2
c iL + 2 EI,
h
2 c I
4 1
c
E
> = ( o x Ci pr + )
r2
c I + 2 EL
h
c
b
c
,.
P
(t
beam
,
)
,or c = c
r2
rl
(other beams)
where :
c . = c on one end of the beam
rl
r
c = c on the other end of the beam
r2
r
h
= maximum occurring distance between the beams
c
(= compartmentheight)
= movimi im occurring beam length
I,
b
= moment of inertia of the direct adjoining beam in relation

to bending in the plane perpendicular to the upright frames
(in the absence of a direct adjoining beam: I. = 0)
= moment of inertia of the uprights in relation to bending

in the plane perpendicular to the upright frames
particular bearru
' .
'
Cc
.r
'_
direct adjoining
beam
I no)
m
\{
i
!
direct
adiai ning beam
- 7?
J
Comments
The load is applied to the beams via pallets, which results in opposing
the free lateral buckling of the beams. This results in a higher lateral
buckling load than according to the classical laterial buckling formulae
which are used in the calculation (fork bearings, pallet influence
neglected). Therefore it is stated that the beam-upright connection can
be regarded as a fork bearing, independent of the way of construction of
this connection.
Since it has appeared from experiments that the positive influence of
the pallets on the lateral buckling behaviour can be considerable, it
is advised to carry out experiments, in those cases in which the lateral
buckling criterion is decisive on the basis of the classical lateral
buckling calculations (see Section 6.6).
4.3.2
Only the strength at mid span has to be checked, because the strength
of the beam next to the connection with the upright forms part of the
results of the required tests on the beam-upright connection.
4.4.1
In the strength calculation of the beam-upright connection, the
assumption of a hinge is not conservative and is therefore not allowed.
This is opposite to the beam calculation. Since the connection possesses
always a certain stiffness c , a certain end moment will always be
present. Moreover, this stiffness is necessary in the case of unbraced
pallet rackings, since they have to prevent instability by progressive
increase of sideways displacements. This function leads also to extra
end moments :
0
N^
^^
M as a result of the beam-load,

caused by pallets
M
as a result of sideways displacement:
Total: M = M_ + M
t
s
Recommendations
When examining the lateral buckling phenomenon mathematically, the

beam upright connection can be regarded as a fork bearing.
Fork bearing:
(a) Rotation about the length axis is prevented
(b) Warping of the section is not prevented.
4.3.2
rf}3r?}_2r'Sua5;'on
In calculating beams, stresses caused by sideways displacements in the
case of unbraced pallet racks may be omitted.
Only the beamstrength at mid span has to be checked.
4.4
Beamupright connection
4.4.1
rf!32i}_E'riirrrr5i2D
The beamupright connection has to satisfy Section 3.5.4.1. If a precise
calculation is disregarded, then this connection has to be dimensioned
on the following forces:
(a) Braced pallet racking
: M
= M_ + M
c
S
= S c + S.
f
(b) Unbraced pallet racking: either M

c
or
either S
or
c
c
= M
r
=
+ M
i
M_
= S
= S
c
+ M
+ S
s
i
+ S
f
74
Comments
A s a p p e a r s from t h e f i g u r e a b o v e , t h e m o m e n t s a r o u n d t h e b e a m
middle
will only slightly increase by the sideways displacements. For this

r e a s o n t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s i d e w a y s d i s p l a c e m e n t s h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d in
the b e a m d i m e n s i o n i n g
(see S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 2 ) . S i n c e t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
b e a m n e x t to the c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e u p r i g h t f o r m s p a r t o f t h e
results of the required tests on the beam connection, a strength
on this c r o s s s e c t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n o m i t t e d in t h e b e a m
The moment M
check
dimensioning.
is d e t e r m i n e d b y m a n y f a c t o r s :
fb
- bending stiffness of beams
I '
EI
u
bending stiffness of uprights:
h '
c
connection stiffness c ;
c
- stiffness between the floor and the upright;
- initial out-of-plumb
according to Section 1.4.2.1)
In order to simplify the calculation of M
as much as possible, the
following calculation model has been maintained:
M s = cc = ccS
Mf[=cU
i, /
1
Ro
F '
"H,
h:
1 '
'
M.S I
cuS
- tan - S
S= S i d e s w a y
in radians
-li;
>51
^M.
ff
Assumption: beams and uprights are infinetely rigid in relation to c
Recommendations
where: M
= maximum end moment due to a partial fixity as a result

of the design loads Q
= either
= maximum shear force at the beam end as a result of the
= 12(5, + 2 EI, 1/c )

b
c
3
(g q 0 H
or
4(22, + al+ 6 EI, l/c,_0)
b
b2
design loads Qp
Sc
= either 5 qi,
o
j
M.
+ j-
Mf
= extra end moment caused by impact; on the basis of

Section 2.3.1:
2 oallets per pair of beams:M. = 0.2 M_

i
f
3 pallets per pair of beams: M. = 0.1 M
S.
= extra shear force at the beam end caused by impact; on

the basis of Section 2.3.1:
2 pallets per pair of beams: D. = = q
. 3 pallets per pair of beams: D. =
I + 6 EI l/c b 2
b 2 = Cc
I + 6 EI l/c w 1
bl
c, , = see Section 4.1, in which c = c .
bl
r
rl
= uniformly distributed design beam load (see Section 3.1.3)
= uniformly distributed load whereby as a result of looseness

an end moment is not quite provided by the connection
= 3
= angle of looseness according to Section 3.5.4.2, point (b)
I,
I ,eh
b, u
M
= see Section 4.1
= end moment in the beam caused by sideways displacement of an

unbraced pallet racking(as a result of horizontal loads and
2nd order effects); (stabilizing moment)
2M
S
= shear force at the beam end, due to M ; S =
s
s
s s
s
(2, = beam length)
Comments
~ '^
Because each frame of a pallet rack undergoes the same sidesway, the
following moment equilibrium with respect to point A is obtained:
y*v.
u n
u n
u r
u M^ + 1 M . =
F, h, + S
R. h. +YF , l v + . h
f
S l
l
*
i =l S1
j = l i=l
i-i 1 1
?h t
j - i i - l L H:3 -i
or:
u c S +
f
where: m
y* .
u n
u n
u
r
1 M. =
F. h. + S
R. h.+YF v h + . h
, si
. . . . Si
. . . . i
ph t
. . . . i Hi
=1
3 = 1 i=l
j = l i=l
j = l 1=1
= number of bays
= number of loaded beam l e v e l s per frame
= t o t a l number per frame of forces H.
= number of upright frames
v.
y
u
= number of connection type

i with c = c .
i e
c
ci
= number of connection types
n
j1
R.
= means that
has to be taken into account for each upright

i=l
= reaction force on the upright from the two adjoining beams,
due to design loads
= horizontal placement load (see Section 2.2.3.2)
F . = horizontal load in the design state caused by the initial

outofplumb, plus the horizontal load caused by .. That
means total horizontal load according to Section 2.2.4.
In case of pallet racks with constant compartmentheight h , only one
connection type and equal beam loads the above equations can be replaced
by the following equation:
c,0 S +2n M = F,,, h. + S R. h. + F . h.

fie
s
. . Si
. i i m ph t
i=l
i=l
F. = (0.005 + JR.
(see Section 2.2.4)
Si

R. = Q ; Q = compartment load in the design state
2
> S c_. + 2n M = (0.005 + ". + S) .
fi,
s
4
> Ms =
h Q + F , tl
c *c m ph t
c
*8 (0.005 + rZ
0 + S) h Q + ^ F , li 4~ *o
c "c 2m n ph t 2n f
Recommendations
In case of pallet rackings with constant h , only one connection

type, no special horizontal loads (e.g. SOE loads) and equal beam
loads the following equation for M
M
where:
*
8
can be derived (see the Comments)
(0.005 + . + S) li Qx + ~ - F , li - ~
c c
2mn ph t
2n
cc0
r
= number of loaded beam levels
= number of bays
= mean value of the angle of looseness according to'

Section 3.5.4.2, point (c)
= height of a compartment; vertical distance between the

beams and between the floor and the first beam level
= vertical compartment load due to design loads

(in general: Q
pair
x
c = Q ; = number of pallets per cc
of beams)
= load factor = 1.5
F , = horizontal placement load according to Section 2.2.3.2

Ph
h
= distance between the floor and the highest loaded beam

level
(in general total heigth of the racking)
c f . = rotation stiffness of the floor-upright connection (see

Sections 3.4.2.3 and 4.8.3, point (c)
S
= sidesway of the rack in the design state ;

