249

NOUN GROUPS

ADJECTIVALS NOUNS

Article Pointin Possessiv Quantit Opinion Factual Comparin Classifying Noun or

s g Word e y Adjectiv Adjectiv g Adjective Pronoun
Adjectiv e e Adjective s
e

shoes

they

her exquisit dancing shoes

e

some Smelly running shoes

a black school shoes

hundre
d

two worn-out old walking shoes

Martin’s Favorite leather shoes

this shiny business shoes

those more golf shoes

expensiv
e

the Most tennis shoes

expensiv
e

Which? Which? Whose? How Qualities Qualities Degree? What Who or

many? ? ? type? What?
How
much?

250
A. NOUNS
- A noun answers the question “Who?” or “What?”

Formation:

- Most nouns consist of a single meaningful unit. Sometimes we

can form nouns by adding other meaningful units such as suffix
or another word.

Suffixes:

verb + -ment = astonishment

verb + -er or –or = writer, director

verb + -ion = distraction

adjective + -ness= happiness

Other suffixes:

-ity -some -ent

-hood -logy -ee

-dom -ism -age

-ist -ship

Singular/Plural Nouns

1. add –s

251
 2. add es: -x, -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, or –z
3. –ies: consonant followed by –y
4. –ves: end in –f or –fe
5. –o add –es: add –s
6. foreign plurals
7. different plural
8. same form
9. always plural

Collective Noun

 A cackle of hens

 A clutch of handbags

 A scuttle of meese

Compound Nouns

a) horse thief
b) teabag
c) dry-cleaning
- Compound nouns with preposition make their plural by making the
first noun plural:

Brothers-in-law, birds of prey

Creating New Nouns

- incorporate words or phrases from other languages, e.g. algebra

- use words from latin or week, e.g. telephone, autograph
- take an old noun and use it with a different meaning, e.g.
computer mouse

252
 - invent a noun
Nominalization

- When you heat a liquid it can change into gas. When the gas
cools it returns to liquid: Vaporization is followed by
condensation.

Extended Nouns

- Two or more people, places, things, concepts.

e.g. Trains, cars, and planes are form of transport.

Meaning:

- Living/non-living nouns
Biology, drama, literature, social studies, physics, math,
astronomy, technology, geology

- Human/non-human nouns
Beans, plants, marsupials, actions, thoughts, feelings,
sayings of people

- Masculine/feminine/neuter
Stewardess/steward

Police officer

Mail carrier

- Proper/Common
Sarah, Philippines

Text types: Narratives, biographies, autobiographies,

reports, advertisements and recounts.

- Particular/General

253
 Mum, the lady next door, my doll, our house

- Everyday/Technical
Digit, sonnet, vertebrate, rectangle, carbon dioxide

- Concrete/Abstract
Physical, material, tangible, memory, honesty, sadness

- Countable/Uncountable
Apples, nuns, air, water

- Objective/Subjective
Impartial, judgmental

- Point of View nouns

Bureaucrat, evidence, crime, victim

- Terms of Address
Titles, nicknames, terms of endearment

Text Types:

- Exposition
- Information
- Literary text/Narrative
- Recount
- Instruction
- Explanation

B. PRONOUNS

I. Personal Pronouns

-stands in for people, places, thing or ideas

254
 Formation:

• Distinction of person
(first person, second person, third person)

• Number
(singular / plural)

• Gender
(masculine / feminine)

Subject Object

First person I we we us

Second You you you you

person

Third person he, she, it they him, her, it them

Meaning:

• First and Second Personal Pronouns indicate the roles people

playing in an interaction. Used in an interpersonal way to
develop relationship between speaker and listener, writer and
reader. Third personal pronoun form part of the subject matter of
the discourse

255
 • They can also be used to develop links within a text and make it
cohesive.
Text Types:

• Literary
• Narrative
• Exposition
• Recount
• Information

II. Different Subject Pronouns

• Object of Verb
- Susan told me the whole story.

• Object of Preposition
- She sat near me on the bus.

• Subject of the verb

- I heard the news yesterday.

III. Possessive Pronouns

Formation:

Singular Plural

1st person Mine ours

2nd person Yours yours

(Masculine) his

256
 3rd person (Feminine) hers theirs

Meaning:

- takes the place of noun groups that show ownership or

possession.

e.g. That brand new car is Karla’s.

• In this example, the possessive pronoun hers takes the

place of the noun group Karla’s (possessive noun group)
which shows that Karla owns the brand new car.

e.g. The house of Martin is old.

