The Central Force Problem

I.

MOTION UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE

A. Two-body problem - reduction to the equivalent one-body problem

We consider an isolated (closed) system of two particles of masses m1 and m2 .
of motion are:
m1

d2 r1
= F21 (r1 r2 ) ;
dt2

m2

The corresponding equations

d2 r2
= F12 (r2 r1 )
dt2

(1)

where rk , k = 1, 2 are the position vectors of the particles. The internal forces F12 and F21 are suppose to be
directed along the line joining the two particles and to obey the Newtons third law:
F21 (r1 r2 ) = F (|r1 r2 |)

r1 r2
|r1 r2 |

F21 (r1 r2 ) = F12 (r2 r1 )

Let us change the coordinates, using the coordinate of the center of mass R and the relative coordinate r of
m1 with respect to m2 :
RCM =

m1 r1 + m2 r2
M

r = r1 r2

or

r1 = RCM +

m2
r ;
M

r2 = RCM

m1
r
M

(2)

where M = m1 + m2 is the total mass of the particles.

In the new coordinates the equations of motion assume the form:
d2 RCM
= 0;
dt2
d2 r
2 = F21 (r)
dt
M

(3)

where = m1 m2 /M is called the reduced mass. It can be seen that in the new coordinates we have a set of two
uncoupled dierential equations. The center of mass is either at rest or moving with a constant center-of-mass
velocity VCM
VCM =

dRCM
m1 v1 + m2 v2
=
= const
dt
M

(4)

The total linear momentum is conserved:

P = p1 + p2 = M VCM = const

(5)

The total kinetic energy of the system can be separated into two parts:
T =

1
1
1
1
m1 |v1 |2 + m2 |v2 |2 = M |VCM |2 + |v|2
2
2
2
2

(6)

dr
= v1 v2
dt

(7)

where
v=

is the relative velocity of m1 with respect to m2 .

The total angular momentum about the origin also can be separated into two parts:
LO = m1 (r1 v1 ) + m2 (r2 v2 ) = M (RCM VCM ) + (r v)
Thus, in center-of-mass and relative coordinates the two-body problem is reduced to two independent motions: the
center-of-mass motion (center of mass is either at rest or moving with a constant center-of-mass velocity VCM ), and
the relative motion of a single particle of mass under a force F.

2
B. One-body problem - one particle under the influence of a central force
In what follows we assume that a particle of mass m is moving in 3D space, and the only force, that is exerted on this particle is a central force.
A central force is a force which always is parallel or antiparallel to the position vector r of the particle, and is dened
by equation:
F(r) = F (r)

r
r

(8)

where r = |r|. According to the angular momentum theorem in the case of a central forces, we have
dLO
F (r)
=rF=
(r r) = 0 LO = const
dt
r

(9)

Thus, the angular momentum about the origin is a constant vector. One of the most important consequences of
angular momentum conservation for motion in a central force is that the motion is confined to a plane. This
follows because LO = r p, and LO is perpendicular to both r and v:
r.LO = 0;

v.LO = 0

Thus, both the position vector r and the velocity v are always in the plane through the origin perpendicular to LO .
It is, therefore, very convenient to analyze the motion in new (generalized) coordinates (r, ) which take into account
the fact that the motion is restricted to a plane. Let us assume that the xOy plane of the coordinate system is the
plane of the motion. The angular momentum vector LO = (0, 0, L) is then in the z direction, and we can dene our
generalized coordinates (or polar coordinates) by
x = r cos

y = r sin

z=z

(10)

Because we know that z-coordinate is going to be zero throughout the motion, we can ignore z completely and describe
the system in terms of r and . In this coordinate system, the problem of nding the motion reduces to an equivalent
problem in two dimensions.
= (0, 0, 1) denote the unit vectors along the x-, y- and z- axes. We dene the unit
Let i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k

vectors r, and k for the new polar coordinate system as follows:

r = cos i + sin j = (cos , sin , 0)

= sin i + cos j = ( sin , cos , 0) ;

= (0, 0, 1)
k

(11)

By dierentiating both sides of last equations (note that i, j, and k are constant vectors), we obtain:
dr
= ;
d

d
= r
d

(12)

In terms of polar coordinates the 2D position vector assumes the form:

r = (x, y, 0) = (r cos , r sin , 0) = rr

(13)

