CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
SOLAR energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the sun
intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 1011 MW which is much more larger than the
present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy sources. Thus, in principle,
solar energy could supply all the present and future energy needs of the world on the
continuing basis. This makes it one of the most promising of the unconventional energy
sources. In addition to its size, solar energy has two other factors in its favour.
Energy is the primary and the most universal kind of work by human beings and nature.
Most people use the word energy for input to their bodies or to the machines and thus think
about crude fuels and electric power.
The fossil fuels are used to produce thermal power; and according to the prediction they will
be exhausted in the near future. Therefore there is a need to use non-conventional and
renewable source of energy. And these forms of energy are being used by several countries.
These energy are solar, wind, sea, geothermal and bio mass which are available in plenty.
Also these energy are cheap and eco friendly too.
Solar energy can be used as the major source of power. It has the greatest potential among all the
other sources of energy. And also it could give the greatest potential is a small amount of it is
used. It is an energy which would become the main supplier of energy when the other forms of
energy get depleted.

First unlike fossil fuels and nuclear power, it is an environmental clean source of energy.
Second, it is free and available in adequate quantities in almost all parts of the world where
people live. However, there are many problems associated with its use. The main problem is
that it is a dilute source of energy. Even in the hottest regions on earth, the solar radiation
flux rarely exceeds 1kWh/m2 and the total radiation over a day is best about 6
kWh/m2.These are low values from the point of view of technological utilization.
Consequently, large collecting areas are required in many applications and this result in
excessive costs.
A second problem associated with the use of solar energy is that its availability varies widely
with time. The variation in availability occurs daily because of the day-night cycle and also
1

seasonally because of the earths orbit around the sun. In addition, variation occurs at a
specific location because of local weather conditions. Consequently, the energy collected
when the sun is shining must be stored for use during periods when it is not available. The
need for storage significantly adds to the cost of the system. Thus, the real challenge in
utilizing solar energy as an energy alternative is to address these challenges. One has to
strive for the development of cheaper methods of collection and storage so that the large
initial investments required at present in most applications are reduced.
Parabolic dish collectors is an insulated weather proofed dish containing about 800 pieces of
convex mirror .

1.1 OVERVIEW
Nowadays, most of the worlds energy (80%) is produced from fossil fuels. Massive
exploitation is leading to the exhaustion of these resources and imposes a real threat to the
environment, apparent mainly through global warming and acidification of the water cycle.
The distribution of fossil fuels around the world is equally uneven. Middle East possesses
morethan half of the known oil reserves.
This fact leads to economical instabilities around the world which affect the whole
geopolitical system.The present system as it is cannot be maintained for more than two
generations. The impact it has on the environment as well to the humans cannot be disputed.
Firstly there is the greenhouse effect. This effect is the capacity of the atmosphere to retain
heat. Seen from space,the earth radiates energy at wavelengths characteristic of a body at
-18C. However, the average surface is some 33C higher, due to the presence of gases that
are relatively transparent to solar radiation but opaque to the infrared radiation given off by
the earth. These gases effectively trap the heat between the surface and mid atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide CO2 is particularly important in this respect. The burning of fossil fuels,
coal in particular inevitably produces atmospheric emissions of CO2. It should be said here
that a doubling of CO2 concentration (expected by 2035-2055) will cause an average
temperature rise of 3 to 5C. This equals the rise between the coldest period of the last ice
age, 18000 years ago and the presence moment. Such heating is going to have disastrous
consequences for humanity. Major parts of polar ice caps will melt and the sea level will
increase covering big areas of the earth. Many ecosystems will be destroyed, unable to adapt
to the change.

Figure 1.1: Predicted temperature change under several emissions scenarios according to the
IPCC report
Renewable energy sources eliminate the weaknesses of conventional sources. But because of
less knowledge about these sources and high initial cost of the conversion systems limits the
use of these resources. From the renewable energy resources, solar energy has a huge
potential for the fulfillment of today energy needs. The total solar radiation energy falling on
earth atmosphere is 1017 watts . Amount of solar radiations reaches earth is 1016 watts, this
is 1000 times more than the world energy need. So if 5% of this energy is utilized, this is 50
times of world energy demand.

1.2 GLOBAL MARKET OVERVIEW

Renewable energy supplies 19 percent of global final energy consumption, counting
traditional biomass, large hydropower, and renewable (small hydro, modern biomass, wind,
solar, geothermal, and bio fuels). Of this 19 percent, traditional biomass, used primarily for
cooking and heating, accounts for approximately 13 percent and is growing slowly or
even declining in some regions as biomass is used more efficiently or is replaced by more
modern energy forms. Hydropower represents 3.2 percent and is growing modestly but from
a large base. Other renewable account for 2.6 percent and are growing very rapidly in
developed countries and in some developing countries.

Fig1.2.- Energy consumption- In context of India

Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct markets: power generation,
hot water and space heating, transport fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services. This
section provides an overview of recent developments in the first three markets. Global
renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 1060 percent annually for many technologies
during the five year period from the end of 2004 through 2009. For many renewable
technologies, such as wind power, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four
years. More wind power capacity
was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology.

Grid connected solar

photovoltaic (PV), however, increased the fastest of all renewable technologies, with a 60percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period. Bio fuels also grew rapidly,
at a 20- percent annual average rate for ethanol and a 51-percent annual average for
5

biodiesel (reflecting its lower production levels), although growth rates began declining later
in the period.
Other technologiesincluding hydropower, biomass power and heat, and geothermal
powerare growing at more ordinary rates of 36 percent, making them comparable with
global growth rates for fossil fuels (35 percent, although higher in some developing
countries). In several countries, however, the growth in these other renewable technologies
far exceeds the global average.

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY

Almost all the renewable energy sources originate entirely from the sun. Photovoltaic solar
energy conversion is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity. This can be done by
flat plate and concentrator systems. An essential component of these systems is the solar
cell, in which the photovoltaic effect the generation of free electrons using the energy of
light particles takes place. These electrons are used to generate electricity.
Solar radiation is available at any location on the surface of the Earth. The maximum
irradiance of sunlight on Earth is about 1,000 watts a square meter, irrespective of location.
It is common to describe the solar source in terms of insolation the energy available per unit
of area and per unit of time (such as kilo-watt-hours per square meter a year).
The ratio of diffuse to total annual insolation can range from 10 percent for bright
sunny areas to 60 percent or more for areas with a moderate climate, such as Western
Europe. The actual ratio largely determines the type of solar energy technology that can be
used.
The suns rays that reach the outer atmosphere are subjected to absorption, reflection,
and transmission processes through the atmosphere before reaching the earths surface.
Solar radiation is the worlds most abundant and permanent energy source.
The amount of solar energy received by the surface of the earth per minute is greater
than the energy utilization by the entire population in one year. Solar energy is referred to as
renewable and/or sustainable energy because it will be available as long as the sun continues
to shine. Estimates for the life of the main stage of the sun are another 4 5 billion years.
The energy from the sunshine, electromagnetic radiation, is referred to as insulation.
There are two ways in which solar energy can be converted into electrical energy:
1. SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
2. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
6

1.4 SOLAR CONCENTRATORS

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Solar concentrators are the collecting devices, which increases the flux on the absorber surface
as compared to the flux existing on the entrance aperture. Optical concentration is achieved by
the use of reflecting or the refracting elements to concentrate the incident flux to onto suitable
absorber. Due to the apparent diurnal motion of the sun, the concentrating surface, weather
reflecting or refracting will not be in a position to redirect the solar radiation on the absorber
throughout the day if both the concentrator surface and absorber are stationary. Ideally the total
system consisting the mirror/ lens should follow the suns apparent motion so that the absorber
always captures the suns rays. In general, therefore, a solar concentrator consists of
1. A focussing device

2. A blackened metallic absorber with a transparent cover

3. A tracking device for the continuous following of the sun

4. Temperature as high as 3000 degree centigrade can be achieved with solar concentrators and
the application in both photo thermal and photo voltaic conversion of solar energy.

