Batch A5

Chapter 1
Importance of Energy Storage Technologies

1.1 Introduction
In present scenario the requirement of electricity is very necessary for domestic,
public, industries and companies etc. So the storing of electrical energy is also as
important as using of electricity. Now every house hold is depending on the grid system
for their electrical requirement, but connecting grid in remote areas become excessively
expensive if:
1. The nearest point to which it can be connected, is far away.

2. The houses in the area itself are very scattered.
3. There are no roads along which materials like poles and cables can be
transported.
4. The system will be used mainly for lighting. This means that revenues will
remain low as users will consume only little electricity. But still a complete and
powerful system has to be built to provide electricity for those few hours per
day that everyone will switch his or her lights on.
Some of the Renewable technologies they are well supports to the technology of
energy storage are summarized in following sections.
1.2 Solar Energy

Every day across the globe, the sun shines down on the earth. The energy in the
photons from the sun can be converted to electrical energy. The term for this process is
called as Photovoltaic Effect. Since the first commercially available solar panel in
the 1960s, photovoltaic (PV) technology has continued to be explored and developed
throughout the world. The constant development of this technology has resulted in an
increasing level of efficiency and PV panels that are more affordable than ever before,
though still initially expensive. Today, humans continue to search for new ways to make
photovoltaic technology a viable option for everyone throughout the world. Since most
Design of Energy Storage Technologies for Smart Buildings
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of us are not studying the atomic level of this technology, we can help in other ways by gaining an understanding and spreading that understanding of Photovoltaic, as well
as by helping others to gain access to solar, or photovoltaic systems.
The earth receives more energy from the sun in just one hour than the world
uses in a whole year. Two billion people in the world have no access to electricity. For
most of them, solar power would be their cheapest electricity source, but they cannot
afford it. Most rural poor in the world use kerosene lamps, which are heavily polluting
in CO2 and bad for their health, but a solar lamp would be cheaper and better for the
environment. Solar panels are guaranteed typically for 25 years and have a life
expectancy of at least 50 years.
Respiratory diseases caused by toxic smoke from cooking fires kill 1.5 million
women and children each year. Yet a solar cooker, which is much safer, can be easily
built from cardboard and waste reflective material.
Energy from the sun can be categorized in two ways: In the form of heat (or
thermal energy), and in the form of light energy. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used
directly for heating and lighting homes and other buildings, for generating electricity,
and for hot water heating, solar cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial
uses.
The technologies that directly utilize the heat or light from the Sun in the
production of electricity or heat include Photo-voltaics or PVs (Solar Cell Technology),
Solar Thermal Systems (they comprise collectors, receivers and concentrators to focus
incident solar radiation onto the receiver) and Direct Solar Heating Systems (these
comprise water heating, cooking, space heating and cooling and solar ponds).
Solar thermal technologies use the Sun's heat energy to heat substances (such
as water or air) for applications such as space heating, pool heating and water heating
for homes and businesses. There are a variety of products on the market that utilize
thermal energy. Often the products used for this application are called Solar Thermal
Collectors and can be mounted on the roof of a building or in some other sunny location.
Photovoltaic technology (PVs) is a technology often confused with solar
thermal and is in fact what many people mean when they refer to "solar energy". PV
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technology is a semiconductor-based technology that converts light energy directly into

an electric current that can either be used immediately or stored, such as in a battery,
for later use. PV panels/modules are very adaptable and can be mounted in a variety of
sizes and applications; e.g. on the roof or awning of a building, on roadside emergency
phones or as very large arrays consisting of multiple panels/modules. Currently they

are being integrated into building materials.
The world-wide demand for solar electric power systems has grown steadily
over the last 20 years. The need for reliable and low cost electric power in isolated areas
of the world is the primary force driving the world-wide photovoltaic (PV) industry
today. For a large number of applications, PV technology is simply the least-cost
option. Typical applications of PV in use today include stand-alone power systems for
cottages and remote residences, navigational aides for the Coast Guard, remote
telecommunication sites for utilities and the military, water pumping for farmers, and
emergency call boxes for highways and college campuses, to name just a few.
Significant growth in demand for PV systems is expected to occur in developing
countries to help meet the basic electrical needs of the 2 billion people without access
to conventional electricity grids. In addition to this demand for cost effective off-grid
power systems, environmental and longer-term fuel supply concerns by governments

and electric utilities are beginning to help accelerate the market for demonstration
programs for PV systems connected to central electric grids in industrialized countries.
1.3 Wind Energy

Since earliest times, man has harnessed the power of the wind, with the first
mill recorded as long ago as the 6th century AD. The technology has diversified over
the years to include pumping water, grinding grain, powering sawmills and most
recently generating electricity, now the fastest growing energy sector worldwide.
Wind turbine technology has developed rapidly in recent years and Europe is at
the hub of this high-tech industry. Wind turbines are becoming more powerful, with
the latest turbine models having larger blade lengths which can utilize more wind and
therefore produce more electricity, bringing down the cost of renewable energy
generation.
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The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating
of the earths surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area expands; it is
forced upwards by cool, denser air which flows in from surrounding areas causing a
wind. The nature of the terrain, the degree of cloud cover and the angle of the sun in
the sky are all factors which influence this process.
The energy accessible in the wind varies as the cube of the wind speed, so an
understanding of the characteristics of the wind resource is critical to all aspects of