S = ---, or shall be calculated more precise. In case of
standard pallet rackings (see Section 4.1) with equal beam
loads the following equations for S can be derived (see the
Comments):
S =
(0.005 + .)
__
cf
f0
with: c
,
1
c
where: c
2 n c
2
*
4
*
6 El,
b
n)
Q +X F u h
c *c
m ph t
+ ,
4
-
hcQ c
c
6 El
u
= mean value of the rotation spring constant of

the beam-upright connection, according to
Section 3.5.' .2, point (c)
76
Comments
this relationship for M
the sidesway S is unknown. This sidesway can
be chosen equal to the sidesway in the ultimate limit state with regard
to this kind of deformation, which means: S = . It is also possible
to determine S more accurate in an iterative way.
In case of standard pallet racks with constant beam loads, the following
can be derived from the above given calculation model when taking into
account an equivalent rotation spring constant c . The bending stiffnesses
of the beams and uprightparts have been taken into account.
2c* =
Hh
+ 2 + 3
2M
6 ,
b
c
M
s
= c
e
EL
= S c
'i
GO
= (0.005 +
(0.005 + ) ( n
> S =
'f
ETu-co
-=
Moment equilibrium with respect to point A:

S + 2n Se
'
. + ,
+ S
h g + F . h
4
c *c
m ph t
+ n)
'l'
, _
+ 2n c
c
Q +lp
h
c *c
m ph t
+ ,
h Q
c c
Recommendations
'
Comments
77
'
Full scale tests carried out at the "Institute TNO for Building
Materials and Building Structures" (IBBC-TNO) have shown that this
equation for S is sufficiently accurate (N.B.: only five tests with
c
= ca 20 respectively, ca 40 kNm/rad). A more precise calculation
model has been described in TNO report nr. BI-77-29/05.3.51256

"Simple design formula with regard to frame instability of unbraced
pallet racks" (it is recommended to take the parameter a, which is
used in this report, equal to zero).
4.4.2
riD2sr_2aiEHiri2D
A check of the equivalent rotation stiffness c has appeared to be

necessary (e.g. from the full scale tests mentioned in the Comments
of Section 4.4.1). For it is possible that in case of a relatively
low rotation stiffness of the beam-upright connection (c = 0.7 O.9 c
c
c
a pallet racking fails due to progressive rotation of these connections
4.2.3
Beam_connector_lock
The interaction of forces between a connector lock, an upright and
the end plate of a beam is considerably influenced by local eccentrici
ties. Tests have shown that the failure load of different connector
lock-upright-connection type combinations, but with the same connector
lock, can differ about 30%. Therefore the upward force a connector
lock can bear has to be determined experimentally.
Recommendations
4.4.2
77
Stiffness calculation
The beamupright connection of unbraced pallet racks shall be
sufficiently rigid to satisfy the following condition in the design
state:
-
where: s = sidesway in the plane perpendicular to the frames in
radians
In case of standard pallet racks (see Section 1.4) with constant beam
loads, the above requirement can be replaced by:
c* > - \ (0.25 + 50 +
c 2n
1
Symbols: see Section 4.4.1.
4.4.3
Beam connector lock

To satisfy Section 2.2.3.1 beam-upright connections with hooks shall
be provided with beam connector locks.
The strength of a beam connector lock shall be determined experimentally
according to Sections 6.1 and 6.8.
78
Comments
4.5
Buckling lengths in braced pallet rackings

The effective length factor of upright parts in the plane of the
upright frame shall be taken equal to 1.
This means that restraints has been neglected at the base plate and
at the connections between the upright and the horizontal members
and/or between the upright and the diagonals. This has been done
because of the following:
(a) The, in general, anything but rigid connection between the upright
and the horizontal members and/or between the uprights and the
diagonals.
(b) The non constant floor properties (see Comments of Section 3.4.2.2)
(c) The, in general, unbraced lowest part of the upright frame:
neutral
flexure point
C, D: highest frame
node point of the
lowest triangle
(ABC resp. BCD)
with fixed shape.
The assumption of a hinged end condition at the floor may be somewhat

conservative, e.g. in case of a flat concrete floor. However, by this
assumption the ability of taking impact by collissions (mostly at the
lowest upright part) has been increased.
Recommendations
4.5
'
Buckling lengths in braced pallet rackings

In the buckling calculation of uprights in braced pallet rackings (see
Section 4.2) the following buckling lengths have to be maintained:
(a) Buckling in the plane of the frame:
(K = 1)
where:
= system
length
or = distance between the floor and highest frame node point of

the lowest triangle with fixed shape
(see Comments) '
(b) Buckling perpendicular to the plane of the frame:
= h
> h
(K
where :
h
= "storey height" of the back bracing (see Section 4.2)
= distance between the beams at the place of the particular

upright part
= effective length factor
1]
- 79
Comments
In section 4.5 it is also stated that the buckling length perpendicular

to the plane of the upright frame should never be taken smaller than
the beam level distance h , also when the "storey-height" of the back
bracinq h
is smaller than h . The reason for this is that the buckling

c
lengths in the case of frame-work b (see Section 4.2) will never be

smaller than the beam level distances, since the uprights can only be
sideways supported at the place of the beams, by means of the plan
bracing and/or by means of the pallets present.
4.6.1
Buckling in the plane of the upright frame
ctf
BPOF2
7Fph
X
7Fph
AN
^ph
Btf
eSf
TFC=F-,* Fl
Because of simplicity, the buckling check in the plane of the upright

frame is prescribed at:
(a) a constant compression force F , equal to the maximum value which
occurs in the particular upright part;
(b) a top moment equal to eS , because the beam position is not constant
(c) a horizontal placement load, applied at 0.5
Recommendations
4.6
- 79 -
Load on upright in braced pallet rackings

An upright part is generally loaded as follows:
= axial compressive force
F. = transversal load
M^ = top moment
t
bottom moment
"b
Mb
If a precise calculation is disregarded, in standard pallet rackings
(see Section 4.2) loads according to Sections 4.6.1 and 4.6.2 shall
be taken into account when dimensioning the uprights according to
Section 3.6.3.
4.6.1
252_2_:}_&2. 2_5}_ u E i 2} t _f r 2
F
= maximum compressive force in the particular upright part

in the design state.
t=YFph
Mt e S
> M_ = F , w
D
4 ' ph b
"b = 0
Symbols: see Section 4.6.2.
80
Comments
This is a conservative method. A more exact buckling calculation is,

of course, always allowed.
4.6.2.
H2S'in2_E2EeDiEyiE_t2_.r!}e_2ia}2_2 ri}2_rEEi2lr Er a 2 e
(a) Upright which is a part of an end bay.
The uprights of the upright frame which is a part of an end bay,
but which is no end upright frame, are maximumly loaded by q because
of the different rotation stiffnesses at both beam ends. Extreme
situation:
* * ; * D i-r-T
B'
TJ-JLJL
i * i i
rxxz
M
w QZ3Z
k i
MM
t t t t
///////////////////////
Shear force S
= q
8 ^
4
Shear force S
= -$ q
BC o
QXE
B B
^FCB
4 + t ) * 4 = i 1 **
This, approximately 10% larger compressive force F

in the upright
cB
which borders onto an outer upright, is disregarded in the prescribed
loads.
(b) Non constant h values,
c
In the case of non constant h values, but per bay an equal h
distribution over the height of the rack, the following design rules
can be used:
either F = j q
c
M t = 0.5 ML
4a 1 Ku
; +
u
3K
j ,.
Recommendations
4.6.2
80
"22îiD2_E2Eii2HiaE_2_}2_E5De_2;_}e. HB2^_Eane
In the case of buckling perpendicular to the plane of the upright frame,
two load combinations shall be checked:
either F = q
c
^
0
=
M
t
0
"b =
0
F
t =
F
or
(n c =
Mt =
"b =
F
b*
4K
u
7K
- d -- r)
r
3K
0
t =
where:
e
= distance between the web of the beam and the neutral axis of
the upright parallel to the web
Sf
= q
F
= see Section 2.2.3.2
ph
= load factor (= 1.5)

M
= fixing moment at a beam end in case of a chessboard loading
V*b + ! 7 5 V
f
21^ + 2.33 K u
2 EI, c
_
b c
~ ~c+ 2 El
c
b
3
u
^
3
24 EI
M
r
'
s e e t h e Comments
!
0.75 M t
b
t
=
' s e e the Comments)
v
û
= uniformly distributed design load on one beam
= beam length
= maximum number of loaded beam levels
I,
b
I
= moment of inertia of the beam

= moment of inertia of the upright
81
Comments
or
F = (j 2 > <3
3a
2 u
M^ = 7K + 3 K M,
u
b
3 u
7K + 3
*b
u
3a
where: h = the smallest value of the following measures:

distance between beam centrelines of the compartment
above the particular upright part
at the place of the particular upright part
below the particular upright part
(N.B.: by chosing h in this way conservative values
for M and/or M are found)
a , s. and a., according to the following table:
CASE
part of upright which borders
other upright parts
onto the floor
4(lr)
3r
= number of loaded beam levels above the particular upright

part
(c) Chessboard loading.