• In this example, the possessive pronoun his takes the

place of the noun group of Martin (prepositional phrase)
which shows that the old house belongs to Martin.

Text Type

 Recount
 Narrative

257
IV. Types of Pronouns

1. Relative Pronouns
- They link a relative clause to a preceding noun. Its main
function is to join clauses together. In doing so, they connect a
relative clause to an antecedent (i.e., a noun that precedes the
pronoun.) Therefore, relative pronouns act as the subject or object of
the relative clause.

Formation:
The main relative pronouns are:

1. who
2. whom
3. whose
4. which
5. that

They are placed immediately after the noun or pronoun to which they
refer, except when a preposition such as to is used.

Meaning:

- We use a relative pronoun depending on what it is referring to.

Person Who, Whom, Whose

• The man who had fixed the leak had left his spanner.

258
 =The relative pronoun who refers back to the noun man and is
the subject of the relative clause and the verb had fixed.

• This is the lady whom you met at the fair.

=Here whom refers to the lady and is the object of the verb met.

• This is the lady whose tomatoes we used to make sauce.

=Whose refers to the woman. Whose is a relative pronoun that
shows possession.

Place, thing or idea That, Which

• Many occasions that were held in the hotel made it to the news.
=That refers to the noun occasions and is the subject of the
relative clause and verb were held.

• The committee’s decision which involves the whole community

will surely be another controversy.
=Which refers to the noun decision and is the subject of the
relative clause and verb involves.

Text types:

- Recount
- Narrative

259
 2.Questions pronouns
- They are used in clauses to form a question. They are also
called interrogative pronoun.

Formation:

Wh- Questions

1. What
2. Who
3. Whom
4. Whose
5. Which
6. Whoever
7. Whatever
8. Whichever

Meaning:

Person Who, Whom, Whose, Whoever

• Who did it?

• Whose pizza is this?
• Whom did she choose from the Carter White House?
• Whoever in the office spread the news?

Place, thing or idea What, Which, Whatever, Whichever

• What did he say?

• Which would you prefer from your president?
• Whatever did the officials say?

260
 • Whichever made you decide for that?

Others

- They can also be used to introduce a dependent clause.

• I wonder who did it.

• I asked him what he said.
• I'm trying to find out whose pizza this is.

Text Types:

- Narrative
- Exposition

3. Demonstrative Pronouns

- They refer to a particular person or thing. They stand in for a

person, place or thing that must be pointed to.

Formation:

Singular

1. This
2. That

Plural

3. These
4. Those

Meaning:

261
We use demonstrative pronouns when identifying, introducing people
who they are.

• Who’s this?
• These are the seven continents of the world.
• Was that Pat on the phone?

They also function as:

• A subject

o This has been a difficult decade for the U.S. Presidency.

o Those attempting to purchase handguns must wait seven
days.

• Direct object

o Beth donated those to the team.

o The demands on the President's time had knocked that off
the schedule.

• Object of the preposition

o Does the shirt you bough go with this?

o Chris can work with those.

Text Types:

- Narrative
- Information
- Recount

4. Indefinite Pronouns

262
 - Indefinite pronouns refer to an unknown or undetermined
person, place or thing.

Formation:

- Care must be taken to identify whether the pronoun is singular or

plural to assure the proper conjugation of the verb.

Always singular Another, Anyone, Anything, Each,

Either

No One, Neither, Nobody, One,

Someone, Something

Always plural Both, Few, Many, Several

Either plural or singular All, Most, None, Some

Meaning:

- They refer back to people or things without saying exactly who or

what they are.

• Every season another of the players attempts to break

McGuire's record.

• There is someone hiding in the bushes.

- They refer to people and things in a general way

• Do not take anybody for granted.

• All are concerned about what is happening.

263
Text Types:

- Explanation
- Recount
- Information
- Narrative
- Exposition
5. Reflexive Pronouns

- They "reflect" the person to whom the pronoun refers. Their

special function is to refer back to a noun phrase earlier in the same
clause.

Formation:

- Reflexive pronouns are the "self"ish pronouns. They combine a

personal or possessive pronoun with the morpheme self (or selves):

Person Reflexive Pronoun

First person singular myself

Second person
yourself
singular

Third person singular himself, herself, itself

First person plural ourselves

Second person plural yourselves

Third person plural themselves

Meaning:

264
 - Reflexive pronouns always act as OBJECTS not subjects, and they
require an interaction between the subject or subject(s) and an object.
They are typically indirect objects, direct objects and appositives.