wind energy exploitation, from the identification of suitable sites and predictions of the
economic viability of wind farm projects through to the design of wind turbines
themselves, and understanding their effect on electricity distribution networks and
consumers.
From the point of view of wind energy, the most striking characteristic of the
wind resource is its variability. The wind is highly variable, both geographically and
temporally. Furthermore this variability persists over a very wide range of scales, both
in space and time. The importance of this is amplified by the cubic relationship to
available energy.
On a large scale, spatial variability describes the fact that there are many
different climatic regions in the world, some much windier than others. These regions
are largely dictated by the latitude, which affects the amount of insulation. Within any
one climatic region, there is a great deal of variation on a smaller scale, largely dictated
by physical geography, the proportion of land and sea, the size of land masses, and the
presence of mountains or plains for example. The type of vegetation may also have a
significant influence through its effects on the absorption or reflection of solar

radiation, affecting surface temperatures, and on humidity.
At a given location, temporal variability on a large scale means that the amount
of wind may vary from one year to the next, with even larger scale variations over
periods of decades or more. These long-term variations are not well understood, and
may make it difficult to make accurate predictions of the economic viability of
particular wind-farm projects, for instance.
On time-scales shorter than a year, seasonal variations are much more
predictable, although there are large variations on shorter time-scales still, which
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although reasonably well understood, are often not very predictable more than a few
days ahead. These synoptic variations are associated with the passage of weather
systems. Depending on location, there may also be considerable variations with the
time of day (diurnal variations) which again are usually fairly predictable. On these
time-scales, the predictability of the wind is important for integrating large amounts of
wind power into the electricity network, to allow the other generating plant supplying
the network to be organized appropriately.
On still shorter time-scales of minutes down to seconds or less, wind-speed
variations known as turbulence can have a very significant effect on the design and
performance of the individual wind turbines, as well as on the quality of power

delivered to the network and its effect on consumers.
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Chapter 2
Types of Energy Storage Technology
2.1 Introduction
There are several commercially viable energy storage systems that are being
developed for hybrid electric systems. The types of devices that hold the most promise
to solve the energy storage problems are batteries, flywheels, and ultra-capacitors.
The following technologies are discussed in this section, with more details below:
1.
Battery storage.
2.
Compressed air energy storage.
3.
Flywheel storage
4.
Superconducting magnetic energy storage.
5.
Super capacitor storage
2.1.1 Battery Storage

Batteries store the electrical energy produced by a generator as chemical energy
until a load needs it. The storage capacity is limited by the size of the battery, so it may
be necessary to add additional batteries to a system or divert power to another load if
the capacity is too small. Generally, for renewable energy applications, 12 Volt lead-
acid batteries are used, either specially designed or ordinary vehicle batteries. Under
normal circumstances, for one charging, a battery can be used for 1-2 weeks.
Motor vehicle batteries are designed to give a high current over a short period,
so the depth of discharge is quite low. They are constructed from a large number of thin
plates of lead sponge to give a maximum surface area for the reaction to occur. This
thin plate construction results in very poor performance if the batteries are discharged
more deeply. Typically a battery will begin to fail after less than 100 cycles of discharge
to 50% of its capacity, with complete failure after around 200 cycles. Deep discharging
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batteries are preferable for remote power applications because of their longer life.
Generally, batteries take about 5 hours to be fully recharged. Trying to charge them
more quickly than this will damage the battery.
Utilities typically use batteries to provide an uninterruptible supply of electricity
to power substation switchgear and to start backup power systems. However, there is
an interest to go beyond these applications by performing load leveling and peak

shaving with battery systems that can store and dispatch power over a period of many
hours.
The standard battery used in energy storage applications is the lead-acid battery.
A lead-acid battery reaction is reversible, allowing the battery to be reused. There are
also some advanced sodium/sulfur, zinc/bromine, and lithium/air batteries that are
nearing commercial readiness and offer promise for future utility application.
2.1.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

Compressed air energy storage uses pressurized air as the energy storage
medium. An electric motor-driven compressor is used to pressurize the storage

reservoir using off-peak energy and air is released from the reservoir through a turbine
during on-peak hours to produce energy. The turbine is essentially a modified turbine
that can also be fired with natural gas or distillate fuel.
Ideal locations for large compressed air energy storage reservoirs are aquifers,
conventional mines in hard rock, and hydraulically mined salt caverns. Air can be stored
in pressurized tanks for small systems.
2.1.3 Flywheel Storage

A flywheel is an electromechanical device that couples a motor generator with
a rotating mass to store energy for short durations. Conventional flywheels are
"charged" and "discharged" via an integral motor/generator. The motor/generator draws
power provided by the grid to spin the rotor of the flywheel. During a power outage,
voltage sag, or other disturbance the motor/generator provides power. The kinetic
energy stored in the rotor is transformed to DC electric energy by the generator.
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Traditional flywheel rotors are usually constructed of steel and are limited to as
per rate of a few thousand revolutions per minute (RPM). Advanced flywheels
constructed from carbon fiber materials and magnetic bearings can spin in vacuum at
speeds up to 40,000 to 60,000 RPM. The flywheel provides power during period
between the loss of utility supplied power and either the return of utility power or the
start of a sufficient back-up power system (i.e., diesel generator).
Flywheels store energy mechanically by turning a heavy rotor at ever-increasing
revolutions per minute to store kinetic energy. Flywheels are good because they store
energy very efficiently but their specific energy is very low at this point in their
development compared to other available products making them an inappropriate
choice for energy storage.
2.1.4 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