WUiW f i A U
J A U U
SHED
ama
UUHI
EXES i
mmi
SSHL
'
snus
IMI
UlUUi
aam
unm
una
SUBS
//////////////////////////y///////////
upright part AB: load combination with F = ( =) q
c
2
upright part CD: load combination with Fc = n q
Recommendations
81
= maximum rotation spring constant of the beam-upright connection

(see Section 3.5.4.2, point (b))
h
c
= distance between the centre lines of two successive beams

(= compartment height)
= reduction coefficient due to a partial fixity at the floor;

*b
1
3 EI + c i0
u
f
2 EI
u
c.f
= buckling length
= rotation spring
spring constant of the floor-upright connection
(see Sections 3.4.2.3 and 4.8.3, point (c)
82
Comments
In deriving the design formulae for M
and M
in case of chess-board
loading, the following calculation model has been used:
M b = ^-M t
conservative end
condition
Reduction of the bending stiffness of the uprights due to the

present normal force has been neglected, which is conservative
(too high M
and M ). The assumed end conditions are mostly
conservative in case of the upright part bordering onto the top

beam. In general this upright part is not determinative.
*
Recommendations
4.7
82
Unbraced pallet rackings

By unbraced pallet rackings are meant rackings which do not satisfy
Section 4.2.
4.8
Buckling lengths in unbraced pallet rackings

In the buckling calculation of uprights in unbraced pallet rackings
the buckling lengths given in Sections 4.8.1 to 4.8.3 shall be maintained
Comments
4.8.2
- Bucklin2_in_the_p_lane_of_the_upr2ht_frame; unbraced upright_frame

The connections between the uprights and the bracing members of the
upright frame are, in general, far from rigid. Therefore it is
recommended to design braced upright frames according to Section 1.4.2.4
Some information about the behaviour of such connections has been given
in the R.M.I, reports
(R.M.I. = Rack Manufacturer's
"Upright frame tests" (draft, August
1977)
"Interpretation of upright frame test results"
4.8.3
Bu
Institute):
2!S'i-D2_E2EB22cH-'-a_t2_r2-e_EaDe_2_t^2_rB2?}r
(draft, August
1977)
fjases
The difference in the buckling behaviour of uprights in braced and

unbraced rackings is described in the Comments to Section 3.6.3. It
appears from that, that the buckling lengths in unsupported
rackings
are larger than the compartment heights. The measure in which the
buckling length increases in the unbraced case, is dependent on the
following factors:
(a) Stiffness of the semi-rigid joint at the floor
(b) Stiffness of the semi-rigid beam-upright connections
(c) Bending stiffness of the beam in relation to that of the
T
I
b
u
upright (r- in relation to )
c
(d) Reduction of the bending stiffness of the bordering upright part (s)
due to the particular normal force
(N.B.: F
buckling
= FT,
load)
> EI
= 0; F
= design value for the overall

r
- 83 -
Recommendations
4.8.1
u23Si22_!}_:!}e. _Ei}2_2l_}5_HEi2^t_f rame_braced_ugri2ht_f rame

Reference is made to Section 4.5, point (a).
4.8.2
Buckling in the plane of the upright_frame_;_unbraced_ugright_frame

The buckling lengths in the plane of the upright frame of uprights which
are part of an unbraced upright frame, shall be determined according to
the usual methods of applied mechanics. In this determination one shall
take into account the following properties of the connections between
the uprights and the bracing members (diagonals and/or horizontal members)
(a) rotation stiffness
(b) stiffness against displacement in the longitudinal direction
of the bracing member
Figure R2 (page 86) can be of assistance in this.
4.8.3
Bu
2?S^^22_E2rB22di22iai_t2_i}2_EiD_2_!}2_HE2}r
If a precise calculation is disregarded, the following buckling lengths

shall be taken into account in the buckling calculation of the uprights :
(a) Frames with two or more bays and two or more beam levels and
equal upright frames :
- Upright part bordering onto the floor
. flat concrete floor and c > 50 kNm/rad: , = 1.5 h
c
b
c
. flat concrete floor, c > 50 kNm/rad
and anchored
. bitumen floor and c
_> 50 kNm/rad
. other floor material and c > 50 kNm/rad
(K = 1.5)
. = 1.4 h (K = 1.4)
b
c
I, = 3.0 h (K = 3.0)
b
c
Dependent on the stiffness of the floor material and the surface

conditions of the floor (measure of flatness) in comparison with
flat concrete and bitumen, one shall interpolate between K = 1.5
and K = 3.0
- Upright part between two beam levels (no top beam)
. c > 50 kNm/rad
c
: . = 1.5 h (K = 1.5)
b
c
- S4
^
Comments
In fact the buckling lengths for every possible racking configuration

should have to be determined, starting from the present values of the
above mentioned magnitudes. However for practical reasons it is decided to
prescribe fixed values for the buckling lengths (K-factors). Since it
appeared that the stiffness of the beam-upright connection c
most
has in
practical situations a relatively important influence on the
buckling lengths present, the stated buckling lengths are indeed coupled
to a minimum value for c .
c
In prescribing the buckling lengths (K-factors) distinguish has been
made between rackings with one or more bays and between rackings with
one or more beam levels. The reason for this is in case of:
- one bay
: - restraint by only one beam-upright connection instead

of two ;
- relatively few number of floor-upright and beam-upright
connections.
- one beam level: - no restraint by an adjacent upright part;

- relatively important influence of the floorupright connection whose properties show a considerable
scatter;
- relatively few number of beam-upright connections.
In case of a bitumen floor a hinged end condition has been assumed in
estimating the buckling length (K-factor) of the upright part bordering
onto the floor.
Since it appeared that the K-factor varies very much with the end
conditions in case of a single beam level, an accurate calculation of
K has been prescribed in this case (K ranging from ca 2. to ca 7.)
Sufficient insight into this problem of determining the proper K-factor
is at present non-existent. All this is also the reason why the buckling
lengths of anchored and non-anchored rackings are so closely related.
- 84 -
Recommendations
Upright part bordering onto the top beam:

. c > 50 kNm/rad : , = 1.75 h
c
b
c
(K = 1.75)
(b) Frames with one bay and two or more beam levels.
The K-factors given in point (a) shall be multiplied by the factor 1.4.
(c) Frames with one beam level.
The K-factor shall be determined from Figure R2 (page 86) when taking
into account the following end conditions:
- at the floor :
m<
. flat concrete floor
2: c R l =
m > 3: c
=
Rl
0
30 kNm/rad
m = total number of bays

(see Section 3.4.2.3)
. flat concrete floor and anchored
. bitumen floor
HI
= 200 kNm/rad
=
0 kNm/rad
K.1
at the beam level

. end upright
:c
R2
. other uprights: c
R2
1
c
c
1
c
c
6 EI,
b
6 EI
b
By anchoring is meant that at least two anchor bolts, satisfying

Section 3.4.1.6, point (b), are present per upright at both sides of the
neutral axis, parallel to the plane of the upright frame, of the upright
section.
In case smaller values are present for c
than the stated minimum value
of 50 kNm/rad, the above mentioned buckling lengths (K-factors) have to

be multiplied by the factor:
Comments
85
- 85 Recommendations
c
c
ca
cm
1
6
EI
6 EI.
b
*
3
EI
u
c
3 EI
u
h
where :
c
= rotation spring constant of the beam upright connection

according to Section 3.5.4.2, point (c)
c
= actual (present) value for c
ca
c
c
= minimum c value of 50 kNm/rad
cm
c
= beam length
h
= length of the particular upright part
I,
= moment of inertia of the beam
= effective length factor
Comments
- 86 -
- 86 -
Recommendations
= oo
0,3 0A 05 Oo I 0,81 1
07 09
0,2
70 90
rotation
free
c
g
ta
1
A. i
vzz 1
limited
impossible
1
Sr
///
<u
.Q
w
.A
7,7,
(elastic restraint)
Fig. R2: K-factors as a function of the end conditions of a strut with no

restraint against sideways displacement.
P7
Comments
4.9.3.'
Buc
kling_perpendic^lar_to_the_jDlane _^_22}2 ^rSe
In the case of unbraced pallet-rackings, in the plane of the upright

frame the upright load distinguished itself from the load in the case
- 87 -
Recommendations
4. 9
Load on uprights in unbraced pallet rackings

An upright part is generally loaded as follows:
Uff* '
A
= axial compressive force
F. = transversal load
M_ = top moment
t
bottom moment
"b
If a precise calculation is disregarded, in standard pallet rackings

