TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON MOTOR PERFORMANCE

Authored By:
Dan Montone
Haydon Kerk Motion Solutions
/ Pittman Motors

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

When applying DC motors to any type of
application, temperature effects need to be
considered in order to properly apply the
motor. Performance will change as the
motor temperature changes. When reviewing
DC motor curves, the user needs to ask the
question Do these curves represent performance of the motor at room temperature, or
do these curves illustrate performance at the
maximum rated temperature? Depending
on the temperature and the required operating
point on the motor curve, the performance
difference between cold and hot
conditions can be significant.

it becomes clear that motor performance determined

using a rapid dynamometer test with a room temperature motor is significantly different than the motor performance when operated at its maximum temperature
under load.

The DC Motor Curve

DC motor performance curves can be generated under
various conditions. For example, the motor curve illustrated in Figure 1 is representative of an open-loop motor tested rapidly (to prevent heating) on a dynamometer. The test would be done by quickly loading the
motor from no-load to locked rotor (stall) using a fixed
terminal voltage from a power supply with low output
impedance. A test like this is done in order to get a
baseline measure of motor performance while the
motor is at room temperature. Motor shaft speed and
current are plotted as a function of motor torque. From
this test and a few resistance readings, the torque constant, voltage constant, and terminal resistance values
can be determined. This information is very useful to
ballpark basic motor performance and can be sufficient
for an application that requires intermittent operation
with a long rest period between each duty cycle.

Once a motor design is finalized including motor

dimensions, magnetic circuit, and motor winding
configuration, several characteristics that determine motor performance become theoretically
fixed; the torque constant (KT), voltage constant (KE),
and motor terminal resistance (Rmt). These three
values will determine the output torque, motor
speed, and the resulting output power at any point
on the motor curve at a given terminal voltage, as
well as the overall slope of the motor curve.

Motor Constants Arent

REALLY Constant
The torque constant and voltage constant are determined during the design phase and is a function of the
overall magnetic circuit design. They are always equal
when using SI units. For example, if the motor KT = 0.1
Nm/A, then motor KE = 0.1 V/(rad/s) assuming Nm and
V/(rad/s) are the units used. Motor terminal resistance
is also determined in the design phase by the number
of coils, number of coil turns, and magnet wire diameter. These principles apply to both brush and brushless
DC motors.

In applications such as repeated point-to-point moves,

applications requiring frequent starting and stopping
of a high inertia load, or applications that require the
motor to be moving for long periods of time (such as a
fan application) the motor data illustrating performance
at room temperature is not adequate and can result in
misapplication of the motor or exceeding the motors
maximum temperature rating.

The phrase motor constants, however, is somewhat of

a misnomer. Winding resistance and permanent magnet flux density will change as temperature changes. As
the motor temperature increases, winding resistance
will increase based on the temperature coefficient of
copper. The flux density of the permanent magnets will
also decrease as a function of temperature. Changes in
these 2 key components of the motor will result in an
increase in motor no-load speed and a decrease in motor locked rotor torque altering the overall slope of the
motor curve. Once the user understands this concept,

As the motor temperature increases, the resistance will

increase and the torque constant and voltage constant
will decrease. This results in an increase in no-load
speed and a decrease in locked-rotor torque. Figure 2
illustrates an example of both cold and hot
1

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

Table 1. Symbols and Units

Symbol

Description

Units

Temperature coefficient

/C

Current

I0

No load current

ILR

Locked rotor current

KE

Voltage constant

V/(rad/s)

KT

Torque constant

Nm/A

K(i)

KT or KE (initial cold)

Nm/A or V/(rad/s)

K( f )

KT or KE (final hot)

Nm/A or V/(rad/s)

Speed

RPM

n0

No load speed

RPM

Power

Pout

Output power

Pmax

Max power

Pmax(i)

Max power (initial cold)

Pmax( f )

Max power (final hot)

Ploss

Dissipated power

Motor torque

Nm

TLR

Locked rotor torque

Nm

Rm

Motor regulation

RPM/Nm

Rmt

Motor terminal resistance

Rmt(i)

Motor terminal resistance (initial cold)

Rmt( f )

Motor terminal resistance (final hot)

Motor temperature (initial cold)

Motor temperature (final hot)

Motor temperature rise

VT

Motor terminal voltage

running conditions of the same DC motor. The

hot motor curve demonstrates how much the
performance can change when operating the
motor at an elevated temperature.