Thus, r is the unit vector parallel to the particles position vector r. In terms of polar coordinates the 2D velocity
vector is given by:
v=

dr
dr
d [rr]
dr
dr d
r + r
=
=
= r
r + r
= r
r + r
dt
dt
dt
dt
d dt

(14)

The speed in polar coordinates equals:

v = |v| =

r 2 + r2 2

(15)

In polar coordinates the 2D acceleration vector has the form:

a=

]
dv
d [
dr
d
=
r
r + r = rr + r
+ r + r + r
= rr + r + r + r r2 r = ar r + a
dt
dt
dt
dt

(16)

Here, we have introduced the centripetal acceleration ar = ar r, where

ar = r r2

(17)

FIG. 1: The area dA sweeps out by the position vector in time interval dt equals

1 2
r (t)d
2

and the so-called Coriolis acceleration aC = a , where

a = r + 2r

(18)

In terms of polar coordinates the two-dimensional force is given by:

F = F (r)r ;

F (r) =

dV (r)
dr

(19)

where V (r) is the corresponding potential function. The Lagrangian function, written in polar coordinates, has the
following form:
(
)
= 1 mv 2 V (r) = 1 m r 2 + r2 2 V (r)
L(r, r,
)
2
2
The Lagranges equations in polar coordinates
[
]

d L(r, r,
)
L(r, r,
)

=0
dt
r
r
[
]

)
L(r, r,
)
d L(r, r,

=0
dt

(20)

(21)

lead to the following two scalar equations for r = r(t) and = (t):
1
r r2 = F (r)
m
d ( 2 )
mr = 0
dt

mr2 = constant

(22)

(23)

4
It is easy to prove that this constant in the last equation is the z-component of the angular momentum vector:
[
(
)]
r = mr2 k
= Lk
L = mr2
LO = (0, 0, L) = r p = rr (mv) = mr r r
r + r = mr2
(24)
Thus from the angular momentum equation
L = mr2

d
dt

(25)

follows that (t) is an odd function of t.

The Eq. (23) is equivalent to the angular-momentum-conservation law. The value of L depends on the initial
conditions (initial position and initial velocity).
The equation L = mr2 = const has a simple geometrical interpretation. The expression 12 r2 d is the area of the
sector bounded by two neighboring position vectors and an element of the path (see FIG. 1). Calling this area dA,
we can write
1 d
dA
L
dA
= r2

=
= const
dt
2 dt
dt
2m

(26)

where dA
dt is called sectional velocity. We found that under the central force the particle moves in a manner that
the position vector sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals (Keplers second law).
Since the Lagrangian function (20) does not depend explicitly on the time variable, the following quantity
r

[
]

L(r, r,
)
L(r, r,
)
= 1 m r 2 + r2 2 + V (r)
+
L(r, r,
)
r
2

must conserved. It is easy to prove that the above quantity is the mechanical energy
E=

]
1
1 [
1
L2
mv2 + V (r) = m r 2 + r2 2 + V (r) = mr 2 +
+ V (r)
2
2
2
2mr2

(27)

L2
1 2
mr +
+ V (r)
2
2mr2

(28)

From the energy equation

E=

follows that r(t) is an even function of t.

Example 1. A particle P of mass m moves under the repulsive inverse cube force
F=

m r
.
r3 r

Initially P is at a great distance from O and is moving with speed V towards point O along a straight line whose
perpendicular distance from O is d. Find the equation satisfied by the apsidal distances (for an orbit the maximum
and the minimum distances are called the apsidal distances). What is the distance of closest approach of P to O?
Solution:
The potential energy V (r) which corresponds to the central force (8) can be calculated by means of the following equation:
r
F (r)dr
(29)
V (r) V (r1 ) =
r1

The potential energy, corresponding to the force is V (r) = m/2r2 . Initially, we have r , and therefore the
2
energy is E = mV
2 , and the angular momentum is L = mV d. At an apse, r = 0, so from Eq. (28) we obtain :
mV 2
L2
m
=
+ 2
2
2
2mr
2r
Thus, the minimum distance is

r=

d2 +

V2

FIG. 2: A tipical form of the eective potential V (r) +

L2
2mr 2

One can solve Eq. (27) for r:

dr
r =
=
dt
Since E V (r)

L2
2mr 2

2
m

(
)
L2
dr
E V (r)
(
2mr2
E V (r)