(see Section 4.1) the loads according to the Sections 4.9.1 to 4.9.3
shall be taken into account when dimensioning to uprights according
to Section 3.6.3.
4.9.1
B c
H lSiin2_^}_2Ê_Ei22_0^ 2}2_22^ ra52l 2rc2_rEri2'lt r a 5 e
Reference is made to Section 4.6.1.
4.9.2
22lSîn9_r2_r}S_E^n2_0_r^2_2E2}r_ra9ei_2}22c2_rBE:i-2}r_in2
The top and bottom moments acting on the upright parts as a result
of the horizontal loads in the plane of the upright frame shall be
determined according to the usual methods of applied mechanics. See
also the remarks made in Section 4.8.2.
4.9.3
HE k i i !}9_E?E e 2 d i c r l a _r2_ t i} e _Ei a 2 e _2E
rhe_rE22-r_fame
In the case of buckling perpendicular to the plane of zhe upright frame,

two load combinations shall be checked:
88
Comments
of braced pallet rackings by the extra top and bottom moments, which
arise from the transfer of the horizontal loads to the floor. In
braced pallet rackings this happens namely via the bracing members,
while in unbraced rackings this has to happen via the uprights. These
extra first order top and bottom moments have to be added to the
moments caused by a local chess-board loading (see Comments to Section
4.6.2). In the determination of the extra moments by the horizontal
load, use has been made of the following calculation-model:
Hn.H,.H2
Mt =
Mb=j(H^H2)
"n="b
Mt = r / y b / 7 c 3
Hr\ = Hi+H2+H2
Mb=(1-r)Mt
In case of non-constant h -values, but per bay an equal h -distribution

over the height of the rack, the following design rules can be used for
upright parts which do not border onto the floor:
- either F
= j q
M^ =
-H . h
-
2 D c]
2
= (j - 2]
M^ =
"b
H. h . +
2 j
c;)
2
^ h . m
cj
y F
%
or
h
m
cj
- 2 M,
It
3
1 k"ph
- 2
h
.
+
H . h . + I M'
2
m
C]
2j
j
ej
I t
_1_
1 Y Foh
]
2
, S
CD
2j
D ej
I Mt
88
Recommendations
- either F
= n q
M. = r H, h
b c
ph
+ - h
m c
Ph
M, = - (1 - r) \ H, h + - ^ h
b c
' m c
= (n - j)
- or
M, =
"b
n -2
I + t
n
*b h c
+ r
n
1
~ J
- (1 - r) (- M* I +
riti
n
^ h
m
c
F
H, h
b c
nh
+ -=- h )
m
c
where:
M*
t
total horizontal design load per bay as a consequence of the
according to Section 4.6.2, belonging to F
loads prescribed in Section 2.2.4.1.

m
Ph
total number of bays

see Section 2.2.3.2
Other symbols: see Section 4.6.2, point (b)
(n - y) q
Recommendations
- 89 -
- 89 Comments
where:
M
= M
according to the Comments of Section 4.6.2, point (b),
in combination with the same equation for F

c
h . = distance between beam centrelines at the place of the
cj
particular upright part
H. = sum of the horizontal design loads which are situated above
3
the particular upright part, as a consequence of the loads

prescribed in Section 2.2.4.1.
Other symbols: see Section 4.6.2, point (b).
Comments
5.1.1
- 90
End conditions
The fact that the beam rail-cantilever bracket connection has to be taken
into account as a hinge, does not mean that the effects of a continuous beam
rail over several cantilever brackets should not be taken into account.
A continuous beam rail is always partly fixed at one end:
overlap
7777
777^
i rotation
77777
spring
Recommendations
5.
DRIVE-IN AND DRIVE-THROUGH RACKINGS
5.1
The beam rails
5.1.1
End conditions
- 90 -
The beam rail cantilever bracket connection shall be taken as a hinge.
5.1.2
Local_deformations
The beam rail profile can deform locally if the load transferred by the
pallets to the beam rails is not directly carried by a web. In the case
of an angle rail the size of this deformation has to be determined ex
perimentally according to Sections 6.1 and 6.10 (with the aid of clocks
c
to c ) .
In the working state this local deformation should not exceed 2 mm in

the direction of the load (see the figure given in Section 5.1.3).
5.1.3
2 a riD 5^22~_}_221
5is
If angle profiles are used as beam rails, the rotation about the longi
tudinal axis has to be determined experimentally according to Sections
6.1 and 6.10 (with the aid of clocks c
and c )
In the working state this rotation, inclusive the rotation of the canti
lever brackets,should not exceed 1/20 radian.
Comments
- 91 -
Recommendations
5.2
- 91 -
The pallet guides

The pallet guides shall be d:i mensioned for a horizontal point load
F , = 750 N (see Section 2.2.3.2), which acts at mid span,
ph
If the pallet guide and the beam rail are the same and if the span of
the pallet guide amounts more than twice the smallest used pallet depth,
the maximum lateral bending of the pallet guide as a result of F
has
to be taken into account in addition in satisfying Section 1.4.2.3 .

5.3
The cantilever bracket
5.3.1
5.3.1.1 The cantilever bracket-upright connection

The cantilever bracket-upright connection shall satisfy Section 3.5.4.1 .
In determining the bending moment on this connection, the following shall
be taken into account:
(a) Application point of the load.
(i)
angle rail: 10 mm from the edge of the directly loaded leg
(ii) other rail sections: at the web of the rail

(b) Lever arm
As lever arm the distance between the load and the centre of the
perforations in the upright shall be maintained.
Comments
- 92 -
5.3.1.2 The beam rail-cantilever bracket connection

The prescribed horizontal force of 3 kN on a beam rail-cantilever bracket
connection is stated on the basis of the present strength of most connec
tions used in practice at this moment. The horizontal force occurring in
reality will most probably be smaller. Since possible collapse of this
connection can cause the falling down of pallets it was decided to pres
cribe a force of 3 kN, also because this requirement is easily satisfied
in practice.
92 -
Recommendations
10 mm
-f
lever arm
>
.3
lever arm
5.3.1.2 The cantilever bracket-rail connection

The cantilever bracket-rail connection shall be designed for a horizontal
force of 3 kN.
In the check of the bearing strength of this connection the smallest edge
distance shall be taken into account
5.3.2
Rotation
At the working state, the rotation of the cantilever brackets with respect
to the upright shall not exceed 1/50 radian.
5.4
Cantilever bracket connector lock

Reference is made to Section 4.4.3 .
5.5
Braced drive-in and drive through rackings

By braced drive-in and drive-through rackings are meant rackings whose
uprights cannot displace sideways at the tup and the base, in the longi
tudinal direction as wel as the cross direction, and of which the upright
frames are braced according to Section 1.4.2.4 .
Comments
5.6.2
- 93 -
Buckling perpendicular to_the plane of the upright frames

The buckling lengths in Table R 7 are theoretically exact for those
cases in which at the top and the base of the upright a hinge and/or
complete clamping is pi-t-.sent and the load is realy
uniformly distri
buted. The latter is assumed to be so if'the following applies:

< - h
- 93
Recommendations
cross direction
(parallel to the drive-in
direction)
longitudinal direction
5.6
Buckling lengths in braced drive-in and drive-through rackings
5.6.1
Bu
2klU}9_i}_r} Ecan_^_r_HEi'?^r Sr?!
Reference is made to Section 4.5, point (a).

5.6.2
Buckling perpendicular to the plane of the upright frames

If a precise calculation is desregarded, the buckling lengths stated in
Table R 7 shall be maintained. The end conditions to be maintained in
this Table shall be determined on the basis of Sections 5.6.2.1 and 5.6.2.2
5.6.2.1 End condition at the base of the upright

(a) Hinge. A hinge shall be assumed if the requirements of (b) and (c)
are not satisfied.
(b) Semi-rigid joint. A semi-rigid joint may be maintained if the upright
is placed on a flat concrete floor and is provided with a base plate
which satisfies Section 3.4.1 .
(c) Complete clamping. A complete fixed joint may be maintained if the
rotation spring constant of the upright floor connection is at least
equal to :
50
EI
u
u
where,
I
= total upright length.
Comments
94
5.6.2.2 End condition at the top of the upright

The rotation stiffness at the top of the upright is determined by the
stiffness of the top ty -upright connection and by the bending stiff
ness of the top ty. The following situation is determinative for the
ratation stiffness at the top of the upright:
MVP
I
I
top tie
ST,
I
w>
4)i"
Recommendations
- 94
Tabel R 7 : Buckling lengths . in the plane perpendicular to the

uprights in braced drive-in or drive-through racking.5:
, = K h
b
u
Hinge:
-v-
Semi-rigid
joint:
! .
f
Complete
clamping:
\"~
. .\_
.1.
~"*
< f- h 0.73 0.65 0.56 0.60 0.50 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36
3
K-values
> \ h
3 u
0.90 0.80 0.65 0.75
0.70 0.55 0,65 0.55 0.45
= distance between the floor and the centre of gravity of

the resultant R
of the distributed vertical load.
= total upright height.
= effective length factor.
5.6.2.2 End condtions at the top of the upright

(a) Hinge. A hinge shall be assumed if the requirements of (b) and (c)
are not satisfied.
(b) Semi-rigid joint. A semi-rigid joint may be maintained if the rotation
spring constant at that place at least equals:
EI
(c) Complete clamping. A complete fixed joint may be maintained if the

rotation spring constant at that place at least equals to:
EI
50
N.B. Double-top tie. If at the top of the uprights a double-top ty
is applied, then h^ is the height of the upright measured to
the centre of the lowest top tie.
95
Comments
Rotation spring constant of the top tie, c
tt
4 EI
tt
M
:
tt = 3T
where,
I
= moment of inertia of the top tie
w,
b
= widht of a bay
The stiffness at the top of the upright c
is then equal to:
c c
c^ = tt et
t
c + c
tt
et
where,
c
= rotation spring constant of the top tieupright connection. This

has to be determined according to Section 3.5.4.2, point (a).
N.B. If pallet beams with hooked connections are used as top ties
the following apolies:
c ^ = 2c , in which c is the rotati
^ e~
et
c
c
spring constant of the beamupright connection.
5.7
Load on uprights in braced drivein and drivethrough rackings