Temperature Effects of Motor

Winding Resistance
Motor winding resistance (Rmt) is the main
cause of heat generation within the motor. In
order for any electric motor to generate torque,
current needs to be forced through the motor
windings. Copper is an excellent conductor,
however, its not perfect; material physics and
impurities will cause the atoms to vibrate at a
faster rate as more current flows. The result is a
steady temperature increase in the motor windings. All metal conductors have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance. This means
as temperature increases, the resistance of the
material also increases as a function of the type
of conductor used. Electric motors typically use
copper conductor material, except in special
cases. Many induction motor squirrel cages use
cast aluminum for ease of manufacturing, but the
vast majority of motors use copper magnet wire.
Table 2 lists examples of common metals used
in electrical and electronic devices and their
respective temperature coefficients ().
TABLE 2. Temperature Coefficients for

Various Materials
Conductor Material

conductor( / C)

Silver

0.0038

Gold

0.0037

Angular velocity

rad/s

Copper

0.0040

No load angular velocity

rad/s

Aluminum

0.0043

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

Equations 1 and 2 illustrate the relationship between

winding temperature, winding resistance, and watts
dissipated.

TABLE 3. Temperature Coefficients for Various

Permament Magnet Materials

EQUATION 1. Change in Winding Resistance

EQUATION 2. Watts Lost Due to Winding Resistance

Magnetic Material

magnet( / C)

Tmax(C)

Ceramic

-0.0020 / C

300 C

Samarium Cobalt (SmCo)

-0.0004 / C

300 C

Aluminum Nickel Cobalt (AlNiCo)

-0.0002 / C

540 C

Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB)

-0.0012 / C

150 C

EQUATION 3. Change in KT and KE ( KT = KE when using SI Units )

Temperature Effects On Magnetic

Flux Density

A question often asked by users is the relationship

between KT and KE as a result of elevated temperature.
In the case of using SI units, one will always equal the
other and both will change equally with temperature.

The motor torque constant (KT) and voltage constant

(KE) are directly related to the magnetic flux density
(Br) of the permanent magnets. Depending on the
physics of the magnet material used, overall flux density will change at a given percentage with an increase
in magnet temperature. As the material temperature
increases, atomic vibrations cause once-aligned magnetic moments to randomize resulting in a decrease
in magnetic flux density. Assuming the motor is operating within its intended design window, the decrease
in flux density is temporary and will begin to recover
as the magnet cools. If the maximum temperature
rating of the magnets is exceeded, however, partial
demagnetization will occur and permanently alter the
performance of the motor.

In the case of using English units, KT and KE are expressed in oz-in/A (lb-in/A, lb-ft/A, etc.) and V/krpm.
One does not equal the other when using these units,
but both quantities will decrease in the same proportion
with elevated temperature.

How does this affect overall

motor performance?
At an elevated motor temperature, the slope of the
DC motor curve increases as a result of an increase in
no-load speed and a decrease in locked rotor torque
(sometimes referred to as stall torque). Figure 3 below
illustrates the total area beneath a particular motor
curve that can be considered the range of consistent
performance between room temperature and maximum
rated motor temperature.

The values in Table 3 represent average figures for

material classes. Specific magnet grades within a
class of materials will vary from the values given
below. For example, some grades of Neodymium
magnets can exceed the listed operating temperature
of 150C. The table illustrates relative differences
between temperature characteristics of various materials. If exact values are needed, its recommended to
consult an application engineer at the motor manufacturer for specific information.

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

Another term referring to the slope of the DC motor

curve is regulation. Motor regulation describes how
much the shaft speed will change with a given change
in shaft load when applying a fixed terminal voltage to
the motor (operating as an open loop system). A flatter
speed-torque curve will result in a smaller change in
shaft speed with increased load. As the motor temperature increases and the curve becomes steeper, shaft
speed Equation
will drop 4a.
more
for the same
increase
in load.
Theoretical
Motor
Regulation

EQUATION 5b. Motor Locked Rotor (Stall) Torque

EQUATION 5c. Motor No Load Speed

Using
Motor Constants
Equation 4a.
Theoretical
Motor Regulation

EQUATION 4a. Theoretical

Motor Constants
Regulation Using Constants
Using Motor
R
Rmt
mt
xx
R
R
=
9.5493
9.5493
mt
m
m
K
K xxmtK
K

R
Rm
= 9.5493 xx TT x EE
m 9.5493 K
KTT x K
KEE

The user needs to be careful when designing the

system to insure the shaft speed meets the minimum
specification at a given load at an elevated motor
temperature. In a more complex motion system using
a closed-loop controller, shaft speed can be controlled
within a given range to remain fixed as the load requirements change. The example that follows assumes
the motor is operated open-loop with a regulated DC
terminal voltage.