L2
2mr 2

)=

2
dt
m

(30)

> 0 we have the following possible cases (see FIG. 2):

(i) E = E2 - the motion is bounded between the turning points r2 and r3 . Also, the motion is periodic in
r-direction, but the two-dimensional motion, which includes = (t) dependance is, in general, not periodic. All
that can be said is that the orbit is bounded between two circles of radius r2 and r3 with turning points always lying
on two circles (see Fig. 3). From the fact that r(t) is an even function and (t) is an odd function follows that the
segment BC is just the reection of the segment AB in the line OB. The segment CD is a reection of the segment
BC in the line OC. Thus, the whole orbit can be constructed from a knowledge of a single segment as AB. It follows
also that the angles AOB, BOC, COD and so on are all equal say to angle . Thus, the orbit will eventually close
itself if some integer multiple of is equal to some number of complete revolutions, which means that / is a
rational number.
(ii) E = E1 - the motion is restricted to r r1 , but there is no upper limit to the positive value of r. The orbit is
not bounded. The particle will come in from innity, will be repelled and will travel back to innity. There are just
two segments which are semi-innite. One of the segment can be obtained from the other by reection.
(iii) If E = E3 then from Eq. (30) follows that r = r4 = const, i.e. the orbit is a circle of radius r4 .

FIG. 3: A tipical bounded and unbounded orbits.

Integrating Eq. (30) we obtain:

r0

dr
E V (r)

or

t = t0 +

)=

L2

2
m

2mr 2

m
2

r
r0

dt =
t0

dr
(
E V (r )

2
(t t0 )
m

L2
2mr 2

(31)

If we can evaluate the last integral, then we can calculate r(t). After that, we can nd (t) using the following
equation:
t
L
(t) = 0 +
dt
(32)
2 (t )
mr
t0
The solutions of equations (31) and (32) depend on the following four constants: E, L, r0 and 0 .
By using the relationship

2
dr
(
=
dt
)
2
m
E V (r) L
2mr 2

we can eliminate the time dependence in (32), and therefore, we obtain:

r
L
dr

= 0 +
2
2m [E V (r ) L2 /(2mr2 )]
r0 r

(33)

The last equation provides a relationship between the polar variables r and , i.e. the relationship = (r) describes
the orbit of the particle (or trajectory of the particle) under the central force. If V (r) rn+1 the integral
r
dr
L

2
2m [E V (r ) L2 /(2mr2 )]
r0 r
leads to the trigonometric functions for n = 1, 2, 3, or elliptic functions for n = 5, 3, 0, 4, 5, 7.
There is another method, based on the solution of a dierential equation instead of solving integrals, that can be used
to obtain the trajectory. Starting from the following relationship:
L
Lu2
d
=
=
=
2
dt
mr
m

(34)

7
we calculate:
r =

r =

dr d
L du
dr
=
=
dt
d dt
m d

dr
L d
=
dt
m dt

du
d

)
=

L2 u2 d2 u
m2 d2

Thus, in the new variable u(), the Lagranges equation (22) assumes the following form (path equation):
(
)
d2 u
m
1
+ u() = 2 2 F r
d2
L u
u

(35)

(36)

(37)

By solving Eq. (37) one can obtain the trajectory of the particle. In the new variable u() the total energy is:
( )2
(
)
L2
L2 du
L2 u2
1
1

V
(r)
=
+

V
r

(38)
E = mr 2 +
2
2mr2
2m d
2m
u
D. Keplers problem - F = [K/r2 ]r
When K = GM m, the force F = [K/r2 ]r describes the attractive gravitational force between two masses
M and m. G = 6.67 1011 N m2 /kg 2 is called a gravitational constant, and the mass M is assumed to be at rest at
the origin. The corresponding potential energy is found from Eq. (29):
r
K
K
K
V (r) V (r1 ) =
[K/r2 ]dr = +
V (r) =
(39)
r
r
r
1
r1
The shape of the path of the second mass m can be obtained by using the general equation (37). In the case of an
attractive gravitational force F (r) = rK2 = Ku2 , and the Eq. (37) assumes the form:
mK
d2 u
+ u() = 2
2
d
L

(40)

The solution of this non-homogeneous equation depends on two complex constants:

u() = C1 e + C2 e +

mK
L2

(41)