A solar collector is a device used for collecting solar radiation and transfers the
energy to a fluid passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy requires solar
collectors. These are general are of two type:

Non-concentrating

Concentrating type

1.4.2 SOLAR COLLECTOR

1.4.2.1 Non concentrating collector
(a) Flat plate collectors
Flat plate collectors are typically used for water or space heating in domestic or commercial
building. The operating temperature is typically between 40 C-80 C.
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This technology is the most mature of all the solar collector type and is of a generally simple
configuration consisting of an absorber plates, tubes welded to the absorber plate, a
frame with backing insulation and transparent glazing. The absorber plate is sometimes
coated with a selective coating with high solar absorbance and low thermal emittance to
maximize solar gain and minimize radiation losses. Tracking is not required. The tubes
welded to the absorber plate either transport the medium to be heated, or a heat
transfer fluid which carries the heat to an exchanger where heat is transferred to the
intended medium. Indirect heating avoids problems like scaling and blockage of tubes. Flat
plate collectors have the advantage of absorbing both direct and diffuse solar radiation. In
other words the collector will work even in cloudy weather where almost all visible
light is due to diffuse radiation.

Fig. 1.3: Typical Flat plate collector.

Table: 1.1 Collector overview and operating temperature ranges

Collector type

Approximate Maximum

Comments

Flat Plate

Operating Temperature ( C)
40-80

Best

known

developed
Non Evacuated Compound
Parabolic Concentrator
Evacuated Tube/ CPC

most

all

collector

80-120

types. Non tracking

Non
tracking/

Seasonal

100-120

adjustments.
Non-Tracking/ Seasonal

150-450

Adjustments
Proven for MW scale solar
8

of

and

Parabolic trough

thermal power. Requires

continuous, accurate 1-axis

Central Receiver

1500(possibly

tracking
2-axis tracking

Parabolic dish or point focus

mare)
1500(possibly

2-Axis tracking

Fresnel lens

mare)

1.4.2.2 -Glazed flat-plate collectors

Glazed flat-plate collectors are very common and are available as liquid-based and airbased collectors. These collectors are better suited for moderate temperature applications
where the demand temperature is 30-70C and/or for applications that require heat during the
winter months. The liquid-based collectors are most commonly used for the heating
of domestic and commercial hot water, buildings, and indoor swimming pools. The airbased collectors are used for the heating of buildings, ventilation air and crop-drying.

Fig. 1.4 Glazed flat-plate collector

In this type of collector a flat absorber efficiently transforms sunlight into heat. To minimize
heat escaping, the plate is located between a glazing (glass pane or transparent material) and
an insulating panel. The glazing is chosen so that a maximum amount of sunlight will pass
though it and reach the absorber.

1.4.2.3 -Unglazed flat-plate solar collectors

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In North America unglazed flat-plate collectors currently account for the most area installed
per year of any solar collector. Because they are not insulated, these collectors are best
suited for low temperature applications where the demand temperature is below 30C. There
is also a market potential for these collectors for water heating at remote, seasonal locations
such as summer camps.

Fig.-1.5 unglazed flat-plate collectors

Unglazed flat-plate collectors are usually made of black plastic that has been stabilized to
withstand ultraviolet light. Since these collectors have no glazing, a larger portion of the
suns energy is absorbed.
1.4.2.4-Unglazed perforated plate collectors
The key to this type of collector is an industrial-grade siding/cladding that is perforated with
many small holes at a pitch of 2-4 cm. Air passes through the holes in the collector before it
is drawn into the building to provide preheated fresh ventilation air. Efficiencies are
typically high because the collector operates close to the outside air temperature. These
systems can be very cost-effective, especially when they replace conventional cladding on
the building, because only incremental costs need be compared to the energy savings. The
most common application of this collector is for building ventilation air heating.

1.4.2.5-Back-pass solar collectors

Air-based collectors use solar energy to heat air. Their design is simple and they often
weigh less than liquid-based collectors because they do not have pressurized piping. Airbased collectors do not have freezing or boiling problems. In these systems, a large solar
absorber is used to heat the air. The simplest designs are single-pass open
collectors. Collectors that are coated with a glaze can also be used to heat air for space
10

heating. This type of collector may be integrated in the building and combined with thermal
mass.

1.4.2.6-Air based solar collectorsThe energy collected from air-based solar collectors can be used for ventilation air heating,
space heating and crop drying. The most common application in Canada is for ventilation air
heating. Three types of air-based collectors and their corresponding suitably for three
applications are-

Table: 1.2 Collectors and their properties-

Designs for the first three collector types are simple. The collectors usually weigh less than
liquid-based collectors because they do not have pressurized piping. Another advantage of
air-based collectors is that they do not have freezing or boiling problems. All four of these
air-based collectors can be integrated into buildings and form part of a buildings envelope.

1.4.2.7-Batch solar collectorsOne hundred years ago, water tanks that were painted black were used as simple solar
residential water heaters. Today their primary market is for residential water heating in warm
countries. During winter the tanks must be protected from freezing or they must be
drained. Modern batch collectors have a glazing that is similar to the one used on flat plate
collectors and/or a reflector to concentrate the solar energy on the tank surface. Because the
storage tank and the solar absorber act as a single unit, there is no need for other
components.
1.4.2.8- Liquid-based solar collectors

11

Liquid-based collectors use sunlight to heat a liquid that is circulating in a "solar loop". The
fluid in the solar loop can be water, an antifreeze mixture, thermal oil, etc. The solar loop
transfers the thermal energy from the collectors to a thermal storage tank. The type of
collector you need depends on how hot the water must be and the local climate. The most
common liquid-based solar collectors are:
1.Glazed flat-plate
2.Unglazed flat-plate
3.Vacuum tube
4.Batch collector
5.Concentrating
1.4.2.9Concentrating solar collectors
By using reflectors to concentrate sunlight on the absorber of a solar collector, the size of the
absorber can be dramatically reduced, which reduces heat losses and increases efficiency at
high temperatures. Stationary concentrating collectors may be liquid-based, air-based, or
even an oven such as a solar cooker. There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:
1. Parabolic trough
2. Parabolic dish
3. Power tower
4. Stationary concentrating collectors
1.4.2.10- Parabolic dish systems
A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has mirrorlike reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker. A parabolic
dish system uses a computer to track the sun and concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver
located at the focal point in front of the dish. In some systems, a heat engine, such as a
Sterling engine, is linked to the receiver to generate electricity. Parabolic dish systems can
reach 1000 C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for converting solar
energy to electricity in the small-power capacity range.