Superconducting magnetic energy storage systems store energy in the field of a
large magnetic coil with direct current flowing. It can be converted back to AC electric
current as needed. Low temperature SMES cooled by liquid helium is commercially

available. High temperature SMES cooled by liquid nitrogen is still in the development
stage and may become a viable commercial energy storage source in the future.
A magnetic field is created by circulating a DC current in a closed coil of
superconducting wire. The path of the coil circulating current can be opened with a
solid state switch which is modulated on and off. Due to the high inductance of the coil,
when the switch is off, the magnetic coil behaves as a current source and will force
current into the capacitor which will charge to some voltage level. Proper modulation
of the solid-state switch can hold the voltage across the capacitor within the proper
operating range of the inverter. SMES systems are large and generally used for short
durations, such as utility switching events.
2.1.5 Super Capacitor Storage

Super capacitors (also known as ultra-capacitors) are DC energy sources and
must be interfaced to the electric grid with a static power conditioner, providing 50-Hz
output. A super capacitor provides power during short duration interruptions and
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voltage sags. By combining a super capacitor with a battery-based uninterruptible

power supply system, the life of the batteries can be extended. The batteries provide
power only during the longer interruptions, reducing the cycling duty on the battery.
Small super capacitors are commercially available to extend battery life in electronic
equipment, but large super capacitors are still in development, but may soon become a
viable component of the energy storage field.
2.2 Battery Safety

Batteries demand lots of caution when you work around them or move
them. They are very heavy, store enough energy to start a fire, are full of dangerous
sulfuric acid, and emit explosive hydrogen gas. Here are some safety tips for working
with the batteries.
i.
Install your batteries in a vented battery box, they emit hydrogen gas when
ii.
Never install electrical equipment in the same compartment as batteries due to
iii.
Wrap wrench handles in electrical tape to avoid shorting between battery
iv.
Wear goggles and rubber gloves to protect yourself from sulphuric acid when
v.
If you get acid on your skin, flush with lots of water
vi.
In case of acid in your eyes, flush with water for 15 minutes and call a doctor
charging
explosive hydrogen gas

terminals.
moving or working on batteries
All electrical systems are potentially dangerous, and should only be installed
and modified by a qualified electrician. Batteries are potentially the most hazardous
component of a stand-alone system.
The main dangers are:
i.
Spillage of battery acid: this can cause blindness if in contact with eyes, as well
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as destroying fabric and burning the skin.

ii.
Explosion: batteries generate a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen which can be

ignited by a spark or short-circuit if there is inadequate ventilation in the battery
cabinet.
iii.
Short circuit across the battery terminals (e.g. by dropping a spanner onto the
battery bank), generating huge currents and potentially starting a fire. Used
batteries need to be disposed of in a proper manner.
2.3 General Battery Care

Even if the battery case looks the same, you cannot just upgrade to another
battery technology unless your load has been pre-configured from the manufacturer to
accept more than one type of battery type, since the recharging process is different for
each of the types of batteries.
i.
Between the alternator and the battery to be charged, there is a switchboard. It

has a voltage regulator to protect against overcharging the battery. There is a
circuit to regulate the field current with which the charger can be adjusted for
running at the optimum turbine speed. And there is an indicator circuit to check
the condition of the battery before charging, and to check whether a battery is
fully charged.
ii.
Batteries are used as a means to transport electricity: Carrying a charged battery

back home means bringing the stored electricity from the charger site to the
house where it will be used. The storage function of the battery also means that
there is no problem with the peak electricity demand during the evening when
everyone switches on lamps. Ordinary 12 V car batteries or special `solar'

batteries can be used.
iii.
Houses of users have a home system that consists of a battery connection,
cables, switches, lamps and a charge indicator that warns users when their
battery needs recharging. This charge indicator is very important as batteries

cannot stand being discharged completely or being left in discharged condition
for a long time so users should never use them until `dead'.
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iv.
Some points deserve special attention as they are critical for overall
v.
The battery: Investment costs and replacement costs are vital for the economics
performance:
of this technology. Therefore a special analysis is to be required to the
economics of the battery. Comparing to the conventional power the battery
storage power is somewhat costlier, needs regular maintenance, and not

compatible to some of the higher loads.
It is only wise to keep these possible problems in mind. But let's not forget about the
advantages:
a. Cheap: As per recent rates, a complete charger was estimated to cost Rs/
4000 while the materials for a home system were about Rs/ 3000 (2004
prices). So with 10 users per charger, investment costs are only Rs/- 400 per
user, or about 1/10-th of the investment costs of a solar system for one
house.
b. Safe: 12 V electricity is safe to touch. There is a fuse near the battery to

protect against fire in case of a short circuit in the home system. Clear
warnings should be given about the dangers of battery acid.
c. Flexible: The number of users per charger has little effects on the
investment costs per user. At just 4 users per charger, still investment costs
are only Rs/- 1000 per user. Even with the standard charger design, it is
possible to have at least 20 users per charger.
d. Technically and Organizationally simple: Every user has his/her own

home system so taking good care of the battery is just in his/her own interest.
Operating and maintaining the charger can be made the responsibility of an
operator who will get part of the charging fee for this. There is no
collectively used grid so there is no danger of overloading the grid (meaning

that if someone near the charger switches on one more lamp, people at the
end of the line see their lamps almost fade out. Users pay for every time they
have their battery charged, possibly with a fee that is related to battery
capacity. In this way, costs for users are directly related to their electricity
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consumption and there is no ground for dissension about some users using
more than others.
e. Introduction is simple. Training needs for operators are limited because 12