The following figure serves as clarification of the symbols and terms
used in Section 5.7 :
symmetric-,
(/3M2=0)
J
r
bHFb
bFb
- asymmetric
(M2=0eFb)
ii
bit b
77777777777777777
bay
in pairs
n=3
Recommendations
5.7
95
Load on uprights in braced drivein and drivethrough rackings

In the buckling check of the uprights in braced drivein and drivethrough
rackings according to Section 3.6.3, the following twoload combinations
shall be regarded if the cantilever brackets have been applied in pairs
and are equally loaded:
either
F = 2 h F,
c
b
3M2 = 0
or
F
c
= (2 n 1) F.
b
M2 = o e F b
Comments
5-8
- 96
Deflection of the uprights in braced drive-in and drive-through rackings

The formula for the bending of the uprights given in Section 5.8 consists
of two parts :
lateral deflection of the uprights as a result of eccentric load
application
lateral deflection of one upright as a result of a horizontal load
which can appear during placing a pallet.
(a) Lateral deflection by eccentric loading.
If the calculation model stated in the figure below is used as a basis
for the loading of the racking from above to below, the following
relation can be derived:
Fe h
Aa, = C, (h + 1)
'3 u
1
1
- 96
Recommendations
where,
n
= total number of cantilever bracket levels which can be laoded
F.
b
= reaction force on the cantilever bracket in the design state
= distance between the point of application of F
according to
Section 5.3.1.1 and centre of the upright
= coefficient, to be determined according to Table R 8.
Table R 8:
-coefficients
o
5.8
0.25
2 t/m 4
0.35
>_ 5
0.40
Deflection of the uprights in traced drive-in and drive-through rackings

If a precise calculation is desregarded, the lateral deflection of the
uprights in the plane perpendicular to the upright frames to be taken
into account in Section 1.4.2.3, shall be calculated as follows:
Aa = { 5.5 (n + 1) + 0.4 h
} 10
-3
F^h
b u
EI
where,
Aa
= increase of the distance between the uprights as a result of

loading
= total upright length
e, n, F, : see Section 5.7 .

b
97
Comments
where,
Aa
= maximum accumulated increase of the upright deflection at

the position of a cantilever bracket
= variable, depending on the number of cantilever bracket levels.
VP
,-. -
11-3r
11
..
..\
i 1 i
40,2-^"
1st pallet ,
",'
2nd pallet
for example
ft
-=
01!
3rd pallet placed
At a maximum number of six loaded cantilever bracket levels (n = 6 ) ,

the value of Aa , appeared about equal for the various possiblities.
3
The C value belonging to this amounted to 5.5 10
(b) Lateral deflection by horizontal load.

At the moment there is insufficient information about the size of the
horizontal load produced in practice during placing. The part Aa_ of
this load in the displacement of two uprights in relation to each
other, has now been determined by means of displacements measured
in practice. This has
Aa =
Aa
The values for A a

as follows:
Aa^
led to the following relation for Aa 2 :
, where
Aa = average of the measurements
found in this way appeared to be able to be written
Recommendations
- 97
Comments
Aa2 = C,2
- 98 -
3
bu
I
u
Moreover, up to a maximum number of six loaded cantilever bracket

levels, about equal Aa
5.9
-values appeared to occur with C
= 0 . 4 10
Unbraced drive-in and drive-through rackings

The load-bearing capacity of unbraced drive-in and drive-through
rackings will be considerably less than of braced ones.
Recommendations
5.9
- 98
Unbraced drive-in and drive-through rackings

By unbraced drive-in and drive-through rackings are meant rackings
of which the upright tops can not displace sideways, only in the
plane of the upright frames.
5.10
Longitudinal stability of unbraced drive-in and drive-through rackings

The longitudinal
stability
(frame stability) of unbraced drive-in
and drive-through rackings shall be checked according to the usual

methods of applied mechanics (longitudinal direction: see figure given
in Section 5.5).
Comments
"
Recommendations
6.
TESTS
6.1
General
6.1.1
B22Hii5D_2r_mt}2
- 99 -
The performed tests have to satisfy the requirements stated

in the Sections 6.1.1.1 until 6.1.1.5.
6.1.1.1
Number
The value to be detemined has to be derived from at least
three experimental results, unless otherwise mentioned.
The used test-parts have to be taken from the normal production.
Depending on the occurring scatter, this series may possibly
have to be extended by another series of three (see Sections
6.1.2.3 and 6.1.2.4).
6.1.1.2
Boundary conditions
The boudary conditions during testing have to be in
agreement with the support requirements which are present
in the real construction. If this is not possible it is
allowed to choose boundary conditions which decrease the
failure load and/or increase the deformations.
6.1.1.3
The application of the load

The test load has to be applied in such a way that no
influence on or prevention of deformations can occur,
if this is not the case in reality as well.
- 100
Comments
6.1.1.4
The incrase of the test load

By characteristic deformations in Section 6.1.1.4 are meant
those deformations which have a direct relation to the
construction - behaviour to be examined.
For example :
- bend strength of beam
beam deflection
- frame-work instability
sideways displacement of the frame-work
If there is no reason to choose smaller step sizes, it is

advised to choose steps at a maximum of 10% of the collapse
load to be expected or of the maximum load to be applied. On
approaching of, for example, the failure load, smaller load steps
could be desirable in order to determine this as accurately
as possible. The step size should be coupled to the deformations
occuring:
t
6.1.1.5
Reporting
A description has to be given in the report of: test parts;

boudary conditions; method of loading; loadingapparatus; progress
of the tests, etc.
Recommendations
6.1.1.4 The increase of the test load

The load has to be applied step-wise. The characteristic
deformations at the place of one or more points of the
construction have to be measured at each load-step. The
deformations have to be measured after they have stabilised.
The step size has to be chosen in such a way that the value
to be determined can be determined well from the relation
between the load and the accompanying characteristic deformations.
The accuracy of the used measuring clocks has to be sufficient
in relation with the extent of the measured magnitude.
Loads which occur at the same time should also be applied and
increased in the test jointly and in the same relation as in
reality.
6.1.1.5 Reporting
A report has to be compiled of the set-up and method of the
test together with the measured results. The report should be submitted
during a possible check.
Comments
- 101 -
Recommendations
6.1.2
Dr2rErtari2n 2_rll2_t2r_EeSr^rs
For the interpretation of the test results the Sections
6.1.2.1 to 6.1.2.4 have to be applied.
6.1.2.1
Definition of failure load

The test part is regarded as having failed if:
the load cannot incrase any more, and/or
deformations have occurred which are too large :
>
50
>
50
> rad
5
where:
= deflection of a beam
= beam span
= outofplumbness
,
b
= angle over which a beam has rotated around the length

axis, and/or:
after offloading, undesired permanent deformations have

occured.
As failureload, the present load after the previous load
step has to be maintained. During the last load step failure
has occurred.
10
,
Comments
6.1.2.2
~ 102
C orrection of a failure load
The factor l/ is introduced because different circumstances,

often related to each other, in a limited number of tests,
could have been more favourable than in certain cases in
reality.
If the real failure load is determined more accurately

(Section 6.1.2.4), a smaller coefficient can be applied
in case of failure caused by instability (case (d)).
At a load factor =1.5 the given values agree with the following
margin in relation to the working state:
= 1.0
* * = 1.5
= 1.20
-y 1
= 1.80
= 1.25
* = 1.88
= 1.35
+ * = 2.03
( N.B.
a
290
is about ^ = 1.21)
240
where,
}
= the load factor to match in relation to a test result
Failure by instability phenomena with a negative post buckling

behaviour (lateral buckling, flexural buckling, framework
instability) is strongly influenced by a number of incidentals,
such as :
form deviations in relation to an ideally straight upright

or beam
accidental eccentricities in load application
residual stress distribution, etc.
- 102
Recommendations
6.1.2.2
Correction of a failure load
Failure loads shall be corrected as follows, before remoulding

them into a design value:
F .=
ci
F .
ui
where,
F . = measured failure load at test i

ui
F . = corrected failure load of test i

ci
= correction factor
(i) Determination of the design value according to Section

6.1.2.3:
cases (a) and (b) :
= ra
r = 1.20
(only allowed if it is not

possible to determine
)
ra
case (c)
= 1.0
case (d)
= 2.35
(ii) Determination of the design value according to Section 6.1.2.4:
cases (a), (b)+ (c):
above given
case
n < 10
: = 1.10
n > 20
: = 1.0
(d)
10 < n < 20
-values
: by linear interpolation
Comments
^^
Therefore, with these instability types the largest -factors

have to be taken into account.
Also in case of a statistically more reliable method
according to Section 6.1.2.3, it is decided to take certain
-factors into account depending on the number of tests. The
reason for this is the experience that constructional
properties of final rack component can differ considerably
over a certain period, because of non constant tolerances
of the fabrication machineries.
6.1.2.3
Determination of a design value

Because of the small number of test results, three or six
results, 0.9 times the minimum value has to be maintained.
Because failure loads are alreadv correct by (see Section
n
6.1.2.2), 1.0 times the minimum F .-value may be maintained
ci
instead of 0.9 times.