• The children dressed themselves.

o Themselves refer back to the subject the children.
Themselves also is the direct object of the verb dressed.

• Because she was not hungry when the cake was served, Ellen
saved herself a piece.
o Ellen is the subject and Herself is a reflexive pronoun
acting as the indirect object.

Text types:

- Exposition
- Recount

6. Reciprocal Pronouns

- Reciprocal pronouns show that two people do the same

thing. They also refer back to a noun phrase earlier in the same
clause, but in a more complex way.

Formation:

- There are two forms and each has a possessive case:

each other one another

each other's one another's

Looking at Meaning:

265
 - They are used when the individual members that make up a plural
subject noun take each other as their objects. They express an
interchangeable or mutual action or relationship.

• The astronauts congratulated one another after successfully

completing the mission.
o The members of the subject, astronauts, take the other
members of their own group as objects.
• Mark and Dave greeted each other
o Mark and Dave did a mutual action and take the other one of them as
the object.

Text types:
- Exposition

7. Distributive pronouns

- Distributive pronouns stand for persons or things that are part of

the group but considered singly.

Formation:

1. Each
2. Either
3. Neither
4. Everybody
5. Everyone

Looking at Meaning:

- Nearly all of the above are only pronouns if standing alone.

• . Each of the books is worth reading.

266
 o The books are part of a group but they are considered as a
single entity.

• Each book is worth reading

o Each is not a pronoun here but an adjective.

Text types:
- Explanation
- Narrative
- Exposition

C. ADJECTIVALS
- provides information or builds up information around the
noun

- it answers the questions:

• Which specific things are being referred to? (articles,

pointing words) – a, the, an, that, those, these, this.

• To whom does it belong? (possessives) – my, yours, theirs

(anything that shows possession).

• How many people/things are involved? How much?

(quantity adjective) – five, seven (anything that refers to the amount or
quantity).

• What was the writer/speaker’s opinion? (opinion adjective,

factual adjective) – beautiful, gigantic (anything that describes
appearance) for size and color = What attributes does it have?

267
 • How are those people/things compared with the others?
How does it compared with other things? (comparing adjective) – more
popular, most requested (anything that shows comparison).

• What class does it belong to? (classifying adjective) –

dancing, marching ( anything that shows classification).

C.1 DETERMINERS

I. Article

a. Definite Article

‘The’ - the only one definite article and the commonest determiner

Formation:

• Use ‘the’ in front of any noun, whether it is singular count noun,

an
o uncount noun, or a plural count noun.
o She dropped the can.
o I remembered the fun I had with them.

o The girls were not at home.

• Use ‘the’ with a noun and a qualifier, such as prepositional
phrase or a
o relative clause, when you are specifying which person or
thing you are talking about.
The book that I recommend now costs over
three.

• Use ‘the’ with superlatives.

268
 He was the youngest.

Meaning:

• Use ‘the’ with a noun when you are referring back to someone or
something. that has been mentioned.

I called for a waiter...

... The waiter with a moustache came.

• Use ‘the’ with a noun when you are referring to someone of

which
here is only one in the world.

The boy sat in the sun.

*You can also use ‘the’ when you are referring to something of
which there is only one in a particular place.

He decided to put some words on the

blackboard.

• Use ‘the’ with a singular count noun when you want to make a
general
statement about all things of that type.

My father's favorite flower is the rose.

• Use ‘the’ with a singular count noun when you are referring to a

269
 system or service.
I don’t like using the phone.

• Use ‘the’ with the name of a musical instrument when you are
talking
about someone's ability to play the instrument.

Geoff plays the piano very well.

• Do not normally use ‘the’ with proper nouns that are people's
names.
However, if you are referring about a family, you can say the
Brown's.

Use ‘the’ with some titles, such as 'the Queen of England' and
with the names of organizations, buildings, newspapers, and
works of art.

... the UNs...

... the Taj Mahal...

• Use ‘the’ with some proper nouns referring to geographical

places.
the Bay of Bengal...

the Suez Canal...

• Use ‘the’ with countries whose names include words such as

270
 'kingdom', 'republic', 'states or union'.

... the United Kingdom...

... the Soviet Union

• You can use ‘the’ with countries that have plural nouns as their
names.
... the Philippines

*Note that you do not use ‘the’ with countries that have singular
noun as their names, such as 'China', Italy, or Turkey.

• You use ‘the’ with names of mountain ranges and groups of

islands.
... the Bahamas...