The solution also can be rewritten using two real constants A and 0 :
u() = A cos( 0 ) +

mK
L2

(42)

Note that the solution (42) depends on three independent constant : A, 0 and L. In what follows we will see that
the constant A is related to the energy E, i.e. the three independent constants are E, L and 0 .
In what follows we assume that 0 = 0, so the solution is given by:
u() = A cos() +

1
p

(43)

where
p=
Going back to the variable r() =

1
u()

L2
mK

we rewrite Eq. (43) in the form:

p
= 1 + pA cos()
r

(44)

Next assumption is that the total energy E of the particle of mass m is known, and therefore, we can nd the
relationship between the total energy and the constant A. According to (38), the total energy equals:
E=

L2
K
1 2
mr +

2
2
2mr
r

(45)

FIG. 4: The ellipse

FIG. 5: The angle .

Using (35) we calculate:

r =

dr
L du
LA
=
=
sin()
dt
m d
m

(46)

We insert (46) into (45) and nd the value of A:

mK 2
1
L2 A2

A=
E=
2m
2L2
p

1+

2EL2
mK 2

(47)

Thus, the equation (44) assumes the form:

p
= 1 + e cos
r()

(48)

9
where

e=

1+

2EL2
mK 2

e is called the eccentricity of the orbit. If E = mK 2 /(2L2 ), e = 0, and therefore, r = p. The orbit is a circle.
In the Keplers problem, the energy is negative (the potential energy is greater than the kinetic energy), i.e. E < 0,
and therefore, 0 < e < 1. That means that the motion is nite and the orbit is an ellipse (Keplers rst law). The
ellipse is the trajectory of a particle which moves in a plane such that the sum of its distances from two xed points,
known as focus F1 and focus F2 , is equal to a constant (denoted usually by 2a, see FIG. 4). The equation (44) is the
corresponding equation for an ellipse when the origin is placed at point F1 . The major a and minor b semi-axes of
the ellipse are:
a=

p
K
=
2
1e
2|E|

p
L
b=
=
2
1e
2m|E|

The least rmin and the greatest rmax distances of the mass m from the mass M are:
rmin = a(1 e) ;

rmax = a(1 + e)

(49)

To nd the period T of one revolution, we can integrate Eq.(26) from t = 0 to t = T and using the fact, that the area
of the ellipse is A = ab, we obtain the Keplers third law:

m
T2
1
T = 2a3/2
3 = 4 2
(50)
K
a
GM
If M denotes the mass of the Sun (MS = 1.99 1030 kg), then we obtain the Keplers constant KS :
KS =

T2
1
s2
= 4 2
= 2.97 1019 3
3
a
GMS
m

Now, we recall Eq. (30) which in the case of an ellipse can be written as

m
rdr
ma
rdr
(

dt =
=
.
)
2|E|
K
2
K
L2
a2 e2 (r a)
r2 + |E|
r 2m|E|

(51)

We change the variable r to using the relation r a = ae cos . The meaning of angle is shown in FIG. 5. We
have a position on the ellipse described by r and . We have a circle of radius a, and by plotting a perpendicular to
x-axis using the position of the particle on the ellipse, we dene angle . Using relations:
a cos = ae + r cos ,

p = a(1 e2 ) = r + re cos

we obtain r a = ae cos . With the help of this equation we obtain:

dt =

T
(1 e cos )d
2

(52)

Integrating both sides we have

t=

T
( e sin ) + C
2

Assumption that at t = 0 we have C = 0 gives:

t=

r = a(1 e cos ),

cos =

cos e
, tan
1 e cos

T
( e sin )
2

( )
( )

1+e

=
tan
,
2
1e
2

(53)

x = a (cos e) , y = a 1 e2 sin
(54)

10

FIG. 6: The hyperbola

To obtain the position at a given time t we rst use Eq. (53) to obtain , and from Eq. (54) we can nd r and (or
x and y ). In one revolution along the ellipse changes from = 0 to = 2.
The orbit also can be:
Parabola
This is the case when e = 1, which means E = 0. Since E = 0, this case is of minor importance in real systems.
Hyperbola
This is the case when e > 1, which means E > 0. A hyperbola is the trajectory of a particle which moves in a plane
such that the dierence of its distances from two xed points, known as focus F1 and focus F2 , equals to a constant
(usually denoted by 2a, see FIG.6). The motion is innite and the orbit is a hyperbola with the origin at the focus
F1 . The point at the intersection between the x-axis and the hyperbola corresponds to = 0, and therefore, the
smallest distance r1 between to masses m and M is
p
r1 =
1+e
From the equation:
p
= 1 + e cos 0
r()
follows that for any angle the following inequality holds:
cos