V is safe to touch and they can learn by trial and error. For operating the
system and to be started, one has to find only a few interested people that
could form a user group and a site. The charger can be demonstrated before
users have to invest in building the civil works and buying batteries, cables
etc. for their home system. The economics are such that it is affordable even
to poor people.
The system can be used most effectively if one charger serves a user group of
capacity of 10 families. Whether such a user group functions well, is very important for
the success of the technology.
Dos
1. Size the battery bank to store from 4 to 20 days of average power use.
2. Recharge batteries to 90% full regularly (every four to seven days).
3. Perform equalization charge (100% full charge) every 30 days
4. Use a good quality (glass, temperature compensated) battery hydrometer to
occasionally check for full charge and equalized cells. Keep hydrometer clean.
5. Practice safety: wear rubber gloves, safety goggles, remove jewellery and be
very careful of metal tools around batteries .
6. Protect people from batteries and batteries from people with a vented battery
box or other vented enclosure.
7. Keep the battery tops clean. Grease posts after cleaning. Rotate end cells to the
middle of battery bank and check tightness of all connections once per year.
8. Keep the batteries at room temperature when practical and use temperature
compensation with charging sources.
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9. Replenish electrolyte by adding distilled water after equalize charge.

Donts
1. Size battery bank too small, or too large. And do not undersize your conductors
(battery and inverter cables).
2. Use batteries not suited for deep cycle use, or your application.
3. Use more than 80% of battery storage capacity.
4. Let your batteries stay in a deep discharged state for more than a day.
5. Assume that your batteries are charged by just reading the voltage.
6. Be afraid to use the battery hydrometer if you really want to know what's going
on inside your batteries.
7. Compromise your systems performance by using undersized connectors and

wiring.
8. Compromise performance by sloppy installation workmanship.
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Chapter 3
Role of Batteries in Solar PV Assisted Green
Building
3.1: Introduction
Power inverters take the DC electricity stored in your batteries and invert it to
230 volts AC for use in powering your household loads. There are a number of types
of inverters based on the quality of the power that they produce. Square wave inverters
are an outdated technology and should no longer be used due to the harm that they can
do to the loads they are driving. Modified sine wave inverters are very efficient, have
large surge power capabilities and are less expensive than sine wave inverters. Inverters
often come with on board battery chargers that automatically charge your battery bank
whenever your generator is running. The more sophisticated models can even be
programmed to start and stop your generator. This feature requires the correct type of
generator to accomplish this.
Very often, one battery won't do the trick - or more likely, you don't have the
one that will do the trick, so you're stuck with multiple small batteries.
Hooking batteries in parallel will give you the same voltage as a single battery,
but with a Ah and current carrying capacity equal to the sum of the capacities of all the
batteries. For example, three 12v 20 Ah batteries in parallel will give you 12v 60 Ah.
If each battery could put out 200 amps max, three in parallel could put out 600 amps
max.
Figure 3.1 Batteries in Parallel
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Hooking the batteries in series will give you a voltage equal to the total voltage of all
the batteries, but the Ah and current carrying capacity of only one. For example, three
12v 20 Ah batteries in series will give you 36v 20 Ah. If each battery could put out 200
amps max, then three in series will put out only 200 amps max.
Figure 3.2 Batteries in Series:

In other words, you can combine voltage, or capacity, but not both. Current
draw is divided up amongst the batteries the same way that capacity is combined. In
parallel, each battery only need supply a fraction of the total current drawn by the load;
in series, each battery must supply the full current. Thus, a motor drawing 150 amps
from three 12 volt batteries in parallel will draw 50 amps from each.
3.2 How to Determine the Size of Battery Array Needed

1) The first thing you have to decide on is if you are going to use a 12V, 24V or 48V
DC system. The advantages to using a larger DC voltage system is that the
wires/cabling you will need to use can be of a smaller gauge. Systems with higher DC
voltages lose less energy due to resistances in wiring that those of lower DC voltage.
The downside to higher voltage systems is that you have to buy everything in
sets, and it may increase your overall cost. For instance, a 24V system will require you
to buy solar panels in sets of 2. In the case of batteries, if you plan to use 6V batteries
to match the system voltage.
Another downside to higher voltage systems is that the voltage levels become
more dangerous as they get higher. Whereas, 12V systems are less likely to seriously
harm you. An advantage to 12V system is that it's a bit easier to find equipment you
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can power directly off of the batteries (i.e. 12V). Whereas if you were to power 12V
appliances of a 48V system, you would need to also buy a DC voltage converter.
2) Determine the total watt hours you will be using per day. This should have already
been calculated from sizing your solar panels in Step 1 of the Solar Panel Sizing
Seminar.
3) Determine how many rainy days you might have in a row. This is the number of days
that your solar panels might not be producing electricity in a row and will need to rely
solely on your batteries for electricity during this time.
Typically, 3 to 7 days is used for homes and 7 to 14 for industrial purposes (like remote
telecommunications sites).
4) Multiply the number of watt*hours from your load calculation (Step 2) by the
number of storage days (Step 3).
5) Determine how deeply you want to discharge your batteries. 80% is considered the
maximum amount you can discharge your lead-acid battery array, whereas 50% is an
optimal amount for battery longevity. Then divide the amount calculated in Step 4 by
0.80 or 0.50 (for instance).
6) Compensate your calculations for low battery temperatures. As your batteries get
colder (such as in the winter months), they are capable of producing less current. Using
the table below, multiply the value you calculated in Step 5 by the Multiplier Factor,
according to the lowest temperature you think your batteries will experience:
Temp(F)
Multiplier
80
1.00
70
1.04
60
1.11
50
1.19
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40
1.30
30
1.40
20
1.59
7) Find the watt hour capacity of the battery you selected. This is the voltage of the
battery times the ampere hour capacity. For example, the Trojan T-105 is a 6V, 220AH
battery. So it's Watt*Hour capacity is: 6Vx220AH = 1320 WH.
8) Determine the number of batteries you need (almost). Divide the value you
calculated for Step 6 by the value you found for Step 7.
9) Round the number of batteries to fit the system voltage you selected. For instance, a
12V system will require that you use 6V batteries in sets of 2, or a 24V system will
require 6V batteries to be used in sets of four.
For instance, if you are planning to have a 12V system and your calculations from Step
8 give you 5 batteries, you must round that number up to 6 batteries.
Other Hints/Rules of Thumb
Typically a battery bank's ampere hour rating should be at least 5 times that of
the hourly amperage draw (Amp Hour) of your largest appliance.
There are many other dangers associated with any lead-acid battery bank that
we haven't mentioned here, such as potential acid spills and build-up of
hydrogen/oxygen gas. Please consult with the battery manufacturer for specific details
on all the precautions that should be taken with whichever battery type you select.
The electrical energy produced by photovoltaic modules or by a wind generator
can be used in two ways: consumed at the time of generation or stored. In order to use
this energy at times other than daylight hours or on days without wind, it is necessary
to install batteries whose function it is to store the energy produced by the generator
and to maintain the voltage of the installation at a reasonably constant level.
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The battery system consists of a group of battery elements, generally lead-acid,
each of which produces a voltage of 2 Volts. This means that for 12 Volts installation,
a 6 cell battery will be required, connected in series; while if 24 Volts are required, the
battery will consist of 12 cells in series.
The amount of energy that a battery can store depends on its capacity, this is
measured in Amp hours (for example: if 100% efficiency is supposed a 100 Ah battery
can deliver 1 Amp for 100 hours or 2 Amps for 50 hours, or 5 Amps for 20 hours).
The number of days that a battery can supply the load in an installation without
receiving charge from the generator (number of days of autonomy) will depend on its
capacity. The more Amp hours it can store, the higher the number of days available
with a single charge. Thus, the battery should be sized in such a way that, without being
highly expensive, it can supply the load for the desired number of days of autonomy.
Charge controller: the regulation system has basically three functions:
a. To avoid battery overcharges, which can cause irreversible damage to the
battery.
b. To avoid the battery discharging through the PV modules when there is no