... the Canaries.

*Note that you do not use ‘the’ with names of individual

mountains such as 'Everest', or Etna or the names of individual
islands such as 'Sicily', or Bali.

• You use ‘the’ with regions of the world or regions of a country

that include 'north', 'south', 'east', or 'west'.
... the Middle East...

... the Far East.

271
 • You do not use ‘the’ with northern, southern, eastern, western
and a singular name.
... western Africa

• You use ‘the’ with the names of bodies of water such as seas,
oceans, rivers, canals, gulfs, and straits.
... the Mediterranean Sea

• Use ‘the’ with adjectives such as 'rich', 'poor', 'unemployed', to

talk
about a general group of people.

Only the rich could afford this firms products.

• Use ‘the’ with some nationality adjective to talk about the people
who
live in a country.

The Spaniards claimed that the money had not been

paid.

Text types:

- All types of text types.

b. Indefinite Articles

‘A’ and ‘an’

Formation:

272
• Use ‘a’... ‘A’ and ‘an’ with singular count nouns.
He was eating an apple.

*Remember that you use ‘a’ in front of a word that begins with
a consonant sound even if the first letter is a vowel

a piece

a university

• You use an in front of a word that begins with a vowel sound

even if the first letter is a consonant.
an executive

an idea

an honest man

• After the verb "be" or another linking verb, you can use 'a' or 'an'
with
an adjective and a noun to give more information about
someone or something.

His brother was a sensitive child.

• You can also use 'a' or 'an' with a noun followed by a qualifier,
such as a prepositional phrases or a relative clause, when you
want to give more information about something.
The information was contained in an article on
Biology.

• Use 'a' or 'an' after the be or another linking verb when you are
saying
what someone is or what something they have.

He became a school teacher.

273
 • Do not use ‘a’ or ‘an’ with uncount nouns or plural count nouns,
you do
not need to use a determiner at all with plural count nouns, but
you can use the determiners 'any', 'a few', 'many', 'several'

I love dogs.

*Note that if you do not use a determiner with a plural count

noun, you are often making a general statement about people
or things of that type.

If you say 'I love dogs', you mean all dogs.

However, if you say 'there are eggs in the kitchen', you mean
there are some eggs.

Meaning:

• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ when you are talking about a person or thing in
the first
time.

She picked up a book.

*Note that the second time you refer to the same person or
thing you use 'the'.

She picked up a book... the book was lying on the

table.

• Use ‘a’ or ‘an’ to mean 'one' with some numbers. You can use a
or
an with nouns that refer to whole numbers, fractions, money,
weights or measure.

a hundred a quarter a pound a kilo a

274
 thousand a half a dollar a liter

Text types:

- All types of text types

II. Pointing Words or Demonstratives

- used when we refer to people or things in a definite or specific

way.
Formation:

Near Far

Singular This That

Plural These Those

Meaning:

- This and These are used to people and things that are close to us
in space and time.
- That and Those are used to people and things that are more
distant in space or time.

Language Functions:

- This and These talk about people/things that are very obvious in
situation you are in.
- This and These distinguish things from others of the same kind.
- That and Those refer to things that we already know.
- These and These used to refer to someone or something that we
are mentioning for the first time.
- That and Those give emphasis (emphatic)
- That and Those establish a point of view or opinion.

275
Text types:

- Recount
- Exposition
- Narrative
- Explanation

III. Possessives
- tells us who owns something.

Formation:

Possessives has two types:

a. Possessive Determiners = my, your, their, our, his her, its

b. Possessive Adjectives = Sandy’s bag, John’s car

When creating possessive form nouns there are 8 simple rules:

1. If a singular noun does not end in s, add 's

• The delivery boy's truck was blocking the driveway.

• Bob Dole's concession speech was stoic and dignified.
• The student's attempts to solve the problem were rewarded

2. If a singular common noun ends in s, add 's—unless the next word

begins with s. If the next word begins with s, add an apostrophe only.
(This includes words with s and sh sounds.)

• The boss's temper was legendary among his employees.

• The boss' sister was even meaner.
• The witness's version of the story has several inconsistencies.
• The witness' story did not match the events recorded on tape.

276
3. If a singular proper noun ends in s, add an apostrophe.

• Chris' exam scores were higher than any other students.

4. If a noun is plural in form and ends in an s, add an apostrophe only,

even if the intended meaning of the word is singular (such as
mathematics and measles.)

• The instructor asked us to analyze ten poems' meanings.

