Dimensional analysis

2016.08.10

Dimensions of physical systems

Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Heat energy

Velocity
Acceleration ?
Work
?
Power/ energy ?

M
t
T
Q

Equation must be dimensionally

homogeneous
Both sides of the equation should have
same dimensions

Dimensionless number
Convenient way of expressing
mathematical correlations

Dimensionless numbers
Engineering correlations and graphs are best presented in dimensionless form
Useful for general use and independent of particular system of units
E.g. Mach number, effective length, effective diameter

Dimensionless numbers

Dimensionless numbers

Properties of fluids

2016.08.10

Fluid
Fluid - Matter that can flow
Fluid- fluid is a gas/ liquid that flows when subjected to a shear stress
Role of fluid in metallurgical processes
Raw material/ reagent/ heat transfer media
Continuum hypotheses: assume fluid consists of homogeneous properties
Control volume- region of interest

Properties of fluids
Intensive properties

are independent of the mass of the system

e.g. pressure, temperature, density
to specify the state of the system
Lower case is used to denote

Extensive properties
are those whose values depend on the size of the system
e.g. total mass, total volume
Upper case is used to denote

Properties of fluids
Density and specific gravity
Density of ideal gases
Vapour pressure and cavitation
Energy and specific heats
Compressibility
Viscosity
Surface tension and capillary effect

Density and specific gravity

Density

mass per unit volume (kg/m3)

density is proportional to pressure and temperature

Specific volume

volume per unit mass

Specific gravity (or) relative density

ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature (20C)

Density and specific gravity cont.

Specific weight (or) weight density

weight of unit volume of substance

Way to find density of ideal gases

using equation of state

any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and density of a substance
At low pressures and high temperatures, the density of a gas decreases and the gas behaves
like an ideal gas

Problem

Vapour pressure
Pressure and Temperature are dependent properties for pure substances during phase
change processes
Saturation temperature: At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase
Saturation pressure: At a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase
Vapour pressure: the pressure exerted by its vapour in phase equilibrium with its

liquid at a given temperature

Vapour pressure
Partial pressure: the pressure of a gas or vapour in a mixture with other gases
The rate of evaporation from open water bodies is controlled by the difference between
the vapour pressure and partial pressure
Why vapour pressure is important?
Example 1: Liquid flow systems (Cavitation)
Hydraulic turbine and pumps
Example 2: Alloy melting
High vapour pressure elements: Mg, Ca, Mn, Li, Zn

Vapour pressure of elements

Compressibility
Coefficient of compressibility/ Bulk modulus of compressibility/ Bulk modulus of
elasticity
Coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure corresponding to a
fractional change in volume or density of the fluid while the temperature remains
constant.
Coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible substance is infinity.
A large value of k indicates that a large change in pressure is needed to cause a small
fractional change in volume

Compressibility cont.
Coefficient of compressibility of water
21000 atm.
Notes of interest
Water hammer arrester

Viscosity
A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion
Fluidity/ Viscosity
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the drag force
Derive a relation (mathematical expression) for viscosity

Newtonian fluids
Fluids for which the rate of deformation is
linearly proportional to the shear stress are
called Newtonian fluids
e.g. water, air, gasoline, and oils
Non- Newtonian fluids
e.g. blood, liquid plastics

Non-Newtonian fluids
Dilatant/ shear thickening fluid
e.g. solutions with suspended starch/ sand
Pseudoplastic/ shear thinning
e.g. paint, polymer
Bingham plastic
e.g. Toothpaste

Effect of Pressure and Temperature

For liquids
Pressure
Dynamic viscosity
(Centi Poise)

Weak dependence

Kinematic viscosity (Stoke)

Weak dependence

Temperature

For gases
Pressure
Dynamic viscosity

Weak dependence at low

pressures, however, increases
as P increases

Kinematic viscosity

Density is proportional to
pressure. Hence influences.

Temperature

Temperature dependency of viscosity of gases and liquids

Measuring viscosity
Consider a fluid layer of thickness , within a small gap between two concentric
cylinders, such as the thin layer of oil in a journal bearing.
The gap between the cylinders can be modelled as two parallel flat plates separated by
the fluid.

Set up for measuring viscosity

Two concentric cylinders of known length
The gap between the cylinders is filled with the liquid for which viscosity should be
measured

Problem

Viscosity of gases

Assumptions made in the development of kinetic theory of gases

The molecules are hard spheres resembling billiard balls, having
diameter d and mass m
The molecules excerpt no force on one another when they collide
The collisions are perfectly elastic (obey laws of conservation of
momentum and energy)
The molecules are uniformly distributed in a given volume
The are in a state of continuous motion and are separated by
distances larger than their diameter
All directions of molecular velocities are equally probable.
Magnitude of velocity can have any value from zero to infinity.

Viscosity of gases

Viscosity of gases

Critical temperature and Critical pressure

The critical temperature of a substance is the temperature at and above which vapour
of the substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how much pressure is applied.
The critical pressure of a substance is the pressure required to liquefy a gas at its
critical temperature. Some examples are shown below.
For Water
Critical pressure: 217 atm.
Critical temperature: 374C

https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/critical.html

Problem

Viscosity of gases

Use of nomogram to find viscosity of gases

Viscosity of liquid metals and alloys

Andrade equation: used to calculate viscosity close to the melting
point of the metal

Problem

Chapman's theory of viscosity of liquid metals

Potential difference between the atoms is a function of distance between them

All liquid metals obey the same function as above. All of the liquid metals have a
reduced viscosity which is a function of reduced temperature and volume.

Chapman's theory of viscosity of liquid metals

Chapman's theory of viscosity of liquid metals

Lings contribution (1956): a way to measure energy parameter ()

Problem
Finding viscosity of gas mixture

Solution

What happens to viscosity if we increase the temperature?

It decreases but at what rate.

Given by Arrhenius equation.

Viscosity of alloys
Depends of alloying elements present in the alloy
Viscosity is maximum for congruently melting compound
Viscosity is minimum for eutectic composition

Viscosity of slags
Slag is formed during refining of hot metal
Slag: generally oxides (of Si, Mn, P and Fe)
In steelmaking it is mostly a solution of oxides and
sulphides in the molten state and the multicrystalline phases in the solid state

Role of slag
It acts as a sink for impurities during refining of steel
It prevents passage of nitrogen and hydrogen from atmosphere to the molten steel
It absorbs oxide/sulphide inclusions
It acts as a thermal barrier to prevent heat transfer from molten steel to the
surrounding.
It protects steel against re-oxidation
It emulsifies hot metal and promotes carbon oxidation.
In electric steelmaking slag prevents the radiation of heat of arc to the walls of the
furnace and roof

The above functions require that slag should possess certain physical (density, melting
point, viscosity) and chemical properties (basicity, oxidation potential)

Types of slag
Acidic
SiO2 and P2O5
Network formers
Basic
FeO, CaO, MgO
Network breakers

Viscosity of silica slag

Viscosity of pure liquid silica is very high 105 poise
Viscosity related to structure

Effect of calcium oxide addition on structure of molten slag

Effect of calcium oxide addition on structure of molten slag

Effect of temperature

Effect of impurity particles

Effect of metal oxide additions on activation energy of viscous flow of silicate melts

56 types of flow
Important types are
Laminar- Turbulent
Compressible- Incompressible
Adiabatic

Reynolds number
Differentiate laminar- turbulent flows
Reynolds number= inertia forces/ viscous force