incident solar radiation.
c. To make the system operate at its point of maximum efficiency.

The charge controller is one of the most important elements in a photovoltaic
system; the battery life depends totally on its correct operation.

Lighting systems
The lighting systems should be of high efficiency and low consumption:
electronic lamps, fluorescent tubes, sodium vapor lamps, etc. This type of lamp also
withstands supply voltage variations (a voltage variation of 20% can destroy an

incandescent lamp, while fluorescent tubes withstand these variations).
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Electric appliances
These devices must be energy efficient, especially when they consume energy
over many hours. In the image above we can see three energy efficient refrigerators.
Inverter
Most appliances require alternating current at 220 Volts and frequency of 50
Hz. In order to produce this kind of current, a DC/AC (from DC current to AC current)
inverter is necessary to transform the DC current from the battery (12 or 24 Volts), into
AC current at 220 Volts and 50 Hz.
The kind of inverter to be used depends on the application. For example, if we
want AC current to operate a TV or a computer and some small appliances, a square
wave inverter can be used. But if the application is to provide energy to appliances such
as washing machines, refrigerators, or some AC motors - loads that require a sinusoidal

wave form source for their correct operation - a sine wave inverter must be used.
Rural areas in developing countries are commonly at a disadvantage when it
comes to access to all types of services such as clean water supplies, communication
and information, roads and health facilities. This is also true for the provision of energy
services for domestic use, communications, agriculture and income generating

activities. Energy is often a fundamental component in providing these services. In the
case of using modern information and communication systems, all of the appliances
will require electricity, ranging from a few watts to power a phone to several hundred
watts to run a desktop and monitor. Nearly two billion peo people do not have access
to grid electricity and in sub Saharan Africa the percentage of people who do have
access to the grid is between 4-25% and most of these are in urban areas.
Traditionally grid extension was seen as the only solution to providing power.
However the high cost of providing electricity services in remote areas has led to new
approaches being tried based on local ownership and the private sector and in many
cases this is considered the preferred option. Decentralized supplies are now established
as a cost-effective alternative to those without mains electricity.
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Renewable sources often provide the most attractive means of providing this
energy, through hydropower, solar or wind. However, if such resources are not
available then using diesel engines is another option.
The system used will depend on a number of issues:
a. Resource availability
b. Service required.
The amount of power needed and where it is needed is an important factor. This
can be at Household level, providing power to one or a couple of houses and is typically
about 100 Watts or in the case of solar power about 20-50 Wh.
Village/Community grid is providing power directly to houses and for
community facilities and small businesses. This could be a tele centre (centre providing
communication services such as telephones, Internet access, fax, photocopying, video

and television). A village grid is normally 1-5 kW.
Through batteries to supply either individual households or a community
facility such as a school. A Battery Charging Station (BCS) is typically about 1kW
capacity.
Costs
When choosing an appropriate rural energy supply costs are a crucial
consideration. This includes the capital costs and also the operation, maintenance band
component replacement costs (for example a battery needs replacing every two years
and a diesel generator set every five)
Ownership and management
This can be through the community, individual owner or contracted out to a
small enterprise or individual. It is crucial that the management covers tariff setting,
collection, operators salaries and the running and maintenance costs of the scheme.
20 | P a g e
3.3 Quantifying the energy demand