12

Figure:-1.6 Parabolic dish

Figure: -1.7

Parabolic dish collector

with a

mirror-like reflectors

and an

absorber at the focal

point

1.4.2.11- Parabolic trough system

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter u. The troughs concentrate
sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the trough. Sometimes
a transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat loss. Parabolic troughs
often use single-axis or dual-axis tracking. In rare instances, they may be stationary.
Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 C and produce steam for generating electricity.

13

Fig:-1.8 Parabolic troughs

Fig:-1.9 Parabolic trough system

1.4.2.12- Power Tower SystemA heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large absorber
located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is power
generation in a system called the power tower. A power tower has a field of large mirrors
that follow the sun's path across the sky. The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on
top of a high tower. A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the sun are
14

always aimed at the receiver, where temperatures well above 1000C can be reached. Highpressure steam is generated to produce electricity.

Fig.-1.10 Powertowersystem
1.4.2.13- Stationary concentrating solar collectors
Stationary concentrating collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors for
directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a wide acceptance
angle. The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors eliminates the need for a sun tracker.
This class of collector includes parabolic trough flat plate collectors, flat plate collectors
with parabolic boosting reflectors, and solar cookers. Solar cookers are used in the
developing countries.

Fig:-1.11 Stationary concentrating solar collectors

1.4.2.14- Vacuum tube solar collectors
Vacuum (also evacuated) tube solar collectors are amongst the most efficient and most
costly types of solar collectors. These collectors are best suited for moderate temperature
applications where the demand temperature is 50-95C and/or for very cold climates such as
in Canadas far north. Due to their ability to deliver high temperatures efficiently another
potential application is for the cooling of buildings by regenerating refrigeration cycles.
15

1.4.2.15- Central Receiver System

A central receiver system consist of a central receiver surrounded by a field heliostats
(independently movable 2- axis flat mirrors) that focus onto the receiver see figure 2.
Temperature of up to 1500 C can be reached. The receiver will typically contain a molten
salt to store the energy as latent heat and comprise bundled tubes with a heat transfer fluid .

Fig:- 1.12 A Central Receiver solar power plant

(b) Evacuated tube solar collector

Evacuated heat pipe tubes (EHPTs) are composed of multiple evacuated glass tubes each
containing an absorber plate fused to a heat pipe. The heat from the hot end of the heat pipes
is transferred to the transfer fluid (water or an antifreeze mixtypically propylene glycol) of
a domestic hot water or hydronic space heating system in a heat exchanger called a
"manifold". The manifold is wrapped in insulation and covered by a sheet metal or plastic
case to protect it from the elements. The vacuum that surrounds the outside of the tube
greatly reduces convection and conduction heat loss to the outside, therefore achieving
greater efficiency than flat-plate collectors, especially in colder conditions. This advantage is
largely lost in warmer climates, except in those cases where very hot water is desirable, for
example commercial process water. The high temperatures that can occur may require
special system design to prevent overheating.

16

Fig:-1.13 Evacuated tube solar collector

Some evacuated tubes (glass-metal) are made with one layer of glass that fuses to the heat
pipe at the upper end and encloses the heat pipe and absorber in the vacuum. Others (glassglass) are made with a double layer of glass fused together at one or both ends with a
vacuum between the layers (like a vacuum bottle or flask), with the absorber and heat pipe
contained at normal atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a highly reliable vacuum
seal, but the two layers of glass reduce the light that reaches the absorber. Moisture may
enter the non-evacuated area of the tube and cause absorber corrosion. Glass-metal tubes
allow more light to reach the absorber, and protect the absorber and heat pipe from corrosion
even if they are made from dissimilar materials.
The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall through the collector, minimizing the
loss of production in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated heat from the tubes
can also prevent effective shedding of accumulated snow.

Concept of Solar Array-

17

The solar array consists of 14 + 4 parallel connected solar panels with the sections of 196 x
196 mm in size made on the basis of silicon solar cells. Six single-side panels are mounted
on the facets of the sub satellite at the distance of 10 mm from metallic surface, 12 panels
are to be deployed in space. After deploying their axes have 100 deg angle with respect to
sub satellite axis directed toward Sun. The current of the panel being orthogonal to the Sun
direction is about 0.2 A at the operation voltage of 14 Volt. The maximum total power of the
solar array at the nominal solar orientation is 36 W.

1.5 PHOTOVOLTIC CELL

18

Solar PV cells are electronic devices that use P-N junctions to directly convert sunlight into
electrical power. A complex relationship between voltage and current is exhibited by the P-N
junction in the solar cell. The voltage and current both being a function of the light falling on
the cell, there exists a complex relationship between insolation (sunlight) and output power.
Solar cells capture slow-moving low energy electrons. These effects are saturated and cause
a fixed energy loss under bright light condition. However, on an overcast day i.e. at lower
insolation levels these mechanisms show an increasing percentage of the total power being
generated. Too much insolation causes saturation of cells, and the number of free electrons
or their mobility decreases greatly. For an example in case of silicon the holes left by the
photoelectrons neutralizes taking some time, and in this time these absorb a photoelectron
from another atom inside the cell. This causes maximum as well as minimum production
rates.The cooling of photovoltaic (PV) cells is a problem of great practical significance. The
usable energy produced from solar energy displaces energy produced from fossil fuels, and
thereby contributes to reducing global warming. However, the high cost of solar cells is an
obstacle to expansion of their use. PV cooling has the potential to reduce the cost of solar
energy in three ways. First, the electrical efficency of PV cells decreases with temperature
increase. Cooling can improve the electrical production of standard flat panel PV modules.
Second, cooling makes possible the use of concentrating PV systems. Cooling keeps the PV
cells from reaching temperatures at which irreversible damage occurs, even under the
irradiance of multiple suns. This makes it possible to replace PV cells with potentially less
expensive concentrators. Finally, the heat removed by the PV cooling system can be used for
building heating or cooling, or in industrial applications.

Figure:-1.14 pv array working

19

I-V Characteristics:
I-V Characteristics is a curve between current and voltage. The curve shows a inverse
relation. The area under the I-V curve is the maximum power that a panel would produce
operating at maximum current and maximum voltage. The area decreases with increase in
solar cell voltage due to its increase in temperature. Due to fluctuations in environmental
conditions, temperature change and irradiance level the IV curve will change and thus
maximum power point will also change. Thus the MPPT algorithm keeps on tracking the
knee point. The above figure shows two characteristics i.e. Dark and Irradiated
characteristics. When the PN junction is illuminated the characteristics get modified in shape
and shift downwards as the photon generated component gets added with the reverse leakage
current. The maximum power point can be obtained by plotting the hyperbola defined by
V*I= constant such that it is tangential to the I-V characteristics. The voltage and current
corresponding to this point are peak point voltage and peak point current. There is one point
on the curve that will produce maximum electrical power under incident illumination level.
Operating at any other point other then maximum power point will mean that cell will
produce maximum thermal power and less electrical power.