• The dog catcher had to check all of the dogs' tags.
• It is hard to endure the Marine Corps' style of discipline.

5. If a plural noun does not end in s, add 's

• Many activists in Oregon are concerned with children's rights.

• Everyone was disappointed with the American media's coverage
of the Olympics in Atlanta.

6. If there is joint possession, use the correct possessive for only the
possessive closest to the noun.

• Clinton and Gore's campaign was successful.

• She was worried about her mother and father's marriage.
• Beavis and Butthead's appeal is absolutely lost on me.

7. If there is a separate possession of the same noun, use the correct

possessive form for each word.

• The owner's and the boss's excuses were equally false.

• The dog's and the cats' owners were in school when the fire
broke out.

8. In a compound construction, use the correct possessive form for the

word closest to the noun. Avoid possessives with compound plurals.

277
 • My father-in-law's BMW is really fun to drive.
• The forest ranger's truck is painted an ugly shade of green.
• Your neighborhood letter carrier's job is more difficult than you
imagine.

Meaning:

- They answer the question “Who owns it?” or “Whose” in:

Possession

John’s car her book

Agency/Source

Shakespeare’s sonnets his ideas

Human Relationships

a. kinship: my mother Bob’s cousin

b. professional: Joe’s teacher their doctor

c. other social: Anne’s neighbor your girlfriend

Traits (Physical or other)

Betty Davis’ eyes her ego

Representation

John’s portrait his statue

Evaluation

The project’s importance its value

Named after

St. Paul’s Cathedral

278
 Measurement

An hour’s time

Subject + nominalized verb

The earth’s rotation (earth rotates) his actions (he acts)

Text types:

- Recount
- Narrative

C.2 ADJECTIVES/DESCRIBERS

I. Quantity Adjectives

- tells about “how many, how much, and in which order.

- also known as quantitative/numerative adjectives or quantifiers.
- Refer to amount or quantity of subjects

Formation:

2 types:
a. Cardinal Numbers – refers to the quantity (one, two, three,
four….)
b. Ordinal Numbers – refers to order, sequence, or position (first,
second, third..)

Others examples of quantifiers: most, many, few, several, all,

some, every, any, once, much, only, such….

279
Meaning:

- Quantity Adjectives are used to refer exact counts and measures

- They are also used to tell indefinite figures of subjects.
- They also answered the questions “how much/how many/in
which order.
Text types:

- Recount
- Explanation
- Information

II. Opinion Adjectives

- give the writer’s or speaker’s evaluation of the thing in question.

Formation:

- adding suffixes to nouns and verbs.

e.g. lovely, stylish, wonderful, disgusting, boring, expensive,
respected

Meaning:
- have a more interpersonal function, expressing a particular point
of view.
- when we give our opinion, we are creating a situation where our
listener/reader will probably react, either agreeing or talking
issue with it. The opinion adjectives invite us not simply to
observe but to interact.
- it is important in critical reading activities, where students need
to identify how, for example, a newspaper article or magazine
story or television documentary is influencing them to see things
in a particular way.

280
 - in writing, students are to express their evaluation of things,
people, and situations in less clichéd, more subtle and convincing
ways.
- we can also include here a group called “emphasizing adjectives”
which are used when we want to emphasize our opinions about
something (e.g. a complete fool)

Text types:

- Recount
- Exposition

III. Factual Adjectives

- describe something in an objective way, giving information about

attributes which can be verified, measured, and agreed upon as
true.

Formation:

- factual adjectives are formed in similar ways to opinion

adjectives.
- Subtle differences in meaning can be created by using suffixes
such as –ish (e.g. yellowish, squarish)
- Again we can have factual adjectives:
Next they met a long-necked, long-legged, sharp clawed
emu.

Meaning:

- Factual Adjectives provided objective information about

something. They describe the attributes which a thing possesses:

281
 its size, age, shape, color, and other qualities. These
adjectives are found in most text-types but particularly in
information reports, descriptions and procedures.
- While most adjectives provided a description which is everyday
and concrete, it is possible to find adjectives which are more
technical and/or abstract.
nutritious foods a contagious disease

nitrogen-rich soil a reasonable

suggestion

the subtle differences a critical review

- Most opinion adjectives and factual adjectives can be modified

by certain adverbs which tell us the degree of intensity:
the extremely sad death a very old book

a somewhat odd story a slightly different

way

a rather long movie

- We can also intensify a description by repeating the adjective:

Oh you wicked wicked little thing! cried Alice

He was an old old dog.