The answer needs to be divided into two parts:
1. Peak power consumption (Watts)
The power rating of an appliance can usually be found on a name plate at the
back of the unit, or in the user manual. It is important to remember that the electrical
power to run the load will come from the battery, not directly from the renewable
energy generator. It is the battery which has to be sized and configured to provide
the peak power demand of the load. All the other electrical components also have
to be sized to deliver the peak power (inverter, wiring, circuit breakers, etc.)
2. Mean energy consumption (Watt-hours per month)
The average amount of energy consumed monthly and yearly is the main
parameters used to size the renewable energy system. A system supplier will try to
ensure that the batteries receive enough charge on a monthly basis in order to supply
the load at all times.
For example, a domestic fridge has a typical Name plate power rating of 120 Watts.
However, the fridge is switched on and off throughout the day by its internal thermostat
in order to maintain a temperature closes to 6C. In fact, it only draws power for about
15 minutes in every hour. Hence the mean monthly energy consumption will be:
120 Watts x 15/60 x 720 hours/month = 21,600 Wh/month
There are two common mistakes in estimating the load:
1. Overestimating known loads. It is common to calculate greater energy
consumption than actually occurs. This is often because the 'nameplate' power
rating of an appliance is usually the maximum power drawn, not the average
power over a period. Although this is a safe approach, it will lead to an oversized
system and hence greater cost.
2. Underestimating future growth. Once power becomes available, it is common
for the user to find more loads to connect, rapidly leading to system overload
and the temptation to blame renewable energy for not being up to the job.
21 | P a g e
Load definition table

In order to estimate the load in a methodical manner, it is advisable to draw up
a load definition table on a spreadsheet, If there is likely to be seasonal variation in the
load, the energy consumed per day should be estimated as a minimum for Summer
(Apr-Oct) and Winter (Nov-Mar), although it is preferable to break this down month-
by-month. The end result is an estimate of the energy consumption per year, which is
the starting point for discussions with system suppliers, and is also the parameter
needed.
The first fundamental parameter any renewable energy supplier will want to know is:
i.
How big is the load that has to be supplied?
ii.
The figure for peak power to be drawn from the batteries.
iii.
It is also advisable to include this table in the system specification
3.4 Optimizing the load

Not all loads are suited to operation with a renewable energy supply. An ideal
application would be a load which:
i.
Is highly energy efficient
ii.
Has a well-defined daily and monthly consumption pattern which will not
iii.
Has a need for energy which closely matches the daily and/or seasonal
iv.
Can be divided into separate, smaller loads which can be prioritized as
v.
Is flexible in where it can be located
vi.
Is not sited in a harsh environment
vii.
Is not surrounded by trees or buildings
grow unexpectedly.
variation of the natural resource (sun, wind or water)

essential and non-essential
22 | P a g e
viii.
Can support a PV array or wind turbine on its existing structure
ix.
Is accessible for installation and occasional inspection
x.
Is within range of a reliable cell-phone transmitter
The combination of these features will improve reliability, reduce system size
and battery size, lower the overall specification and reduce installation cost. It is
unlikely that any load can be found with all these features, and even if none of them are
present, a renewable power supply could still be considered for the task. Two important
features worth discussing further are the energy efficiency and the demand pattern of
the load.
Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency is the most important aspect of an off-grid load because, in
most cases, it is cheaper to invest in an energy efficient appliance than it is to provide

a bigger power supply.
Therefore, before considering the specification of the power supply, every
element of the load application should be analyzed so as to minimize its energy needs.
Such an exercise can bring remarkable reductions in energy requirements, often

between 30% and 90%.
Energy efficiency in this context refers not only to the instantaneous power
drawn by an appliance, but also the amount of time it needs to be on. Hence, for
example, the use of sensors to detect whether anyone is present who needs the device
can reduce the time on full power to the absolute minimum. For example, the latest PV
pay-and display meters, consume 24 Watts for 5 seconds when dispensing a ticket, but
otherwise shut down completely until the next coin is presented. In 'sleep' mode they
consume only 0.012 Watts.
Matching the energy supply to the demand

The most cost-effective renewable energy system will be one in which the
demand for energy most closely matches the variation in the natural energy resource.
This will allow both the power unit and the battery bank to be the minimum size.
23 | P a g e
A good example is the power supply installed to operate the lock gate at
Titchmarsh Lock, described in Annex A. Because people generally take to the river in
sunny months and only in daylight, the availability of sunshine closely matched the
expected demand on the lock motor drive, so the choice of a PV system proved a very
cost-effective solution.
Other examples of good matches between natural energy supply and the variation in
demand would include:
a. Wind-powered heating devices.

b. Solar air-conditioning and cooling systems.
c. Solar pumping and purification of drinking water.
Battery life
Battery lifetime is highly sensitive to the depth of discharge they experience
during each charge discharge cycle. Batteries for renewable energy applications need
to be able to withstand regular deep discharging. If the battery is sized correctly, and
the discharge is controlled so as not to exceed the maximum recommended by the
manufacturer, then 10-year guarantees can be obtained. Figure 20 illustrates how

battery life can vary depending on depth of discharge, and shows that a solar battery
discharged by no more than 40% can last up to 4000 cycles i.e. more than 10 years of
daily charging and discharging. In general, the maximum a battery should ever be
discharged is 80% (never fully discharged). Temperature also affects battery

performance: ideal battery temperature is 20-25C.14
The size of the battery calculation:
The calculation proceeds in 3 steps in order to determine:
1. The energy output required from the power supply
2. The size of power supply system given the available energy resource
3. The size of battery required
The key parameter for system sizing is the average daily energy consumption
24 | P a g e
in watt-hours or kWh per day, calculated. The examples below assume a mean load of
1200 Watt-hours per day.
The secret of a successful system is to generate enough energy to meet the
demand of the load on at least a monthly basis.