The reason for this 0.9 factor is the experience that construc
tional properties of final rack components can differ
considerably over a certain period, because of non constant
tolerances of the fabrication machineries.
Minimum design value means most unfavourable value in
relation to the load-bearing capacity.
Recommendations
where,
= locally present yield stress (actual yield stress),

relevant to the cause of failure (see Section 6.2.2)
= number of tests
Case(a) : in failure, the yield stress is the determining factor

Case(b) : during the test local deformations occur which
have influence on the proper functioning of the
particular construction part
Case(c) : elastic plate buckling
Case(d):in failure, instability (lateral - and flexural buckling,
local buckling of edge stiffeners, frame instability)
is the determining factor
If a certain failure mode does not exactly fit under the cases
a, b, c or d, then the constructor himself should determine the
factor to be taken into account on the basis of above -
described philosophy (see also the Comments).

6.1.2.3
Determination of a design value (see also Section 6.1.2.4)

A design value is defined in Section 1.2.
In case three tests have been performed, the design value
should be maintained as 0.9 times the minimum test result of
the magnitude considered or in case of failure loads, as the
minimum value of the corrected test results F . (see Section
CI
6.1.2.2), as long as the deviation from the average in relation

to the results amounts to 10% or less. If the deviation amounts
to more than 10%, then at least another three tests have to be
carried out. As design value 0.9 times (resp. 1.0 times
in case of failure loads F .) the minimum value of the 6 test
CI
results should be maintained in this case.
Comments
- 104
For example :
- Strength of a pallet beam:
minimum design value = minimum rotation stiffness of the
connection
- Strength of a beam-upright connection:
minimum design value = maximum rotation stiffness of the
connection
6.1.2.4
More accurate determination of a design value

The design value, V , determined according to Section
6.1.2.4 has been based on a "student-t" distribution with a
clearance of 5% with confidence limit of 95%. Table R 9 is taken
from the ISO directive 3 207-1975: "Statistical interpretation of
data - Determination of a statistical tolerance interval".
On application of the formulae given in Section 6.1.2.4 with a
small number of test results, the possibility exists that
a fairly large standard deviation is found which results in too
low values for V,. In this case the value for V, determined
d
d
according to Section 6.1.2.3 will be better in agreement with
reality.
_
Recommendations
104
Minimum design value should herewith be regarded as the most

unfavourable value for the examined value in relation to
the loadbearing capacity of the racking.
6.1.2.4 More accurate determination of a design value (see also Section 6.1.2.3)
If at least six tests have been carried out on test pieces
randomly choosen over a period of one year, the design
value, V,, may be determined as follows:
d
VJ = V. ks
d
where,
V.
= value of a test result ; if the test result concerned

is a failure load, than holds V. = F .
1
V.
C l
(F . according to Section 6.1.2.2)

ci
n
i=l V i
= average test result =
/ n
2N
, ,
i=l
= standard deviation =
:
n 1
. Z . (v. - v.
s
n
= number of tests (minimum 6)
= coefficient according to Table R9
Comments
-6.2.1
Test coupons
Euronorm 11-55: Tension test for steel sheet and strip steel
with a thickness of 0.5 to 3 mm
Euronorm
2-57: Tension test for steel
- 105
Recommendations
- 105
Tabel R 9 _ : k - coefficients
n
3.71
3.40
8
9
10
3.19
3.03
2.91
12
2.74
16
2.52
20
2.40
30
2.22
40
2.13
1
50
60
2.07
100
1.93
200
1.84
300
1.80
400
1.78
500
1.76
2.02
1.64
1000
N.B. The design value.for the yield stress shall be determined

according to Section 1.3.3.
6.2
The yield stress
6.2.1
Test coupons
Test coupons for the determination of the yield stress have
to be treated and tested according to:
Euronorm 11-55, if t < 3 mm
Euronorm
2-57, if t > 3 mm
The test coupon has to be orientated according to the principal

stress direction of the constructional element which will be
Comments
6.3
Bend test
Section 6.3 is based on the ISO directive "Cold Reduced
2
Steel Sheet of Structural Quality 220, 250, 320 and 550 N/mm
Minimum Yield Stress (second draft, November 1973) . The
prescribed mandrel dimension does however deviate from this
directive and has been stated dependent on the minimum inner
bend radius which is applied with the sections which will
be fabricated from the particular material quality. A small
safety margin is appliedby basing D on 0.9 r instead of r.
Euronorm 12-55 : Deformation - bend test for steel sheet and
strip with a thickness up to 3 mm
Euronorm
6-55 : Deformation - bend test for steel
- 106 -
Recommendations
or is made of the tested steel.
6.2.2
Th
_22a_Zi2i:_Er2fs
For the determination of the local yield stress

to correct
ra
the failure load (see Section 6.1.2.2), the test coupon has to betaken
from material which is located in a corresponding place in
the failed test piece. The test coupon has to be orientated
according to the direction of the stresses which caused collapse.
6.3
Bend test
By means of a bend test it can be shown if the steel is suitable
for cold-forming. This is the case if the test piece, after
bending over an angle of 180
around a mantrel with diameter D,
does not show any cracks on the outside, Small cracks which are not
visible by the naked eye, are disregarded.
*-* = roll-direction
D
= 1.8 | t
= inside bend radius
= material thickness
For r the minimum value has to be maintained which occurs in the

cold-formed section considered.
The bend test has to be carried out according to:
Euronorm 12-55, if t < 3 mm
Euronorm
6.4
6-55, if t > 3 mm
Compressive-test on stub uprights
- 107 -
Comments
6.4.1
The specimen
After sawing a certain length of a cold-formed section
from a longer part, the section will mostly deform
near the sawed ends because of the presence of residual
stresses. This phenomenon is called "spring back". This
deformation of the section influences the test result
negatively.
L J
'\
1
''
'
1 II
: spring back
'/' \'
r'
6.4.2
,1
The test method

The test specimen has to be compressed between ball
bearings, because if not parts of the section which
are tending to buckle locally are discharged, while
the stiffer flat members of the section are taking over
the load increase. This results in a too high failure
load, as is showed in the next figure:
ball bearing
stiff flat member
weak
flat member
Recommendations
6.4.1
Thespecimen
The specimen has to satisfy the following conditions:
(a) The specimen has to contain at least five times the

pitch of the perforations. If the length to match is
more than 30 times the smalles radius of gyration, the
latter length has to be taken.
(b) The specimen has to be cut exactly between two perforations.

The ends have to be made as flat as possible and perpen
dicular to the length axis of the section.
(c) Plates have to be welded on the ends and protrude the

specimen with at least 10 mm. Plate thickness at least 30 mm.
Before welding the plates, possibly appearing spring back of
the specimen has to be abolished as much as possible.
6.4.2
1?}2_S
5Ert2 d
The test specimen has to be placed in the testing machine

with ball bearings at both ends. These balls have to be
greased with molybden sulphide grease. To position the balls
properly a small hole has to be drilled into the plate.
For example:
Drilli D
7777,
^7>77
The centre of this hole has to coincide with the centre
of gravity of the minimum net cross section with a
tolerance of + 1 mm. The diameter D cf the balls have
to fulfil Table R 10.
Comments
Thus it is also important that the ball bearings can

rotate easily, that means relatively less friction.
Therefore the balls have to be greased with molybden
sulphide grease and the diameter D of the balls have
to fulfil Table R 10-
- 108
- 108 -
Recommendations
Table R 10: D as a function of F

expected failure load:
diameter ball :
D [mm]
F u [kN]
50
10
100
15
200
20
300
25
450
30
800
40
1250
50
llllllll
lOmm
llllllll
Ave ld
- 109 -
Comments
6.5.1
Test set-up
A four-point bending test has been prescribed because
of the presence of an area with constant bending
moment. This means that a certain length of the section
is in constant stress conditions, which is necessary
with regard to possible origin of local buckling. For
the same reason the deflection measurement has to be
done over the constant moment area.
The bending stiffness at a certain bending moment can
be calculated from:
EI =
x 2
a F
8 3
= 750 mm
* = 1000 mm
= maximum deflection
over 1000 mm
The next figure shows that local deformations of the

tested section can influence the deflection measurements:
i*=
- 109 -
Recommendations
6.5
Bend-test on profiles
6.5.1
Test_set-up_
The bend-test on profiles has to be carried out as
a four-point bending test:
a
*
1500 mm
a
4*
tV^t'
.
1*
a = 750 mm
VlOOOmm
-J
The test specimen has to be supported statically