Equation 4b. Motor Regulation Using

Equation 4b. Motor Regulation Using
Performance Curve Data

EQUATION 4b. Motor

Regulation Curve
Using AData
Performance Curve
Performance

Rm
=
m=
Rm
m

n00
n00

T
TLR
LR
T
TLR
LR

Equations 4 and 5 can be used to illustrate the dramatic

effect on motor performance resulting from a decrease
in magnetic flux and increase in winding resistance.
Although there will be an increase in motor no-load
speed as well as a decrease in locked rotor torque, the
difference in cold versus hot locked rotor torque is
greater compared with the difference in cold versus
hot no-load speed.

How much can motor performance

change under a given set of conditions?
ROOM TEMPERATURE DATA

The locked rotor torque is heavily dependent on both

the resistance (Rmt) and torque constant (KT). Although
the no load speed will also be affected by the higher resistance at an elevated temperature, the resistance factor has a much smaller effect on no-load speed because
its multiplied by the no load current (I0), a relatively
small number (compare equation 5b and 5c).
EQUATION 5a. Motor Locked Rotor (Stall) Current

Terminal Voltage

VT

24

No Load Speed

n0

3160

RPM

No Load Current

I0

0.30

Locked Rotor Torque

TLR

2.88

Nm

Locked Rotor Current

ILR

40.7

Terminal Resistance

Rmt

0.59

Voltage Constant

KE

0.071 V/(rad/s)

Torque Constant

KT

0.071

Nm/A

Motor Regulation

Rm

1111

RPM/Nm

Initial Motor Temperature

25

Stabilized Armature Temperature

125

Armature Temperature Rise

100

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

Estimated Motor Characteristics at

an Elevated Temperature of 125C

Conditions:
Initial motor data was created using a rapid
dynamometer test at a room temperature of 25C
With a consistent load on the motor, the armature
temperature stabilized to 125C
No heat sink or forced air flow was used
The motor was operated open-loop
(no feedback to regulate shaft output power)
Power supply used regulated, 50A max output
with low output impedance
Copper motor windings
Strontium ferrite (ceramic) permanent magnets

Increased Terminal Resistance

Rmt( f ) = Rmt(i) x [1 +

conductor (f - i)]

Rmt( f ) = 0.59 x [1 + 0.0040 (125C - 25C)]

Rmt( f ) = 0.83
Decreased Torque and Voltage Constant
(K used for both KE and KT assuming SI units)
K( f ) = K(i) x [1 +

Figure 4. Initial Motor Performance @ 25C

magnet (f - i)]

K( f ) = 0.071 V/(rad/s) x [1 + (-0.0020)(125C - 25C)]

K( f ) = 0.057 V/(rad/s) or Nm/A
Decreased Locked Rotor (Stall) Current

ILR = VT / Rmt( f )
ILR = 24V / 0.83
ILR = 28.92A
Decreased Locked Rotor (Stall) Torque
TLR = ILR x KT( f )
TLR = 28.92A x 0.057Nm/A
TLR = 1.65Nm

With a stabilized armature temperature rise of 100C,

terminal resistance will be higher and magnetic flux
density will be lower compared with the initial motor
temperature of 25C. This will result in a change in
Rmt, KT, and KE.

Increased No Load Speed

n0 = 9.5493 x [(VT I0 x Rmt( f )) / KE( f )]

Important Note The calculations that follow assume

that the permanent magnet and wound armature temperatures are identical. The motor armature, which is
the part of the machine carrying electric current, will
always be at a higher temperature than the permanent
magnets. In practice, the actual change in KT, KE, and
motor regulation will be less pronounced than whats
demonstrated in the following example.

n0 = 9.5493 x [(24V 0.30A x 0.83 ) / 0.057V/(rad/s)]

n0 = 3979 RPM
Increased Motor Regulation
Rm = n0 / TLR
Rm = 3979 RPM / 1.65 Nm
Rm = 2412 RPM / Nm

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

3) The true thermal model of a DC motor is

extremely complex. Its very difficult to obtain exact
values theoretically, as there are just too many
variables to consider.