Fig:1.15 IV-curve of a solar cell both under irradiated and dark conditions. The yellow area
shows the maximum power operating region.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

20

The four general types of silicon photovoltaic cells are:

(i) Single-crystal silicon.
(ii) Polycrystalline silicon (also known as multicrystal silicon).
(iii) Ribbon silicon.
(iv) Amorphous silicon (abbreviated as "aSi," also known as thin film silicon).
Single-crystal silicon
Most photovoltaic cells are single-crystal types. To make them, silicon is purified, melted,
and crystallized into ingots. The ingots are sliced into thin wafers to make individual cells.
The cells have a uniform color, usually blue or black.

Figure:-1.16 Mono-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell

Polycrystalline silicon
Polycrystalline cells are manufactured and operate in a similar manner. The difference is that
alower cost silicon is used. This usually results in slightly lower efficiency, but
polycrystalline cell manufacturers assert that the cost benefits outweigh the efficiency losses.
The surface of polycrystalline e cells has a random pattern of crystal borders instead of the
solid color of single crystal cells.

21

Figure:-1.17 Poly-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell

Ribbon silicon
Ribbon-type photovoltaic cells are made by growing a ribbon from the molten silicon
instead of an ingot. These cells operate the same as single and polycrystalline cells.
The anti-reflective coating used on most ribbon silicon cells gives them a prismatic rainbow
appearance.

Figure:-1.18 Amorphous or thin film silicon

The previous three types of silicon used for photovoltaic cells have a distinct crystal
structure.Amorphous silicon has no such structure. Amorphous silicon is sometimes
abbreviated "aSi"and is also called thin film silicon. Amorphous silicon units are made by
depositing very thin layers of vaporized silicon in a vacuum onto a support of glass, plastic,
or metal. Since they can be made in sizes up to several square yards, they are made up in

22

long rectangular"strip cells." These are connected in series to make up "modules.

Figure:-1.19 Amorphous or thin film silicon plate collector

23

1.7 IMPORTANT TERMS

In designing the optimal tilt angle and orientation of a fixed solar panel for maximizing its
energy collection is to acquire the maximum solar radiation availability at the required
location, a number of studies have been conducted by various researchers to determine the
optimum location for solar radiation collection using different empirical models Hang, Tian
Pau[10] Orientation of solar collector in space is the main factor influencing the quantity of
absorbed solar radiation energy. In the case with optimal angles of a solar collector, we will
have the maximum of solar radiant energy.
1.7.1-Air Mass (m): The ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beam radiation
passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun were at the zenith. Thus at sea level, m=1
when the sun is at the zenith, and m=2 for a zenith angle

of 60 . For zenith angles from 0

to 70 at sea level, to a close approximation,

m=

1
cos

(1)

For higher zenith angles, the effect of the earths curvature becomes significant and must be
taken into account.

Fig:- 1.20 The path length in units of Air mass, changes with the Zenith angle

24

1.7.2- Solar Radiation- Solar radiation describes the visible and near-visible (ultraviolet
and near-infrared) radiation emitted from the sun. The different regions are described by
their wavelength range within the broad band range of 0.20 to 4.0 m (microns). Terrestrial
radiation is a term used to describe infrared radiation emitted from the atmosphere. The
following is a list of the components of solar and terrestrial radiation and their approximate
wavelength ranges:

Ultraviolet:0.20-0.39m

Visible:0.39-0.78m

Near-Infrared:0.78-4.00m

Infrared: 4.00 - 100.00 m

Approximately 99% of solar, or short-wave, radiation at the earth's surface is contained in

the region from 0.3 to 3.0 m while most of terrestrial, or long-wave, radiation is contained
in the region from 3.5 to 50 m. outside the earth's atmosphere, solar radiation has an
intensity of approximately 1370 watts/meter2. On the surface of the earth on a clear day, at
noon, the direct beam radiation will be approximately 1000 watts/meter2 for many locations.
a. Beam Radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun without having been
scattered by the atmosphere.
b. Diffuse Radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has
been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.
c. Total Solar Radiation: The sum of the beam and diffuse solar radiation on a
surface.
d. Irradiance: The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface, per unit area of
surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance.
e. Insolation-The incident energy per unit area on a surface, found by integration of
irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a day. Insolation is a term
25

applying specifically to solar energy irradiation. The symbol H is used for insolation
for a day. The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or other period if
specified).
1.7.3- Solar Time: Solar time in minutes isSolar time= standard time+4
Where

+E

(2)

is the standard meridian for the local time zone,

is the longitude of the

location in question (in degrees west) and E is the equation of time (in minutes). E is
calculated using below equation Duffie J. A. and Beckman W. A. [13]:
E=0.000075+0.001868cos-0.032077sin-0.014615cos 2-0.04089sin 2
(3)
Where = (n-1)

, n is the day of the year and can be obtained using-

Fig:-1.21 Solar Time Vs day

1.7.4- Hour Angle():
Angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due to rotation of the
earth on its axis at 15 per hour. The hour angle is variable within the day, negative for
morning, positive for afternoon and zero at solar noon as shown. It can be expressed by
=15(12)

(4)

= solar time-noon time 15

(5)

Fig:-1.22 Hour angle-solar time relationship

26

Where solar time and noon times are in hours (noon time is 12:00) and is the hour angle in
degrees and is the solar time in hours.

Fig:-1.23 Variation of declination angle with months of the year

1.7.5- Declination (): The angular position of the sun with respect to the equatorial plane at
solar noon. Declination is in the range -23.45 <<+23.45 (North is the positive direction.)
and below equation is used to calculate it= 23.45 sin

360 ( 284+ n )
365

(6)

Fig:-1.24 Angle of Solar Declination Vs Day of the Year

27

Fig:-1.25 Variation of Declination angle with equinox

1.7.6- Latitude( ): The angular distance from equator plane. Latitude is given in the range
(North is the positive direction.)
1.7.7- Longitude (L): The angular distance from prime meridian. Longitude ranges from 0
to 180, either east or west.

Fig:-1.26 Earth-Sun Angles- Latitude (), Declination Angle () and Hour Angle ()

1.7.8- Slope or Tilt( ): The angle between the plane of the surface in question and the
horizontal. It is in the range 0

( >90 means that the surface has a downward

facing component).

28

1.7.9- Surface azimuth angle(): The angle between south and the projection of normal of
the surface on the horizontal ground plane. Direction of an angular displacement from south
to west of south is positive. It is in the range -180 +180 .