Text types:

- information reports
- descriptions
- procedures

282
IV. Comparing Adjectives

- tells us the relative amount of quantity, often referred to as

comparatives and superlatives.
- A comparative degree is used to say that something is more than
all the others in a particular group.
- A superlative degree is used to say that something is more than
all the others in a particular group.
Formation:

- Comparatives and superlatives are formed in various ways:

1. One syllable adjectives, add –er or –est. If the adjectives
ends in –e, add –r or –st. When the adjective ends in a
single consonant, double the final consonant and add –er
or –est.
2. Two syllable adjectives: if the adjectives ends in –y,
change the –y to –i and –er or –est. If the adjective does
not end in –y, form the comparative and superlative by
using more and most.
3. Three or more syllable adjectives, use more and most.
4. Irregular comparatives and superlatives use a different
word to form it.
5. Adjectives which are formed from a verb ending with –ed
or –ing, always use more and most.
6. Adjectives which start with the negative prefix un- can use
–er and –est even if they have three syllables.
7. Comparisons using less and least are used in the opposite
way, instead of more and most before adjectives of two or
more syllables.
8. With one syllable adjectives use not as… for this kind of
comparison.

283
 9. Opinion and factual adjectives can be used in comparative
way.

Meaning:

- often found in information reports which compare and contrast

things, descriptions, and narratives where people, places, and
things are being compared.

Text types:

- information reports
- descriptions
- narratives

V. Classifying Adjectives

- used to place something into a particular group: what type?

Formation:

-classifying adjectives often look like factual adjectives and can be

formed in the same way. Many classifiers are actually nouns being
used with the function of classifying:

animal doctor

science lesson

passenger train

- sometimes a classifier can be a verb.

washing machine

boiled water

284
 For this reason, it might be better to refer to this group as
classifiers rather than classifying adjectives.

- It is possible to have compound classifiers.

He’s not a sit-by-the-fire-and-purr cat,

A look-at-my-exquisite-fur cat,

No he’s not!…

He’s a fat cat, a rat cat,

A ‘what-on-earth-was-that?’ cat.

Meaning:
- Classifiers tell us which class the thing belongs to. We could, for
example, divided newspapers into different classes: daily or
weekly; tabloid or broadsheet. Or we could talk about different
types of politicians: female or male; conservative or progressive;
labor or liberal.
- Classifying adjectives are important in text-types such as
information reports. They are one of the resources we use to
categorize the word in various ways. (e.g. venomous snakes/non-
venomous snakes; igneous rocks/sedimentary
rocks/metamorphic rocks).
- Adjectives which indicate nationality, location or origin are
usually classifiers:
Australian history

A British passport

The Southern lakes

A medieval village

285
 - Words which refer to the material that is something is made out
of are generally classifiers:
A cotton dress

Leather shoes

A plastic bucket

A clay brick house

Text types:

- information reports

C.3 ADJECTIVAL PHRASES/CLAUSES

- used to add further information after the noun.

a nice little nose with freckles on it. (Adjectival phrase)

the umbrella that Peter lent me yesterday. (Adjectival

clause)

- These answer the question, “which”. They are sometimes

referred to as embedded phrase/clause, qualifiers or post-
modifiers.
Text types:

- information reports
- narratives/literary texts

I. Adjectival Phrases

286
 Formation:

- An adjectival phrase is a noun group preceded by a preposition.

Preposition Noun Group

in the next room

beside the bed

from next door

with the dirty old jeans

- This is sometimes called a prepositional phrase because it begins

with a preposition. There are however different types of
prepositional phrases which also do different jobs. In this case,
the prepositional phrase is doing the job of providing info about a
noun, so we call it an adjectival phrase. It becomes part of the
larger noun group.

Meaning:

- We can specify which thing we are referring to by adding an

adjectival phrase. Adjectival phrase give information in answer to
question such as:
Where, with what, what like, whose, about what, what
kind, why

287
Question Adjectival Phrase
a partridge in a pear tree.
Where?
a big hollow log with a lot of holes
With what?
in it.

with hair like a Persian cat.

What like?
The tomb of Pharaoh
Whose?
Tutankhamen

rumors about his death

About what?
gifts of diamonds and rubies
What kind?
a cure for cancer
Why?

II. Adjectival Clauses

Formation:

- unlike adjectival phrases, adjectival clauses contain a verb.

the people who fought for freedom.

colonists looking for gold.

a dog riddled with fleas.

- sometimes a full verb isn’t used:

the desire to win

the train coming around the bend.