determined. The load F has to be applied via ball
bearings. Measures have to be taken to provide local
buckling because of the concentrated load.
If besides the failure moment of the section also the
bending stiffness is measured, the deflection has to be
measured over the length with constant bending moment
(see the above figure). The measurement clocks have
to be applied in'such a way that the influence of local
deformations of the tested section are limited as much
as possible.
110 -
Comments
6.5.2
Test specimen
The upright sections occuring in practice are generally
singly symmetric. In the case of singly symmetric
profiles, the shear centre (s.c.) will not always
coincide with the plane of bending during bending
around one of the two main axes.
S.C.
* s.c.
If this is the case (left figure) then the profile will,

during the test, not only be loaded by bending but also by
twisting. If now two sections are connected to each other,
the s.c. of this combined section will coincide with the plane
of bending.
local
spot weld
s.c.
local strip
(e.g. at 2
locations
-4
-*\
s.c.
The two webs are influencing
No mutually influence of
possible local buckling
possible web deformations
deformations of each other
Recommendations
6.5.2
- 110 -
l252_f E52-M22?}
The length of the test specimen has to be at least
3200 mm.
If the shear centre of the test specimen does not
coincide with the plane of bending (asymmetric sections),
two sections have to be tested at the same time. These
two sections have to be sufficiently connected to
each other in such a way that web and/or flange deformations
of the two sections do not influence each other.
Comments
6.6.2
-111-
Application of the_load
There is a large variation in pallet types and a large number
of types can in principle occur in the racking during the
life time of the racking. Also the condition of the used
pallets can be fairly different.
If pallets are now used in a beam test, they in fact
are a constructive part of the racking, as far as the
lateral buckling behaviour of the beams is concerned. The pallets
prevent free lateral buckling of the pair of beams on which
they rest. The measure in which this takes place is dependent on:
(a) the bend stiffness of the pallet in the direction perpendicular

to the beams ;
(b) the diaphragm action of the pallet;
(c) the friction forces which can develop between pallet and beams
(influence of surface condition of the contact p l a n e s ) .
Recommendations
6.6
Testing of pallet beams with regard to lateral buckling
6.6.1
T s
jl
2 r_52rZrE
The test set-up has to be constructed from the following

components:
(a) Two upright frames not connected to the floor.
(b) Two beams which are connected to the uprights at the
same height and at least 1000 mm above the floor.
(c) Possible permanent provisions, if they are applied
in reality, which can influence the behaviour of the
beam (such as e.g., a connecting beam between the
beams to prevent lateral buckling).
(d) Connections between the beams and uprights, as they
are applied in reality.
6.6.2
Application of the load

The pair of beams have to be loaded by dead weight.
The load on the beams may be applied via pallets, as
long as these pallets satisfy the following requirements:
(a) If, besides wooden also steel or artificial fibre pallets
are used, the necessary test series has to be repeated
with pallets of each kind of material.
(b) In the case of wooden pallets, one should use four-ways,
double decks and non-reversible pallets.
Comments
~ 112 -
Because of this constructive aspect, the pallet type to be used

in the experiments and its conditions has to be defined as
clearly as possible.
As far as wooden pallets are concerned, this is done by
prescribing one particular pallet type and to couple the
condition to the length of use and the use circumstances. Since
in practice the contact plane of the pallet is usually dirty
and greasy, it is stated that this plane has to be made "greasy".
In the case of steel and artificial fibre pallets, the type has
not been described so accurately, since these pallettypes are
in development at the moment. Therefore it has been decided
to limit the directive to pointing to the constructive function
of the pallet, as appears from the sentence: "the most unfavourable
properties with regard to lateral buckling". These properties
are: stiffness, diapghragm action and friction (see above)
6.7.1
Test set-up
Most connections in racking possess a certain paly. This play
has the result that at a certain load the rotation of the
connection can increase at roughly a constant moment: "looseness"
appears (angle of looseness: . ) . Looseness has an important
influence on the stiffness c
c
of the connection (c = /), so

c
that the present .-value will have to be determined as accurately

as possible. Therefore in Section 6.7.1 the following is stated:
112
Rponmmpndations
(c)In the case of steel or artificial fibre pallets, the tests

have to be carried out with the most unfavourable pallet type,
in relation to lateral stability, which is used in practice.
(d) The pallets should have been used intensively under circum
stances about similar to the particular case in which
the beams are applied.
(e) The surface of the pallet which, comes into contact with the
beams has to be made "greasy", if this surface condition
can also be expected in practice.
N.B. In connection with the sometimes important increasing

influence of the pallets on the lateral buckling load,
it is advisable to apply the load always via the pallets,
if this is possible.
6.7
C onnection test to determine the momentrotation diagram

of beamupright connections
Characteristic for the behaviour of a beamupright or bracket

upright connection is the momentrotation diagram ( diagram).
This diagram has to be determined according to the Sections
6.7.1 and 6.7.2.
6.7.1
TS_sSrIuP
The test setup has in principle to be constructed as follows:
Comments
- 113
(a) Upright part vertical and beam part purely horizontal. In

this way the real situation with pallet-racking is simulated,
as far as the orientation of the connection
(hook, bolt) in relation
to the perforation wall is concerned.
(b) Assembly: As far as possible according to reality. In this the

following is considered:
- hook connection: the force with which the hookes are pushed
into the perforations
- bolt connection: the measure by which the bolts are tightened.
In the case of bolt connections slip will
only
occur after the
present friction force between the connected parts is exceeded.

The size of this force is determined by the actual bolt force caused
by tightening.
The distance between the force F and the connection determines

the relation between the moment M and the shear force S present
in the experiment.
The M/S value determines the direction of the forces on the fastener
(hook, bolt) and this direction determines also the deformations
occurring. However, from the little data which are available at present,
it appears that for M/S > 250 mm, the - diagrams deviate little
from each other. In racking M/S values occur which vary between
ca. 75 mm and ca. 500 mm. For practical reasons 300 mm is maintained.
M
Besides, very small ratio's at the test involves the following:
(a) Increase
of measuring faults, caused by rotation of the beam
specimen.
(b) The exact lever arm is unknown, but is approximately equal
to a + d . In case of low "a"-values the contribution of
d
increases, while d is the uncertain part of the lever arm.
Re c ommendati o n s
113 -
C = clock for the

measurement
of the displace
ment in the
direction of F
hinge
lower flange
beam specimen
as small as possible
upright specimen
relatively infinitely rigid
(a) An upright specimen has to be connected to a relatively infinitely
stiff frame in a purely vertical and unmoving way (e.g. by
clasps directly below and above the connection).
(b) A beam specimen with a length of 500 mm has to be connected purely

horizontally to the upright by means of the connection to be
tested.
(c) The connection has to be assembled in such a way that

during the test the orientation of the moment on the connection
agrees with the end moment M
caused by the pallet load
(see Section 4 . 2 ) .
(d) The assembly has to take place as near as possible according to

reality.
(e) Possible sideways displacement of the beam specimen has to be

opposed by a lateral restraint, which does allow vertical
displacements in the direction of F (without restraint),
but no displacements perpendicular to F.
(f) The measurement clocks

a way that:
and c 2 have to be applied in such
Comments
6.7.2.
- 114
The increase of_the_test_load

To be able to describe as accurately as possible the course of
th slip (looseness), which in the often used hook-in connections
will occur at low value of the force F, a smaller step size has been
prescribed for the first load steps {- 1/20 F ) .
Recommendations
- the distance between the clocks amounts to 200 mm;

- clock c
is placed as close s possible to the connection;
- the clocks are placed as close as possible to the web

(one of the webs) of the beam specimen.
(g) The load F has to be applied at a distance "a" from the
outside of the upright. This distance has to be taken
equal to 300 mm, unless one can prove that a smaller
distance appears in reality.
With regard to this one should remember that the bending
moment on the connection is the sum of M, + H .
f
s
where,
M f = fixing moment (see Section 4.4.1)
M
= stabilizing moment (see Section 4.4.1)
To limit the influence of the beam rotation in combination

with the way of load transfer between beam and jack
on the actual moment on the connection; a pin-ended strut
has to be built in with a minimum length of 750 mm. The jack
can be a part of the pin-ended strut.
6.7.2

