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Leopold Kronecker
(1823 1891)
Giuseppe Peano
(1858 1932)
Italian mathematician
Graduated as doctor of
mathematics in 1880
Often discovers errors
in standard definitions
Peanos Postulates
P1: 1 is an element of the set X.
P2: For each element
there is a unique
If for all
Construction of
From P1,
From P2,
From P3,
Let
Construction of
Let
Addition
Let
If
then
If
let
Define
for some
Multiplication
Let
If
then
If
let
Define
for some
number k+1.
Example 1
Show that
is true for all natural numbers n.
2 1 2 11 1
LHS 1 1
RHS
2
2
2
Example 1
Let k be an arbitrary natural number, and suppose
(HOI)
Now,
(APE)
Example 1
Example 1
Therefore, by PMI, for all
Example 2
1
1
1
1
1
LHS 1
1
1 1 RHS
Example 2
Let k be an arbitrary natural number, and suppose
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 ... 1 k 1 (HOI)
1 2 3 k
Now,
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 ... 1 1
1
2
3
k
k
k 1 1
(MPE)
k 1
Example 2
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 ... 1 1
1 2 3 k k 1
1
k 1 1
k 1
k 2
k 1
k 1
k 2
Example 3
Therefore, by PMI, for all
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 ... 1 n 1
1 2 3 n
Example 3
Show that 1! 2 2! ... n n ! n 1 ! 1
is true for all natural numbers n.
LHS 1!
2 1 2! 1 RHS
Example 3
Let k be an arbitrary natural number, and suppose
1! 2 2! ... k k ! k 1! 1 (HOI)
Now,
1! 2 2! ... k k ! k 1 k 1!
k 1 ! 1 k 1 k 1 ! (APE)
Example 3
1! 2 2! ... k k ! k 1 k 1!
k 1 ! 1 k 1 k 1 !
k 1 ! k 1 k 1 ! 1
k 1 ! 1 k 1 1
1
k 1 ! k 2
k 2 ! 1
Example 3
Therefore, by PMI, for all
1! 2 2! ... n n! n 1! 1
Example 4
Show that n n 1 n 5
is a multiple of 3 for any natural number n.
Restatement:
For every integer n, there exists an integer m such
that 3m n n 1 n 5 .
Example 4
For every integer n, there exists an integer m such
that 3m n n 1 n 5 .
Proof: Using PMI
Let
Then RHS 1 2 6 12 3 4 LHS
That is, m 4
Hence, the statement holds for 1.
Example 4
Let k be an arbitrary natural number, and suppose
there exist an integer m such that
3m k k 1 k 5 .
(HOI)
Now,
k 1 k 2 k 6
k 9k 20k 12
k 6k 5k 3k 15k 12
2
Example 4
k 1 k 2 k 6
2
k k 1 k 5 3k 15k 12
2
3m 3 k 5k 4
k 6k 5k 3k 15k 12
2
3m 3s
3 m s
Example 4
Therefore, by PMI, for all
3m n n 1 n 5 .
CAUTION!!!
Not enough : finite number of integers
Though trivial, step 1 should not be skipped
S-A-S