Power supply output
On average, batteries lose 20% of the energy supplied during the charging and
discharging process, dissipated as heat. Therefore the average energy supplied to the
batteries needs to be 125% of the average energy drawn by the load i.e. Mean daily
energy supplied to the battery = 1.25 x Mean daily consumption of the load
For example, a load consuming 1200 Watt-hours per day will require an average energy
supply to the batteries of 1.25 x 1200 = 1500 Wh/day.
Battery size
The size of battery is based on the number of days of 'reserve' that is required
i.e. the number of days the system must operate without any input from the power
supply. Battery size is a balance between the cost of the batteries (which are not cheap)
and the risk of a long period of unfavorable weather. It is generally found that the
reserve should be not less than 5 days, and at most 20 days' supply. Professional
applications normally find it cost effective to err on the cautious side, especially if
reliable function in winter months is critical.
Since one should aim not to discharge batteries by more than 50% in normal
usage, the reserve battery charge is then doubled to arrive at the actual battery size
required. So, if the mean load is 1200 Wh per day, a 10-day reserve would require an
available battery capacity of 10 x 1200 = 12,000 Wh. The requested battery size should
be double this, so 24 kWh. In a 48V battery bank this amounts to 500 Ampere-hours of
charge, since 48V x 500Ah = 24,000 Wh = 24 kWh. If the load application draws a
particularly high current from the battery, this acts to reduce its effective capacity.
Loads which draw high currents for short periods therefore need a bigger battery than
a small, steady load using the same total amount of energy. The system supplier should
be able to advise on whether this will be an issue and size the battery accordingly.
25 | P a g e
3.5 Calculation:
Load calculation
Load
Number
Watt
Total watt
Tube light
40
320W
Ceiling fans
60
240W
C.F.L
18
72W
TOTAL
632W
Inverter should be greater 25% than the total Load

632 x (25/100) = 158
632+158 = 790 Watts
This is the rating of the UPS (Inverter).
Now the required Back up Time in Hours = 5 Hours
Suppose we are going to install 150Ah, 12 V batteries,
12V x 150Ah = 1800 Wh
Now for One Battery (i.e. the Backup time of one battery)
1800 Wh / 632 W = 2.5 Hours
But our required Backup time is 5 Hours.
Therefore, 5/2.5 = 2 i.e. we will now connect two (2) batteries each of 150Ah, 12V.
OR
If the number of batteries given, and we want to know the Backup Time for these given
batteries, then
26 | P a g e
1800 Wh x 2 Batteries = 3600 Wh

3600 Wh / 632 W = 5.69hours.
3.6 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Enclosure
Batteries should be installed in a robust cabinet with good ventilation, located
well-above potential flood levels. The enclosure needs to be weatherproof to the IP65
standard and kept securely locked. The charge regulator and the rest of the electrical
system can be installed in a separate compartment of the same enclosure, or in a separate
control cabinet. Fiber-glass cabinets (as in Figure) are the least cost, but are more
vulnerable to theft and vandalism than steel or brick enclosures.
Charge regulator
Electricity is fed into the battery bank through a charge regulator. As a
minimum, the charge regulator must ensure that the batteries are not damaged by overcharging. In a PV system the regulator usually disconnects the PV array when the
battery voltage reaches a defined maximum. This is not appropriate for a wind turbine,
since disconnecting the load will allow the turbine to over speed and potentially self-
destruct. Instead, the charge regulator should dissipate the excess power into a dump
load (typically a heating coil). Regulators must also prevent over-discharging by

switching off the load application, or issuing a warning signal, when the battery voltage
falls too low. Although not all regulators have this feature, it is strongly recommended
that this type be specified in order to guarantee a long battery-life.
Inverters
The simplest and most efficient use of the energy saved in the batteries will be
to directly power DC devices at 12, 24 or 48 volts. However, DC appliances tend to be
less common and more expensive than AC devices purely because of economy of scale.
It is however possible to use AC loads by using an Inverter. An inverter transforms low

voltage DC power from the batteries into mains-quality 230V AC output at 50Hz.
Although an inverter adds to the system cost and consumes up to 5% of the electricity
transmitted, it can be compensated by the convenience and cost-saving in using

27 | P a g e
standard AC appliances rather than DC equivalents. However it is also one more
component which can go wrong. Inverters need to be kept in a cool, dry and wellventilated location.
Support structure
PV modules are mounted onto a simple support structure and angled so that they
are south- facing at an appropriate angle to the sun. Most suppliers can provide standard
support frames to fit their modules. A recommended additional feature is a set of spikes
running along the top of the array to prevent bird fouling (Figure ).
Wind turbines should be supplied with an appropriate tower for mounting the
turbine. Towers are normally made from a steel lattice frame or pipe sections. It is
recommended that tilt up towers are used (Figure ), in which the complete system is
assembled on the ground and raised to a standing position from ground level with a
winch. Tilt-up towers normally need to be supported with four guy-ropes.
Civil works
Some site preparation and concrete foundation work is usually required for
mounting the support structure and battery cabinet. This is particularly important to
bear in mind for systems in remote locations, since the transport and mixing of cement
for a site several kilometers from a road can present quite a challenge. It can often be
cheaper for civil works to be arranged through a local contractor, in which case the
system supplier should be asked to specify exactly what foundations should be in place
prior to installation.
Telemetry or cell-phone link