- they often begin with a relative pronoun: who, whom, whose,

which, that, and where; which refers to preceding noun group.

288
Meaning:

- Like adjectival phrase, adjective clause provides extra

information about the noun. An adjectival clause identifies which
things we are referring to.

VERB GROUPS

D. VERBS

Formation:

289
 - A verb group can consist of a single word (e.g. He wrote a
letter) or a number of words (e.g. He might have been going to
talk.)

I. Types of Verbs

Meaning:

- When we are interested in how language functions to represent

the world, we look at how different types of verbs are involved in
expressing different aspects of our experience:
o Action verbs
o Saying verbs
o Sensing verbs (thinking verbs, feeling verbs, perceiving
verbs).
o Relating verbs
a. Action Verbs

- when we are talking about “doings” and “happenings” we use

action verbs. These generally represent those more physical
actions, which we can observe around us.
- action verbs bring a text to life and help the reader to visualize
what is going on.
- In building up a character, we might use more ‘evaluative’ action
verbs where we express a judgment. For example, rather than
saying “Sam walked down the street’, we can represent Sam
positively (Sam skipped down the street) or negatively (Sam
slunk down the street).

Text types:
- Literary texts
- Recounts

290
 - Procedures
Sample Action verbs

slide cling linger catch

tangle
run held twist turn
burn
whoop swoop crouch stoop
ride

b. Saying verbs

- Sometimes experience is not represented directly, but is

reported through someone else’s words. Saying verbs are found
most commonly in stories, where we get to know the characters
by the way they speak.
- Saying verbs are also important in newspaper articles, where it is
reported what people said.

Text types:
- Exposition
- Literary text

Sample Saying verbs

say cry scream shout

whisper
plead stammer explain suggest
imply
report murmur ask tell
promise

291
 c. Sensing verbs

- Used only in relation to humans, describing their thoughts,

opinions, beliefs, feelings, and so on. They can feature in
arguments and discussions where we are interested in people’s
ideas.
- Sensing verbs can give us insights into the character of a story
by describing what is going on their minds.
- We could also include verbs of perception – those which involve
the use of our five senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling, and
smelling.

Text types:
- Exposition
- Literary Texts
- Recounts

Sample Sensing Verbs

think believe wish remember

wonder
know forget see consider
perceive
reflect imagine recollect recall
assume

292
d. Relating verbs

- There are some verbs which do not represent actions, speaking,

thoughts, or feelings. Their job is to simply link two pieces of
information. We can call these ‘relating verbs’. (In other
grammars, they are referred to as relational processes or link
verbs.)
- The most common relating verbs are the verbs ‘to be’ and ‘to
have’.
- The relating verb might link tow noun groups.

Some cars airbags.

have

- Or it might link a noun group to an adjectival.

Racing cars are powerful.

- Sometimes a relating verb relates a noun group to an adverbial.

The car show is in Sydney.

- Sometimes the relationship between two things is expressed by

other verbs:
e.g. The girls became good friends.
The color red symbolizes the land.

293
Text types:
- Information reports or descriptions
- Explanation

Sample Relating verbs

be have possess include
represent
mean look symbolizes become taste
results in turn into equal seem
appear

II. Tenses

- Tense tells us about time – when an action takes place. The verb
group tells us whether something is happening in the present,
the past, or the future.

Formation:

a. Present
- Most English verbs have two present tenses: the present
simple and the present continuous.

Text types:
- Instruction
- Explanation
- Information
- Exposition
- Literary Text/Narratives

294
 1. Present simple
- Generally formed using a single world:
e.g. I read the papers everyday.
- Most verbs in the present simple are fairly regular. The verb ‘to
be’, however is irregular.

Singular Plural
1 person
st
I Am we are
2nd person you Are you are
3rd person he/she/it Is they are

2. Present Continuous

- The present continuous is formed by using a helping verb (the

auxiliary verb ‘to be’) and a present participle (ending in –ing):

Helping Verb Present

(auxiliary) Participle
he Is going
they Are finishing
I Am doing

b. Past

- There are several past tenses in English. Here we will focus only
on the three most common – past simple, past continuous,
and perfect.