Supplementary to Section 6.1.1.4 for the first four load steps
the test load has to be increased with steps about -j=- of
the expected failure load.
6.7.3
2rE5i}at:22_2^_M-_ria9ram
The moment rotation diagram has to be determined from the measured

values as follows:
M
= (0.3 + d ) F Nm (F in )
~ tan -
ir
&2 ~
radians,
- 114
Comments
6.8.
~ 11 5 -
Connection test to determine the shear strength of beamupright connections and safety locks
M
In general the applied ratio at a connection test to
determine a - diagram will be too high ( 300 mm) to get
a real value for the shear force S. The connection will
be failed before because of the moment M. Therefore next
to a mainly bend test (see Section 6.7.1), also a shear
test has to be carried out.
M
One should remember that in both tests the right ratio
M
never will be present. Yet the r a t i o influences the
S
direction and magnitude
of the hook- or bolt forces, and
thus the failure load. However, for practical reasons

one had to choose for two seperated tests.
6.9.1
Test set up
At the tests on cantilever brackets the load has to be
applied via the pallet beam. This has been prescribed for the
following two reasons:
115
Recommendations
where:
V 2
measured displacement in mm in the direction of F

with respectively clock c
and c^
distance between the clocks c. and c~ in mm (about 200 mm)

distance from the outside of the upright to the centre
of the perforations in m.
6.8
C onnection test to determine the shear strength of beamupright

connections and safety locks
The shear strength of beamupright connections and safety
locks has to be determined with a test setup, which in
principle has to be constructed as follows:
N.B. In case of a safety

lock test the test piece
upright
shall be turned round
beam
[-as small as possible
6.9
6.9.1
C onnection test on cantilever brackets

TffrS1!11?
The test setup has in principle to be constructed as follows:
Comments
M
(a) The real r a t i o has been present, including the
influence on the lever arm of the deformation of the
cantilever bracket-beam connection.
(b) With one test also the strength of the cantilever bracketbeam connection is tested.
116
116 -
.Recommendations
as small
as possible
as small
as possible
10 mm
upright frame
stiffening /
plate
beam
dJZ
"fl i "\ "

,.
as small
as possible
I IVI
I'M
\ 1
V2
\
IF
\
\
77777
L-beam
7$,7777 VT
C -beam
(a) Two cantilever brackets have to be connected to an upright

frame at the same level.Naturally the uprights have to
be equal to those of the concerning cantilever bracketupright
connection.
(b) A steel rod has to be welded to the web of a beam specimen,

which is used in combination with the concerning cantilever
bracket. In case of an angle as beam this rod has to be welded
10 mm (see Section 5.3.1.1) from the edge of the horizontal angle
part to a stiffening plate. The distance between this rod and the
cantilever bracket has to be as small as possible.
(c) The beam specimen has to be connected to the two cantilever

brackets, in the same way as in reality.
(d) The rod has to be connected to a jack via a pin ended strut
with a minimum length of 750 mm. The jack can be a part of the
pin ended strut.
(e) Two measuring clocks have to be placed on the flange of the

cantilever bracket to measure the rotation of the cantilever
bracket. One clock is placed as close as possible to the upright,
the other as close as possible to the beam with a maximum distance
of 200 mm.
117
Comments
6.10.1
Test setup
With the load of h Q
is simulated the point load applied by
a nonreversible pallet on the beam.
If the span is smaller than twice the smallest pallet depth

then the case with one point load will be determinative as
far as the rotation around the length axis is concerned.
-2
Z
UJ-wDP);
.wt
Mt
M<
TM,
*b2
b1
'bl
^r-
b2
h = .
Mt . H ( - w p )
= hi
(w
= pallet width)
117
Recommendations
6.9.2.
The reaction force on the cantilever bracket

The reaction on the cantilever bracket is equal to:
1
6.10
Local deformations of an angle rail in drivein and

drivethrough rackings
Besides the deflection also local deformations can occur

with beam rails which do not directly bear
the point loads
applied by a pallet, by means of their web (e.g. anglesteels)
6.10.1
Test_setug
The test setup has to be constructed as follows:
250
C
250
00
100
mm
H
<
Q pw
A5
' ' ' ''' /l
^<2,<
<3pw
i
I
c,
10mm
10mm
local deformat
(a) The particular beam has to be statically determinately

placed with a span as in reality.
(b) A point load equal to h 0
has to be applied at midspan via
pw
a wooden block with a bearing plane of 20 mm by 100 mm.
Q
= maximum pallet load Q
in the working state
If the span is bigger than twice the smallest pallet depth,

then two of these point loads have to be applied with an
in-between distance equal to the smallest pallet depth and
symmetric in relation to the middle of the beam rail. In this
Comments
118
Recommendations
~ 1
the clocks c. and c~ (see point c) only have to be applied

at the place of one point load.
(c) For the measurements of the displacements, the following
measuring clocks have to be applied:
- clock c, for the displacement in the direction of h Q
1
pw
and at the place of this point load
clocks c and c. for the displacement
in the direction h Q ,
r
2
3
"pw
each at a distance of 250 mm from h Q
pw
clocks c 4 and c^ for the displacement due to rotation
of the beam rail.
6.1Q.2
Measurement
The following deformations are defined:
(a) Local deformation
. _
'
according to:
2
(b) Rotation about the length axis
Kb -
according to:
5
d
45
where,
J. to ,
= measured displacement of the clocks c. to c.

at k Q
pw
d.t-'
45
= distance between the clocks c. and c_

4
5
Comments
6.11.1.1
' ''"
Charpy test
The Charpy test has to be carried out on the hooks, because
these parts of the connection are in general the most brittle
parts, because of the way of forming them.
Recommendations
6.11
- 119 -
Impact test
By means of an impact test it is examined if brittle
fracture of the beam-upright or cantilever bracket.upright connection is sufficiently low at a low use
temperature (lower than - 10 C ) .
6.11.1
Test set-up
The brittle-fracture danger of a connection can be
tested according to Sections 6.11.1.1 or 6.11.1.2.
6.11.1.1
Charpy test
The impact energy absorbed by the connection hooks
during a Charpy test shall be measured at normal
temperature (about 20 C) as well as at 5 C below temperature
the racking will have in use, with a tolerance of +_ 2 C.
The speed of the hammer on the moment of impact has to be
4.5 m/s to 7 m/s (recommended: 5 m/s to 5.5 m / s ) .
The testing machine has to be in accordance with Euronorm 45.
N.B. A measure for the absorbed impact energy is e.g. the
difference between the free swing and the over swing
after hitting the hook.
6.11.1.2
Full scale test

The test set-up consists of at least one bay which
is positioned in a cooling or freezing store at the
particular temperature. This bay contains:
(a) the particular connections;
(b) the maximum applicable beam length;
(c) one pallet, which directly adjoins a connection and is
positioned 20 mm above the top flange of the beam. This
pallet carries the design load;
(d) other pallet(s) which influence the reaction force of the
tested connection, carrying the working load.
Comments
120
Recommendations
6.11.2
- 1 20
Test result
The tests according to Sections 6.11.1.1 and 6.11.1. 2 have to be
interpreted according to Sections 6.11. 2 . 1 and 6.11. 2 . 2 respectiv

Thi-, brittle-facture danger is suffiently low if the, following
two points hold:
(a)
LT
>
0.93
NT
(b)
tTi
- >
0.90
NT
where,
LT
= mean value of the absorbed impact energy at the

particular low temperature
NT
= mean value of the absorbed impact energy at normal

temperature
LTi
= absorbed impact energy of test i at the particular low

temperature

The brittle-fracture danger is sufficiently low if
the particular connection does not show a crack or
break after the pallet with the design load has fallen
freely from 20 mm height on the beams.
CDNA07612ENC

European Draft Recommendation For Racking

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European Draft Recommendation For Racking

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Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Properties and service performance

European draft recommendations for

Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Properties and service performance

European draft recommendations for

Die Untersuchung beschrnkte sich auf Palettenregale, Einfahr- und

(Station d'Essais et de Recherches de la Construction

(Centre Technique des Industries Mcaniques, France)

A separate investigation on shelving has been carried out by

The contribution of the Netherlands covered investigations

des perforations sur la tenue des montants des casiers de stockage"

Design values of material yield stress

Hot rolled sections and base material

Cold formed sections

Long-term quality control for unguaranteed steel

Batch quality control for unguaranteed steel

Cold-forming and welding

Tolerances of cold-formed sections

Width and depth of a section

Ratio inside bend radius-thickness (r/t)

Tolerances with regard to design and assembly

Maximum clearance in drive-in and drive-through

Clear beam distance

Applicable design specifications

Integrity of rack installations

Racks braced against the building structure

Ultimate limit states

Vertical placement load F

Horizontal loads due to out-of-plumb

Overall floor load, q,

Collisions by forklifts or other moving equipment

Partial effectiveness of the bottom portion

Full ineffectiveness of the bottom portion of

Load via pallets

Calculation of cross sections

Cold-formed profiles without perforations

Symmetrical stress distribution with regard to

the centre of the particular flat element

Asymmetrical stress distribution with regard

to the centre of the particular flat element

Area of the cross-section

Torsion moment of inertia

Sections with holes at the corners

Span of the beam in pallet racking

Box shaped beams

The base plate-upright connection

The base plate

Limitations of the thickness

Floor fixing by bolts, studs etc.

Calculation of fixings and anchors

Base plate packing

Base plate design

Continuous base plates

Rotation spring constant of the floor-upright

Use of the test results

Strength of the connection

Stiffness of the connection

Overall buckling of the upright

Overall buckling in the plane of a braced

Overall buckling in the plane of an unbraced