1.7.10- Angle of incidence ( ): The angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the
normal to that surface. Equations relating the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a
surface to the other angles arecos= sin sin cos-sin cos sin cos+cos cos cos cos
+cos sin sin cos cos+cos sin sin sin

1.7.11 Zenith angle(

(7)

) : The angle between normal of the ground plane and the line to the

sun, i.e., the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface. Equation for
zenith anglecos z = cos .cos cos+ sin.sin

(8)

29

1.8 SOLAR TERMINOLOGY BASICS

SOLAR INSOLATION
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of
fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39X106 km. While that of earth is 1.27X104 km. The
mean distance between the two is 1.5X108 km. Although the sun is large, it subtends an
angle of only 32 minutes at earth surface. This is because of its very large distance. Thus the
beam radiation received from the sun on earth is almost parallel. The brightness of the sin
varies from its centre to its edge. However for engineering calculation, it is customary to
assume that the brightness all over the disc uniform as viewed from the earth, the radiation
coming from the sun appears to be essentially equivalent to that coming from a black surface
5762 deg K.
The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar
constant. This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to
the suns direction at mean distance of the earth from the sun.
Because of suns distance and the activity vary throughout the year; the rate of arrival of
solar radiation varies accordingly. The so called solar constant is thus an average from which
the actual values vary up to 3 % in either direction. This variation is not important however,
for most practical purposes. The national aeronautics and space administrations (NASA)
standards the value for the solar constant, being expressed in the three most common units,
is as follows:
1-353 kilowatts per square meter
116.5 Langley (calories per square centimetre) per hour
429.2 Btu per square feet per hour.

30

1.9 APPLICATIONS
The applications of solar energy are:1. Heating and cooling of residential buildings.

2. Solar water heating

3. Solar drying of agriculture and animal products

4. Solar distillation

5. Solar cooker

6. Solar engines for water pumping

7. Food refrigeration

8. Solar furnace

Fresh water is a necessity for the sustenance of life and also the key to match prosperity.
Fresh water sources are rapidly becoming insufficient to meet the needs of increasing
population, both for domestic and agricultural uses and for continuously fast developing
industries. The problem of getting water in arid and semi arid areas and at some of the
coastal areas is acute. Saline or brackish is defined as any water with less dissolved salts
than in sea water.

31

In village, it is common for the people travelling long distance to get portable water for
drinking purpose. Solar energy which is available in abundance and at the site can be used
for converting the ground water available which is saline into desalinated water.

Desalination means conversion of saline water into suitable for human consumption. This
separation needs energy. Solar energy is basically radiation energy so that it can be used for
water distillation.
Due to limited population and isolation in the conventional schemes of transporting portable
water involves high investments were developed.
Distillation of salty or brackish water solves to some extent the diversified and innumerable
water problems. A number of existing desalination plants use fossil fuels as source of energy.
Although few techniques such as multi effect evaporation, multistage flash evaporation, and
thin film distillation are employed, the process is energy intensive and the cost is high.
Hence, the application of solar powered or solar augmented distils, can replace need for a
large proportion of oil or other desalination plants.

32

1.10 ORIGIN OF PROPOSAL

The prices of energy have been increasing exponentially worldwide. Industrial Refrigeration
is one of the most energy consuming sector. What if a refrigeration system is designed which
uses no energy or minimal amount of energy? The solution lies in absorption refrigeration
system. By producing an adsorption refrigeration system we are not only cutting down the
energy costs but also preserving our environment. This refrigeration system doesnt use any
of the CFCs so our ozone layer is safe. Greenhouse gases and their damaging effects on the
atmosphere have received increased attention following the release of scientific data by
United Nations Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization that show
carbon dioxide to be the main contributor to increased global warming(UNEP, 1991). The
domestic refrigerator-freezers operating on alternative refrigerants such as HFC-134a,
contribute indirectly to global warming by the amount of carbon dioxide produced by the
power plant in generating electricity to operate over a unit over its lifetime. This
contribution is nearly 100 times greater than the direct contribution of the refrigerant alone.
Moreover, approximately 62 million mew units are being manufactured worldwide every
year, and hundreds of millions are currently in. use.(UNEP,1995) it is anticipated that the
production of refrigerator-freezers will substantially increase in the near future as a result of
the increased demand, especially in the developing countries. Therefore, in response to
global concerns over greenhouse resorts are being made to produce refrigerator-freezers
with low energy consumption.
In most of the developing third world, adequate supplies of drinking water and water for
irrigation are a scarce commodity. In many places in Africa, India and Central and South
America, adequate supplies of water are found only at considerable depth below the surface.
These locations generally do not have the infrastructure to provide an electrical grid to pump
the water with electricity nor do they have the infrastructure to provide roads to bring in
electrical generators or even the fuel for those generators. Therefore without an electrical
grid or without generators to generate electricity, isolated areas do not have potable water
nor do they have the refrigeration to keep medicine or foodstuffs from spoiling. Even in the
Untied States, there are communities such as the Amish communities where electricity is
33

banned. Here the lack of cooling capabilities severely limits the production of various
products. Because of the lack of cooling, milk production is limited to Grade B. Referred to
as advanced adsorption chillers they represent one of the new technology options that are
under development. Advanced adsorption cooling technology offers the possibility of
chillers with greater COPs and reduce cost of the system. The invention can improve
refrigerating unit, raise coefficient of performance, reduce energy cost of refrigerating unit
and has notably social and economic benefit. Compared with the existing compressor
refrigeration system, the system realizes simplified structure, low energy consumption and
reduction of discharge and environmental pollution by hazardous substance.

34

1.11 BENEFITS
1. India is among the world leaders in agricultural production however much of our produce
goes waste due to absence of proper storage facilities. Refrigeration is thus vitally important
for our country.
2. Milk produce is also adversely affected due to lack of refrigeration.
3. Cool drinking water is unavailable to the people in non electrified villages.
4. Medical facilities are also adversely affected due to break in the cold chain as the
medicines move from the production zone to the rural areas.
5. Usage of CFCs affect the environment adversely.
The current project can result in development of a system which can be a decisive step in
bringing refrigeration to the far off rural areas. In urban areas a huge chunk of households
consume more refrigeration energy than is required due to inefficient usage. This project
also holds promise to reduce if not eliminate this huge portion of energy consumption pie.

35

1.12 PROBLEM DEFINITION

Though absorption refrigeration system is an ideal way to combat energy consumption of
refrigeration sector, it suffers some serious faults like:
1.Low COP
Ideally speaking COP of an absorption refrigeration system is about 2.0. But in reality it is less
than 1(about0.7).

2.Large Size & huge weight

They are much more complex than a normal refrigerator and occupy a huge space. They require
much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat owing to their low COPs, and thus servicing
them is not less than a nightmare.

3. High cost
The absorption refrigeration systems are much more expensive than the vapor-compression
refrigeration systems which are quite obvious as their cost of production is high because of complex
and large parts. This also makes them difficult to service.