Many professional systems can now be provided with a modem and cell-phone
link to transmit, for example, measured data from a data logger, daily information on
system performance, or simply a warning signal when a malfunction is detected. This

is particularly useful for highlighting when the battery reaches a low state of charge.
Even if this may be outside the scope of the initial project, it is wise to ask the supplier
to configure the electrical system to allow for such a facility in the future.
28 | P a g e
Conclusion
The present power crisis and global scenario trend is favoring renewable energy
sources. Where renewable energy sources are available solar, small hydro, biomass,
wind they can often provide remote communities and businesses with the most
reliable and affordable source of electrical energy. But, most of the renewable energy
technologies depend on Battery backup.
Batteries can supply power as needed at levels much higher than that generated
and during times of low demand the excess can be stored. If enough energy is available
from the renewable energies such as PV systems, wind energy, micro hydro powers
etc., are key part in Green buildings.
In this mini project, an analysis has been done with various strategies for energy
storage technologies for Solar PV assisted Green buildings. In major project, the work
further will be extended for practical implementation with battery less solar PV in Smart
building which is going to be constructed in GIET campus.
29 | P a g e
References:
[1] E-book on choosing a UPS topology based on application type "Avoiding Trap
Doors Associated with Purchasing a UPS System"
[2] Staco Energy UPS On-line vs. Offline "UPS On-Line Uninterruptible Power
Supply Backup Power Source
[3] Emergency and backup power sources: preparing for blackouts and brownouts By
Michael F. Hordeski
[4] "How to calculate battery run-time". PowerStream Technologies. Retrieved 201004-26
[5] Baliga, B.J., M.S. Adler, R.P. Love, P.V. Gray, and N.D. Zommer The Insulated
Gate Transistor: A New Three-Terminal MOS-Controlled Bipolar Power Device,
IEEE Transactions on Electronic Devices, Vol. ED-31, pp. 821-828, 1984
[6] Blaabjerg, Fred, John K. Pedersen, and Ulrik Jaeger Evaluation of Modern IGBTModules for Hard-Switched AC/DC/AC Converters, IEEE, October 1995, pp.
997-1005
[7] Brecht, William B. Life Expectancy of VRLA Batteries, Batteries International,

July 1994, pp. 40-41
[8] Bulik, Vince Sizing a UPS System for Non-Linear Loads, 1993 Power
Distribution Conference, Solid State Controls, October 26, 1993 DOE-HDBK1084-95
30 | P a g e

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Chapter 1

Importance of Energy Storage Technologies

1. The nearest point to which it can be connected, is far away.

1.2 Solar Energy

production of electricity or heat include Photo-voltaics or PVs (Solar Cell Technology),

Photovoltaic technology (PVs) is a technology often confused with solar

technology is a semiconductor-based technology that converts light energy directly into

phones or as very large arrays consisting of multiple panels/modules. Currently they

Significant growth in demand for PV systems is expected to occur in developing

power systems, environmental and longer-term fuel supply concerns by governments

1.3 Wind Energy

Design of Energy Storage Technologies for Smart Buildings

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating

understanding of the characteristics of the wind resource is critical to all aspects of

significant influence through its effects on the absorption or reflection of solar

On time-scales shorter than a year, seasonal variations are much more

On still shorter time-scales of minutes down to seconds or less, wind-speed

performance of the individual wind turbines, as well as on the quality of power

Design of Energy Storage Technologies for Smart Buildings

Compressed air energy storage.

Superconducting magnetic energy storage.

Super capacitor storage

2.1.1 Battery Storage

Utilities typically use batteries to provide an uninterruptible supply of electricity

an interest to go beyond these applications by performing load leveling and peak

2.1.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

medium. An electric motor-driven compressor is used to pressurize the storage

2.1.3 Flywheel Storage

"charged" and "discharged" via an integral motor/generator. The motor/generator draws

Flywheels store energy mechanically by turning a heavy rotor at ever-increasing

2.1.4 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

current as needed. Low temperature SMES cooled by liquid helium is commercially

A magnetic field is created by circulating a DC current in a closed coil of

2.1.5 Super Capacitor Storage

voltage sags. By combining a super capacitor with a battery-based uninterruptible

2.2 Battery Safety

Never install electrical equipment in the same compartment as batteries due to

Wrap wrench handles in electrical tape to avoid shorting between battery

If you get acid on your skin, flush with lots of water

explosive hydrogen gas

moving or working on batteries

Design of Energy Storage Technologies for Smart Buildings

as destroying fabric and burning the skin.

Explosion: batteries generate a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen which can be

2.3 General Battery Care

Between the alternator and the battery to be charged, there is a switchboard. It

Batteries are used as a means to transport electricity: Carrying a charged battery

everyone switches on lamps. Ordinary 12 V car batteries or special `solar'

Houses of users have a home system that consists of a battery connection,

battery needs recharging. This charge indicator is very important as batteries

of this technology. Therefore a special analysis is to be required to the

economics of the battery. Comparing to the conventional power the battery

storage power is somewhat costlier, needs regular maintenance, and not

b. Safe: 12 V electricity is safe to touch. There is a fuse near the battery to

d. Technically and Organizationally simple: Every user has his/her own

Operating and maintaining the charger can be made the responsibility of an

collectively used grid so there is no danger of overloading the grid (meaning

e. Introduction is simple. Training needs for operators are limited because 12

Design of Energy Storage Technologies for Smart Buildings

9. Replenish electrolyte by adding distilled water after equalize charge.

7. Compromise your systems performance by using undersized connectors and

8. Compromise performance by sloppy installation workmanship.

Design of Energy Storage Technologies for Smart Buildings

Figure 3.1 Batteries in Parallel