TABLE 4. Change in Motor Characteristics

Description
No Load Speed

Symbol
n0

@25C

@125C

3160 RPM

3979 RPM

331 rad/s

417 rad/s

No Load Angular Velocity

Locked Rotor Current

ILR 40.7 A

28.9 A

Locked Rotor Torque

TLR 2.88 Nm

1.65 Nm

Terminal Resistance

Rmt 0.59

0.83

Voltage Constant

KE

0.071 V/(rad/s) 0.057 V/(rad/s)

Torque Constant

KT

0.071 Nm/A

Motor Regulation

Rm 1111 RPM/Nm 2412 RPM/Nm

The preceding first approximation analysis however, is

very helpful in applying the motor and understanding
its limitations in a particular application.

Motor Constants and Maximum

Output Power
Rarely, if ever, is a motor operated at the maximum power point for very long. With the exception of very small,
low power motors, most cannot be operated continuously at the maximum power point without exceeding the
temperature rating. The equations below can be used
to determine the power at any point on the motor curve
and maximum output power.

0.057 Nm/A

Figure 5. Motor Performance Comparison @ 25C and 125C

EQUATION 6a. Motor Output Power (at any point)

EQUATION 6b. Motor Maximum Output Power

EQUATION 6c. Motor Maximum Output Power (Theoretical)

Its interesting to note how much the performance

changes with a given increase in motor temperature.
Although the analysis is helpful in understanding the
phenomenon, its by no means perfect. There are a few
things to keep in mind, for example...

Equations 6b and 6c illustrate the effect of motor

resistance on the output power capability of the
machine. Although not intuitive by looking at equation
6b, a higher winding resistance at an elevated
temperature is the main culprit in reducing the
maximum output power capability of the motor.
Even though magnetic flux density is reduced at an
elevated temperature, the decrease in TLR (due to reduced KT) is compensated by an increase in 0 (due to
reduced KE). If the resistance stayed the same, even a
decrease in magnetic flux density will not significantly
change the maximum output power of the machine.

1) We assumed a stabilized 100C rise on all components of the motor. In practice, the various motor
components will stabilize at different temperatures, with
the wound motor armature being the highest.

2) The temperature coefficient for the magnetic material was an average used for that material. In reality,
different grades of a particular material class will have
values that deviate slightly from the average.

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

The example motor curve as shown in Figure 1 removes

all other variables and assumes the motor is tested
with a fixed terminal voltage using a low impedance
power supply and progressively loaded with a dynamometer. The test is performed as quickly as possible
to minimize motor temperature rise. If the motor being
tested is a small sub-fractional horsepower motor, the
dynamometer may load the motor until shaft speed hits
zero or close to zero RPM. In the case of larger motors,
the dynamometer may be set to progressively load the
motor to approximately the maximum power point. The
remainder of the curve may then be extrapolated. The
resulting data in either case are (theoretically) linear
speed versus torque and current versus torque curves.

In reality, the higher resistance (Rmt) combined with

the reduced magnetic flux density (lower KT) reduces
the locked rotor torque much more than just a reduction
in magnetic flux density alone, which accounts for the
reduction in maximum output power.
Maximum output power @ 25C
Pmax(i) = 0.25 x

x TLR

Pmax(i) = 0.25 x 331 rad/s x 2.88 Nm

Pmax(i) = 238 W
Maximum output power @ 125C
Pmax( f ) = 0.25 x

x TLR

Some manufacturers, in particular those that supply

complete servo systems, may present performance
curves as a blend of information that includes system-level limitations. The limitations considered can
include many things such as continuous current capability, peak current capability, drive/amplifier power
limitations, maximum dc bus voltage, maximum motor
temperature ratings, motor saturation, and mechanical
speed limitations. Many manufacturers may illustrate
motor torque on the Y axis and speed on the X
axis. The example curves in Figures 7a and 7b illustrate how data might look if factors such as maximum
rotational speed, maximum temperature rise, and peak
drive current are considered. No matter how the data is
published or what other system factors are considered,
the motor parameters Rmt, KT, and KE are critical for
understanding the true capabilities of the motor.