36

1.13 OBJECTIVE
1. COP We aim to improve the COP of the adsorption/absorption refrigerator to make it
more attractive for usage.
2. Size We aim to reduce the size of the assembly by making it more compact.
3. Weight The absorption/adsorption refrigeration system is too bulky. Its weight reduction
is also one of the aims. It can be reduced by using polymers.
4. Cost Cost is the biggest barrier in implementation of Adsorption/absorption refrigeration.
We aim to minimize it as far as possible.
5. Extended Usability Till date absorption refrigeration is limited for industrial purposes.
We aim to make it available for mass rural use as stated above in small capacities by using
solar adsorption/absorption.

37

1.14 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCENTRATING

COLLECTORS OVER FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS:

ADVANTAGES
1. Reflecting surface require less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate
collectors. For a concentrating system the costs per unit area of solar collecting surface is
therefore potentially less than that for a flat plate collector.
2. The absorber area of a concentrator is smaller than that of a flat plate collector system
for the same solar energy collection and therefore the isolation intensity is greater.
3. Because of the area from which heat is lost to the surroundings per unit of the solar
collecting area is less than that for a flat plate collector and because the insulation on the
absorber is more concentrated, the working fluid can attain a higher temperature in a
concentrating system of the same solar energy collecting surface.
4. Focusing or concentrating systems can be used for electric power generation when not
used for cooling or heating purpose.
5. Because of the higher temperature attainable with concentrating collector system is
higher, the amount of heat, which can be stored per unit volume, is larger and
consequently the heat storage costs are less for air conditioning with concentrators
system.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Out of beam and diffuse solar radiation component, only beam component is collected in
case of focussing collectors because diffuse component cannot reflect and thus it is lost.

38

2. In some stationary reflecting system it is necessary to have a small absorber to rack the
sun image; in others the reflector may have to adjust more than one position of year round
operation is desired; in other words costly orienting system have to be used to track the sun.
3. Additional requirement of maintenance particular to retain the quality of reflecting surface
against dirt, weather, oxidation etc.
4. Non-uniform fluxes on the absorber where as in flat plate collector is uniform.
5. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and intercept loss, so they introduce
additional factors in energy balances.
6.High initial cost.

39

CHAPTER -2

2.1 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

PARABOLIC DISH
The number of panels were calculated and the required area for the absorber was calculated.
Radius:600mm
Cross sectional area:1.47 m2
The depth of parabolic dish is taken as 26 centimeters. The focus of parabolic dish was
calculated and was found out tobe at 36 centimeters from the depth of parabolic dish. After
this the frame of the parabolic dish was made as per the required dimensions of the parabolic
dish and the fiber was cut into 8 pieces. These pieces were then settled on the frame and the
pieces were then fixed on the frame of the parabolic dish. A required tracking system has
then incorporated with the parabolic dish to give the east west movement if the parabolic
dish. The tracking system was made using simple mechanism.

40

Fig:- 2.1 Parabolic Dish

GENERATOR/ RECIVER
Material of generator box is stainless steel. The dimensions we used for making generator
are given below :
Length of generator

= 200 mm

Width of generator

=150 mm

Hight of generator

= 150 mm

Capacity of generator

= 0.20*0.15*0.15
= 4.5*10-3*1000
=4.5 liters

41

Fig:-2.2 Design of Generator/ Reciver

Fig:- 2.3 Generator/ Reciver

CONDENSER
Condenser is made up of mild steel. There are lot of fins provided on the condenser tube.
Dimension of condenser is :
42

No. of tubes

=9

Radius of circular edges

=10 mm

Length of Circular edge

= 2r
= 2*3.16*10
= 63.2 mm

Total no. of circuler edges

=8

Total circular lenth

= 63.2*8
=485.6 mm

Straight length of tube

= 21.5

Straight length of tube

= 21.5*9
= 193 mm

Total length of Heat exchanger / condenser = 485.6 + 193

= 642.3 mm

43

Fig:- 2.4Design of condenser

44

Fig:-2.5 Condenser

CAPILLARY TUBE/ EXPANSION VALVE

The material used for making Capillary tube is stainless steel. The length of capillary tube is
mm. And the diameter of Capillary tube is

mm.

Fig:-2.6 Design of Capillary tube/ Expansion valve

Fig:- 2.7 Capillary tube/ Expansion valve

EVAPORATOR
45

Length of evaporator tube is 3000 mm and the diameter of evaporator tube is 9.55 mm.

Fig:- 2.8 Design of Evaporator

Fig:-2.9 Evaporator
46

ABSORBER
The materials used for making absorber are PVC Pipe, mild steel pipe and a Pump for
spraying water on vapours.

Fig:- 2.10 Design of absorber

Fig:-2.11 Absorber
47

2.2

TECHNICAL

DETAILS

AND

INTRODUCTION

TO

THE

TECHNOLOGY
ABSORPTION
Comparing the absorption refrigeration cycle with the more familiar vapor compression
refrigeration cycle is often an easy way to introduce it.
The standard vapor compression refrigeration system is a condenser, evaporator, throttling
valve, and a compressor. Figure below is a schematic of the components and flow
arrangements for the vapor compression cycle.

48

Figure:2.12 Vapor Compression Cycle

In the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, refrigerant enters the evaporator in the form of
a cool, low-pressure mixture of liquid and vapor (4). Heat is transferred from the relatively
warm air or water to the refrigerant, causing the liquid refrigerant to boil.
The resulting vapor (1) is then pumped from the evaporator by the compressor, which
increases the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant vapor.
The hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor (2) leaving the compressor enters the condenser
where heat is transferred to ambient air or water at a lower temperature.

Inside the

condenser, the refrigerant vapor condenses into a liquid. This liquid refrigerant (3) then
flows to the expansion device, which creates a pressure drop that reduces the pressure of the
refrigerant to that of the evaporator. At this low pressure, a small portion of the refrigerant
boils (or flashes), cooling the remaining liquid

refrigerant to the desired evaporator

temperature. The cool mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant (4) travels to the evaporator to
repeat the cycle.

49

Figure: 2.13 Vapor Absorption Cycle

Absorption refrigeration systems replace the compressor with a generator and a absorber.
Refrigerant enters the evaporator in the form of a cool, low-pressure mixture of liquid and
vapor (4). Heat is transferred from the relatively warm water to the refrigerant, causing the
liquid refrigerant to boil. Using an analogy of the vapor compression cycle, the absorber acts
like the suction side of the compressorit draws in the refrigerant vapor (1) to mix with the
absorbent. The pump acts like the compression process itselfit pushes the mixture of
refrigerant and absorbent up to the high-pressure side of the system. The generator acts like
the discharge of the compressorit delivers the refrigerant vapor (2) to the rest of the
system.
The refrigerant vapor (2) leaving the generator enters the condenser, where heat is
transferred to water at a lower temperature, causing the refrigerant vapor to condense into a
liquid. This liquid refrigerant (3) then flows to the expansion device, which creates a
pressure drop that reduces the pressure of the refrigerant to that of the evaporator. The
resulting mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant (4) travels to evaporator to repeat the cycle.