1
e

The angle 0 of the asymptotes is dened by the equation:

cos(0 ) =

1
e

The two asymptotes are dened by the following equations:

ep
y = x e2 1
e2 1

11
Now, we recall Eq. (30) which in the case of a hyperbola can be written as

m
rdr
ma
rdr
(

dt =
=
,
)
2E
K
2
2 e2
K
L2
2
(r
+
a)

a
r + E r 2m|E|
where a =

K
2E

(55)

(
)
and p = e2 1 a. We change the variable r to using the relation r + a = ae cosh , thus obtaining:

ma3
dt =
(e cosh 1)d
K

Integrating both sides we have

t=

ma3
(e sinh ) + C
K

Assumption that at t = 0 we have C = 0 gives:

t=

r = a(e cosh 1),

e cosh
cos =
, tan
e cosh 1

ma3
(e sinh )
K

( )
( )

e+1

tanh
=
2
e1
2

(56)

x = a (e cosh ) , y = a 1 e2 sinh ,
(57)

where changes from to +.

Example 2: A rocket of mass m is orbiting around the Earth along an ellipse. At a given moment, the rocket
is at point A and has velocity VA which makes an angle with the position vector rA (see Fig. 7). When the rocket
is at point B, the astronaut starts the rocket engine to slow down the rocket. Assuming that the mass of the rocket
is a constant, find the needed change of the rockets kinetic energy in order that the landing site is a point C on the
Earth surface.

Using the data at point A(, VA , rA ), we can nd the angular momentum and the energy:
(
)

m
2 RE
L = mVA rA sin(),
E=
VA2 Vesc
,
Vesc = 2gRE ,
2
rA

where RE is the Earths radius, and we

have introduced the escape speed Vesc = 2gRE . Motion along an ellipse
requires negative energy, i.e. VA < Vesc RE /rA . The parameters of this ellipse are:
V 2 r2
p = A A2 sin2 (),
g RE

[
(
)]1/2
2
2
VA2 rA
sin2 () 2gRE
2
e= 1
VA
,
4
g 2 RE
rA

a=

2
gRE
2
2gRE
rA

VA2

VA rA sin()
b=
2
2gRE
2
rA VA

Using Eq. (45) we obtain:

(
2

r =

VA2

2
2gRE

1
1

r
rA

2 2
rA
VA sin2 ()
r2

From Eq. (25) we have:

r2 =

L
= VA rA sin()
m

The velocity at any time is dened by Eq. (14), and therefore, but at point B r = 0, and we have:
(
)
1
1
r2 V 2 sin2 ()
2
0 = VA2 + 2gRE

A A 2
rB
rA
rB

12

FIG. 7: Example 2

VB = VA rA sin()
VB = rB j
rB
Thus, the above two equations allow us to have the speed VB at point B in terms of rB , where

( 2
) 2 2
[ 2
]1
2
4
2
2
g RE
gRE
VA VA sin () gRE
VA2
gR
rB = E

2
rA
rA
rA
rA
rA
rA
rA
To reach point C, point B and point C must be two points from a new ellipse with major semiaxis 2anew =
BC = rB + RE . From the last relation we have the needed energy
Enew =

K
2|Enew |

2
2
2
mgRE
mVnew
mgRE
=

RE + rB
2
rB

which means that the rocket at point B must show down from speed VB to Vnew

2
RE
Vnew = Vesc
(RE + rB )rB
The change in the rockets kinetic energy at point B is
E =

)
m( 2
Vnew VB2 < 0
2

Example 3: A ballistic rocket is fired from a point A on the Earth surface with initial velocity V, which makes
angle with the position vector r (see Fig 8.). Find the hight h of point B, the time of flight and the distance between
points A and C.
The curve A-B-C is a part of an ellipse dene by the equation
p
= 1 + e cos()
RE

13

FIG. 8: Example 3

The corresponding parameters can be obtained from Example 4, assuming that point A is on the surface of the Earth
(rA RE , VA V ):
p=