Pmax( f ) = 0.25 x 417 rad/s x 1.65 Nm

Pmax( f ) = 172 W
The maximum power at the elevated temperature is
approximately 70% of the maximum power at room
temperature. This is a significant change, and its a
direct consequence of the increased motor resistance.
Equation 6c will give results that are within 1 or 2% of
the numbers above. This equation is very helpful in
rapidly estimating the maximum power capability of
any DC motor.

Published Data Motor curves

come in many varieties!
Most DC motor performance charts will show at least 2
curves; speed versus torque and current versus torque.
Manufacturers may decide to display the information in
slightly different ways and also supply other information such as output power and efficiency curves.
7

Temperature Effects on Motor Performance

surrounding environment. Although some of the heat

transfer takes place using direct conduction through
the lamination stack to the bearing system and housing,
much of the heat generated will flow via the air gap and
through the magnets.
In the case of a brushless DC motor, the copper windings are wound in slots (in a slotted brushless motor)
or formed against magnetic back iron (in a slotless
brushless motor) and constructed as part of the inside
surface of the motor housing. This construction allows
a direct thermally conductive path from the heat generating copper to the motor housing where it will be
dissipated into the environment. The permanent magnets in a brushless motor are on the rotating part of the
machine.

Another factor to keep in mind when evaluating various

performance curves is that actual test conditions may
not always be obvious. Different suppliers will publish
different information. In the case where the motors are
tested rapidly on a dynamometer (to minimize temperature rise), this method tends to be very consistent and
provides a good baseline. The disadvantage is that the
results dont represent worst case conditions.

In either case, it will be very difficult if not impossible to

predict the temperature rise of individual components
without empirical testing, but one thing is certain; the
temperature rise of individual components (hot spots
within the motor) will be different between a brush and
brushless motor, all other factors being equal.

If the motors are tested at the maximum rated temperature, the user will better understand the motor capability when used in applications where motor temperature
will stabilize at a value significantly higher than room
temperature. The disadvantage is that there are many
other variables that can skew the test results such as
method of temperature measurement, motor mounting (causing a heat sinking effect), air flow around the
motor, etc. Some motor manufacturers will test their
motors under the worst case condition; a motor stabilized to full rated temperature with no heat sinking or
forced air flow. There are no strict guidelines dictating
how a manufacturer should present the performance
data. The important thing to remember when evaluating
the information is to ask the right questions.

Theres No Substitute for

Application Testing
The purpose of the preceding discussion and the
calculation examples is to gain a better understanding
of how motor performance changes with temperature.
There is no substitute for testing and validating the
motor under application conditions. A proper theoretical treatment would not be feasible due to the number
of variables and assumptions involved, however, the
example calculations can serve as a first approximation
to get an idea of the magnitude of possible change.
The best way to understand motor performance under
actual operating conditions is to simulate the application as closely as possible while collecting temperature
data over time with a data acquisition system. Various
parts of the motor should be monitored using thermocouples attached to bearings, end bells, windings (in
the case of a brushless motor), magnets (in the case of
a brush motor) and the motor housing. Always discuss
your design criteria with an applications engineer.

Overall Motor Construction and

Heat Transfer
Mechanical structure affects the heat transfer characteristics in the motor. In a DC motor with a mechanical
commutator and brushes, the copper windings are
wound in slots around the rotating part of the motor
(called the armature). The heat generated by the copper windings on the armature will conduct through the
armature laminations and to the motor shaft and bearing system. Through convection, the heat will also migrate across the air gap to the permanent magnets and
housing where it will ultimately be dissipated into the
8

Pittman Motors is part of the Ametek Precision Motion Control

division. Pittman brush and brushless DC servo motors are used
in a wide variety of high tech motion applications including
lab automation, medical devices, communications equipment,
semiconductor processing equipment, aerospace systems,
and many other applications where precision motion is critical.
The Pittman motor line spans a wide variety of DC motor sizes and
technologies ranging from extremely compact brushless slotless
DC motors used in high speed medical applications to large NEMA
frame DC servo motors used in sophisticated automation equipment.
Brush Commutated DC Servo Motors
High Performance Slotless Brushless DC Servo Motors
Slotless Brushless DC Servo Motors
Instrument Grade Brushless DC Servo Motors
Automation Grade Brushless DC Servo Motors
Brushless DC Motors with Integrated Controller

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