2.3 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN VAPOR COMPRESSION AND VAPOR

ABSORPTION CYCLES

50

The basic absorption chiller cycle is similar to the traditional vapor compression chiller
cycle in that
1. Both cycles circulate refrigerant inside the chiller to transfer heat from one fluid to the
other;
2. Both cycles include a device to increase the pressure of the refrigerant and an expansion
device to maintain the internal pressure difference, which is critical to the overall heat
transfer process;
3. Refrigerant vapor is condensed at high pressure and temperature, rejecting heat to the
surroundings
4. Refrigerant vapor is vaporized at low pressure and temperature, absorbing heat from the
chilled water flow

2.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VAPOR COMPRESSION AND VAPOR

ABSORPTION CYCLES
51

The basic absorption chiller cycle is different to the vapor compression chiller cycle in that
1. The absorption systems use heat energy in form of steam, direct fuel firing or waste heat
to achieve the refrigerant effect;
2. The absorption cycle use a liquid pump, NOT a compressor to create the pressure rise
between evaporator and condenser. Pumping a liquid is much easier and cheaper than
compressing a gas, so the system takes less work input. However, there is a large heat input
in the generator. So, the system basically replaces the work input of a vapor-compression
cycle with a heat input;
3. The absorption cycle uses different refrigerants that have no associated environment
hazard, ozone depletion or global warming potential (for example lithium bromide
absorption system use distilled water as the

refrigerant). The vapor compression

refrigeration cycle generally uses a halocarbon (such as HCFC-123, HCFC-22, HFC-134a,

etc) as the refrigerant;
4. Compared to compression chillers, absorption systems contain very few moving parts,
offer less noise and vibration, are compact for large capacities

and require little

maintenance;
5. Compared to compression chillers, the performance of absorption systems is not sensitive
to load variations and does not depend very much on evaporator superheat;
6. Compared with mechanical chillers, absorption systems have a low

coefficient of

performance (COP = chiller load/heat input). However, absorption chillers can substantially
reduce operating costs because they are powered by low-grade waste heat. The COP of
absorption chiller is NOT sensitive to load variations and does not reduce significantly at
part loads.
From the standpoint of thermodynamics, the vapor compression chiller is a heat pump,
using mechanical energy and work, to move heat from a low to a high temperature. An
absorption chiller is the equivalent of a heat engine absorbing heat at a high temperature,
rejecting heat at a lower temperature, producing work driving a heat pump.

2.5 APPLICATIONS OF ABSORPTION SYSTEMS

52

The main advantage of absorption chillers is their ability to utilize waste heat streams that
would be otherwise discarded. In terms of energy performance, motor-driven
compression chillers will beat absorption chillers every time. Still there are

vapor
specific

applications where absorption chillers have a substantial advantage over motor-driven vapor
compression chillers. Some of those applications include:
1. For facilities that use lot of thermal energy for their processes, a large chunk of heat is
usually discarded to the surrounding as waste. This waste heat can be converted to useful
refrigeration by using a VAM.
2. For facilities that have a simultaneous need for heat and power (cogeneration system),
absorption chillers can utilize the thermal energy to produce chilled water.
3. For facilities that have high electrical demand charges. Absorption chillers minimize or
flatten the sharp spikes in a buildings electric load profile can be used as part of a peak
shaving strategy.
4. For facilities where the electrical supply is not robust, expensive, unreliable,

or

unavailable, it is easier to achieve heat input with a flame than with electricity. Absorption
chillers uses very little electricity compared to an electric motor driven compression cycle
chiller.
5. For facilities, where the cost of electricity verses fuel oil/gas tips the scale in favor of
fuel/gas. Various studies indicate that the absorption chillers provide economic benefit in
most geographical areas, due to the differential in the cost between gas and electric energy.
6. For facilities wanting to use a natural refrigerant and aspiring for LEED certification
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) absorption chillers are a good choice.
Absorption chillers do not use CFCs or HCFCs - the compounds known for causing Ozone
depletion.
7. For facilities implementing clean development mechanism (CDM) and accumulating
carbon credits, the absorption use coupled to waste heat recovery and cogeneration system
help reduce problems related to greenhouse effect from CO2 emission.

53

Vapor absorption system allows use of variable heat sources: directly using a gas burner,
recovering waste heat in the form of hot water or low-pressure steam, or boiler-generated
hot water or steam.

2.6 THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ABSORPTION COOLING

Water boils and evaporates at 212 F [100 C] at standard atmospheric pressure (14.7psia
[101.3kPa]). When the pressure is reduced, water boils at a lower

temperature. The

following table gives the total pressure in inches of mercury and

the corresponding

approximate water boiling temperature at different pressures:

Table:- Water boiling temperature at different pressures:
Absolute pressure

Water boiling point (F)

760 mm-Hg (1 atm)

212

76 mm-Hg (0.1 atm)

115

25.6 mm-Hg (0.34 atm)

80

7.6 mm-Hg (0.01 atm)

45

6.5 mm-Hg

40

Consider a closed vessel placed under a vacuum of say, 6.5 mm Hg (refer to the figure
below). Assume the closed vessel contains a high quality absorbent material such as dry
silica gel, and a heat transfer coiled tube through which warm water is circulated. When
water is sprayed on the outer wall of the heat transfer tube:
1. It gets boiled at low temperature 40F (4C) under vacuum, and in doing so, absorbs heat
from the running water in the heat transfer tube. (The sprayed water is also called the
refrigerant).
2. The running water in the heat transfer tube is optimally cooled equivalent to the heat of
evaporation.

54

Figure: 2.14 Vapor Absorption System with Silica Gel Absorbent

The vapors produced, as a result of evaporation, will immediately be absorbed by the silica
gel. But when the silica gel reaches the limit of its absorbing capacity, the process continuity
cannot be maintained. To ensure a continuous process, some means of converting the
absorbent to its original concentration is necessary.
In commercial practice, silica gel is replaced with an aqueous absorbent solution.
Continuing with the same explanation, as the aqueous absorbent solution absorbs refrigerant
vapors; it becomes diluted and has less ability to absorb any further water vapor. To
complete the cycle and sustain operation, the dilute solution is pumped to higher pressure
where with application of heat, the water vapor is driven off and the re-concentrated
absorbent is recycled back to the absorber vessel. The released

refrigerant vapor is

condensed in a separate vessel and returned for evaporation. The simplified diagram here
illustrates the overall flow path.

55

Figure:2.15 Vapor Absorption System with Aqueous Absorbent

Most commercial absorption chillers use pure water as refrigerant and lithium bromide
(LiBr) as absorbent salt. Another common refrigerantabsorbent pair is ammonia as the
refrigerant and water as the absorbent. There are other refrigerant absorbent combinations;
but in this course will focus on lithium bromide VAM.

2.7 HOW ABSORPTION MACHINE WORKS

Absorption system employs heat and a concentrated salt solution (lithium bromide) to
produce chilled water. In its simplest design the absorption machine consists of 4 basic
components:
1. Generator
2. Condenser
3. Evaporator
4. Absorber

56

Figure:-2.16 Vapour Absorption Cycle

Just like the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the absorption machine operates under
two pressures one corresponding to the condenser-generator (high pressure refrigerant
separation side) and the other corresponding to evaporator-absorber (low

pressure

absorption process in vacuum). For air-conditioning applications, the evaporator-absorber is

at a pressure of 6.5 mmHg and temperature of about 40F.
The pressure on the high-pressure side of the system (condenser) is approximately ten times
greater than that on the low-pressure side to allow the refrigerant to reject heat to water at
normally available temperatures. Typically the condensation of water in the condensergenerator takes place at a pressure of 75 mmHg and temperature of about 113F.