V2
sin2 (),
g

[
]
) 1/2
V 2 sin2 () (
2
,
e= 1
2gR

V
E
2
g 2 RE

a=

2
gRE
,
2gRE V 2

V RE sin()
b=
2gRE V 2

By means of Eq. (49) we have:

rmax = RE + h = a(1 + e) h = a(1 + e) RE
From the ellipse equation we obtain initial angle :
1

= cos

[ (
)]
1
p
1
e RE

Next, we can calculate the time of ight using Eqs. (52), (53) and (54). At initial time t0 , we have = 0 and
r = RE , so we calculate:

[ (
)]
T
a3
RE
1 1
t0 =
(0 e sin 0 ) ,
T = 2
,

=
cos
1

0
2
2
gRE
e
a
The value of at the nal point C is = 2 0 , and therefore, the time of ight t is:
20
T
t =
(1 e cos ) d = T 2t0
2 0
The distance between point A and point C, measured along the surface of the Earth, is RE = RE (2 2).
E. Keplers bound problem (E < 0) with L = 0
The case L = 0 requires separate treatment. From Eq. (34) we nd that = const, and the motion is
along the line through the origin. Let us assume that this line is xaxis. For bound problem E < 0, and one can

14
calculate the turning point r0 = K/|E| from the equation E = V (r0 ). Let us initially a particle of mass m is at
rest at point r0 . Because of the attractive gravitational interaction, this point will start to move towards the origin
x = 0. As the particle moves its velocity and kinetic energy increase and the point mass passes the origin at innite
velocity. Then the velocity decreases until the point x = r0 is reached. At the turning point r0 the particle stops
again, and then accelerates in the opposite direction, passes the origin again, and returns to its initial position.
In the case when L = 0 Eq.(40) assumes the form:

r0
dr
2K
(
(t t0 ) =
(58)
)
m
r
1
1
)

r
r0
where 0 < r < r0 . Evaluating the integral yields:
[
(
)]

r0

2K
dr
r
(
(t t0 ) =
r (r0 r ) + r0 arctan
|rr0
) = r0
m
r0 r
r
1
1
r r0 )

(59)

Thus, we nd:

[
(
)]

2K
r
t = r0
r(r0 r) + r0 arctan
m
r0 r

(60)

Setting r = 0 gives t = T /4, and therefore we nd the Keplers 3rd law:

mr03
m
r0
3/2
T = 2
= 2a
, a = 2/3
2K
K
2
This law is due to the 1/rdependence of the potential.
F. The Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector
In the case of the Keplers problem, there exists an additional conserved vector R:
R = p LO

mK
r
r

(61)

To prove the above statement, we calculate:

dR
mK
mK
r
= p LO + 2 rr

dt
r
r
According to the Newtons second law:
p =

Km
r
r3

and therefore, we calculate:

p LO =

]
]
Km
Km [
mK
Km [
mK
r (r r ) == 3 (r.r) r r2 r = 3 (rr)
+
r
r r2 r = 2 rr
3
r
r
r
r
r

Thus
dR
=0
dt
and the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector is a constant vector. The magnitude of R expressed in terms of energy E and
angular momentum L is given by:

2EL2
|R| = R = mK 1 +
= AL2
mK 2

15
where the constant A has been introduced by equation (47).
It is easy to check that the vectors R and LO are perpendicular to each other:
R.LO = 0 Rz = 0
The Laplace-Runge-Lenz is a two-dimensional vector from xOy plane. As we mentioned above, the solution of the
Keplers problem depends on three independent constants: E, L, and 0 . One can use another three independent
constants: the two non-zero components of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector R and 0 .
G. The Bertrands theorem
We have seen that in the case of a Keplers problem when the orbit is an ellipse, the orbit is bounded between rmin and rmax and it is also closed. A closed orbit means that it is retraced after one revolution. The
question naturally arising here is whether there are other central forces (or central potential) all of whose bounded
orbits are closed, or the gravitational potential is unique. The answer of this question is known as Bertrands
theorem which states that the gravitational potential V (r) = K/r and the isotropic harmonic potential
V (r) = kr2 /2 are the only two center-force potential all of whose bounded orbits are closed. Note
that the Bertrands theorem does not state that no other potentials have closed orbits, but only for the above two
potentials all bounded orbits are closed.