2.8 FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS

Generator: The purpose of the generator is to deliver the refrigerant vapor to the rest of the
system. It accomplishes this by separating the water (refrigerant) from the lithium bromideand-water solution. In the generator, a high-temperature energy source, typically steam or
hot water, flows through tubes that are immersed in a dilute solution of refrigerant and
57

absorbent. The solution absorbs heat from the warmer

steam or water, causing the

refrigerant to boil (vaporize) and separate from the absorbent solution. As the refrigerant is
boiled away, the absorbent solution
absorbent solution returns to the

becomes more concentrated. The concentrated

absorber and the refrigerant vapor migrates to the

condenser.

Condenser: The purpose of condenser is to condense the refrigerant vapors. Inside the
condenser, cooling water flows through tubes and the hot refrigerant vapor fills the
surrounding space. As heat transfers from the refrigerant vapor to the water, refrigerant
condenses on the tube surfaces. The condensed liquid refrigerant collects in the bottom of
the condenser before traveling to the expansion device. The cooling

water system is

typically connected to a cooling tower. Generally, the generator and condenser are contained
inside of the same shell.

Expansion Device: From the condenser, the liquid refrigerant flows through an expansion
device into the evaporator. The expansion device is used to maintain the pressure difference
between the high-pressure (condenser) and low-pressure (evaporator) sides of the
refrigeration system by creating a liquid seal that separates the high-pressure and low
pressure sides of the cycle. As the high-pressure liquid refrigerant flows through

the

expansion device, it causes a pressure drop that reduces the refrigerant pressure to that of
the evaporator. This pressure reduction causes a small portion of the liquid refrigerant to boil
off, cooling the remaining refrigerant to the desired evaporator temperature. The cooled
mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant then flows into the evaporator.

Evaporator:
The purpose of evaporator is to cool the circulating water. The evaporator contains a
bundle of tubes that carry the system water to be cooled/chilled. High pressure liquid
condensate (refrigerant) is throttled down to the evaporator pressure (typically around 6.5
mm Hg absolute).
58

At this low pressure, the refrigerant absorbs heat from the circulating water and evaporates.
The refrigerant vapors thus formed tend to increase the pressure in the vessel. This will in
turn increase the boiling temperature and the desired cooling effect will not be obtained. So,
it is necessary to remove the refrigerant vapors from the vessel into the lower pressure
absorber. Physically, the evaporator and absorber are contained inside the same shell,
allowing refrigerant vapors generated in the evaporator to migrate continuously to the
absorber.
Absorber:
Inside the absorber, the refrigerant vapor is absorbed by the lithium bromide solution. As
the refrigerant vapor is absorbed, it condenses from a vapor to a liquid, releasing the heat it
acquired in the evaporator.
The absorption process creates a lower pressure within the absorber. This lower pressure,
along with the absorbents affinity for water, induces a continuous flow of refrigerant vapor
from the evaporator. In addition, the absorption process condenses the refrigerant vapors
and releases the heat removed from the evaporator by the refrigerant. The heat released
from the condensation of refrigerant vapors and their absorption in the solution is removed
to the cooling water that is circulated through

the absorber tube bundle.

As the

concentrated solution absorbs more and more refrigerant; its absorption ability decreases.
The weak absorbent solution is then pumped to the generator where heat is used to drive off
the refrigerant. The hot refrigerant vapors created in the generator migrate to the condenser.
The cooling tower water circulating through the condenser turns the refrigerant vapors to a
liquid state and picks up the heat of condensation, which it rejects to the cooling tower. The
liquid refrigerant returns to the evaporator and completes the cycle.

59

2.9 LIST OF COMPONENTS USED

1. Mirrors for reflecting the rays of sun.
2. Mild steel stands for supporting the parabolic dish and other components.
3. Pressure pipe for joining the components.
4. CITI FIX adhesive is used for fixing the mirrors with the fiber sheet.
5. Fiber sheet is used for covering the area in the parabolic dish.
6. Four liter steel tank as a receiver on which five sides are covered with glass wool, which
is capable for working for 1200oC.
7. PVC pipe.
8. Mild steel tube.
9. Stainless steel tube.
10. Pump for spraying water.

60

2.10 METHODOLOGY AND OBSERVATION

STANDARD OPERATION PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Set up the model in proper place of available sunlight source.

Set the focus of the parabolic dish.
Care should be taken to ensure if there is any leakage.
Change the direction from east to west of parabolic dish in every hour.
Remove the dust from the reflector.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
OBSERVATION
A detailed investigation using different instruments had been carried out to access the
performance of the collector. Temperature sensor was used to measure the temperature of
refrigerant in the inlet and outlet of different components.

61

2.11 OBSERVATION TABLE:

62

CHAPTER-3
3.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Parabolic dish
Evaporator
Generator
Capillary
Condenser
Absorber

4000
1500
1500
300
300
1300
8,900

Total

63

3.2 MERITS AND DEMERITS

MERITS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

maintenance cost is low.

Long life.
Noise less operation.
Pollution free.
Relatively good efficiency as compared to flat plate collectors.
High temperature can be obtained by using parabolic dish.
Low initial cost.

DEMERITS
1. We need Very small amount of electricity for running pump.
2. It works only in sunny days.
3. Constant efficiency cannot be obtained (varies with time or atmospheric
temperature).

3.3 SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

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The following work may be carried out to increase the performance of the refrigeration
system:
1. For increasing the concentration ratio, provide the suitable tracking system equipped
with sensors.
2. The mirrors used in the parabolic dish should be casted in 6 pieces for the entire
cross-section area of parabolic dish.

CHAPTER-4
65

CONCLUSION
The future of solar refrigeration and air conditioning seems to be a very good proposition
and no doubt will find its place in future industrial applications. The major limiting factor at
present is the shape of energy so as to make it available whenever it is required, for example
at nights and extended cloudy days when we cannot attain a high enough temperature.
In the case of air conditioning and refrigeration, storage can either be done in the form of
heat or as the final product (cold water or ice). The latter is a much easier form of storage
but it is rather bulky, for this reason there has been ongoing research in the area of storage in
various forms, trying to make use of phase change materials, eutectics, oils, etc., which has
the potential of storing large quantities of energy within a small space and over a longer
period of time than water. With the achievements already made in this field, the technology
will no doubt be available for large scale application in the near future. Coupled with a more
elaborate design of the refrigeration system that we hate designed we could go far way in
supplementing solar energy for the conventional energy used for these pricesses today.
The optical efficiency can be improved by keeping the reflector clean and polished. The
joints of all the components with each other should be of good because leakage of ammonia
is not good for human health.

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66

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