Text types:
- Explanation
- Information
- Exposition

295
 - Literary Text/Narratives
- Recount

1. Past Simple
- Generally formed by adding –ed to the stem of the verb.
Stem of the verb Past simple
walk → walked
- If the verb stem ends in –e, simply add d:
use → used
- If the verb ends in a stressed vowel + consonant, double the
consonant and add –ed.
plan → planned
- If the verb ends in a consonant + -y, change y to an I and add –
ed.
study → studied

2. Past Continuous
- Past continuous tense is formed by using the past tense of a
helping verb (the auxiliary verb ‘to be’ –was/were) plus the present
participle:

Helping Verb Present

(auxiliary) Participle
he Was going
they Were finishing
I Was doing
she Was having

3. Perfect Tense

296
 - The perfect tense is formed by using the helping verb ‘to have’
plus the past participle:

Helping Verb Present

(auxiliary) Participle
he Has gone
they Have finished
I Have felt
she Has had

c. Future
- The future tense is formed by using the helping verb ‘will’ plus
the main verb.
Helping Verb Present
(auxiliary) Participle
he Will go
they Will finish
I Will read
she Will have

- The auxiliary ‘shall’ is used with the first person (I shall read; We
shall promise).

Text types:
- Explanation
- Information
- Exposition
- Literary Text/Narratives

III. Modals
- Modals give us information about the degree of obligation or
certainty involved in the action. If we feel a bit tentative about
doing something, we can use low modality, e.g.:
I might go.

297
 - If we want to express a high degree of certainty, we can use high
modality, e.g.:
I must go.

Formation:
- Modals are formed by using a modal auxiliary plus the verb.

HIGH MODALITY MEDIUM MODALITY LOW MODALITY

must will may
ought to should might
shall can could
has to need to would

- Modality can also be expressed through other grammatical

resources:
• Modal nouns
e.g. possibility, probability, obligation, necessity,
requirement
• Modal adjectives
e.g. possible, probable, obligatory, necessary,
required
• Modal adverbs
e.g. possibly, probably, perhaps, maybe, sometimes

Meaning:
- In any particular situation, we choose different degrees of
modality depending on how we want to relate to the
listener/reader and how we want to portray our own level of
commitment to an idea or action. Someone with a high degree
of authority, status, power or expertise may choose to use high
modality in order to convince someone to do something or to

298
 believe something. In other situations, low modality might leave
open the possibility of negotiation.

Text Types:
- Discussions
- Expositions
- Information (advertisements)
- Narratives

IV. Negative Forms

- As well as using verbs in the positive form, we can make them
negative.

Formation:
- When we form the negative, we generally insert the word ‘not’
after the helping (auxiliary) verb, e.g.
• I will not listen any longer.
- With those tenses which do not use a helping verb, however, we
also need to insert the verb ‘do/does’ when forming the
negative.
• Present simple
I play the piano. → I do not play the piano.
• Past simple
She worked hard. → She did not work
hard.
- Negatives, of course, can be contracted.
• I do not play the piano → I don’t play the piano.
- The contraction of the negative in the future tense is irregular:
• She will not eat her dinner. → She won’t eat her
dinner.

299
Meaning:
- Has the function of introducing an interpersonal tone involving
contradiction, disapproval, opposition, denial, absence, and so
on, where the speaker/writer is making a judgment about the
truth or value of a statement.
- Other negative words include:
neither nor no nobody nowhere
never none not no one nothing
- Prefixes and suffixes can also contribute a negative tone:
We were very displeased.
Text types:
- Discussions
- Expositions

V. Multiword verbs
- Sometimes a verb group is made up of several words. As we
have seen, this can be due to need to indicate tense (e.g. ‘has
gone’; ‘will be looking’). But sometimes it simply takes more
than one word to express the meaning of the verb (e.g. ‘tried to
move’; ‘stood up’). This is not a major grammatical point to be
taught, but it does help when trying to identify where the verb
group begins and ends—i.e. the boundaries of the verb group.

Text types:
- All text types.

Formation:

1. Complex Verbs

300
 - Some verbs groups consists of two verbs, each of which
contributes to the meaning, e.g.:
The babies began crying when they heard the
thunder.
- As you can see, the verb group become quite lengthy:
He has been wanting to get started all morning.

2. Verbs with adverbs or prepositions

- Sometimes a verb group will consist of a verb plus an adverb or
preposition, e.g.:
She woke up at nine.
- Technically, these are called phrasal verbs.

3. ‘Empty” verb plus noun

- Some verbs are formed by using ‘empty’ verbs such as ‘have’
or ‘do’ with a noun, e.g.:
Have a look at this!
She is having a shower now.
He gave a loud laugh.
- In this case the main meaning of the action is actually expressed
through the noun.

E. ADVERBIALS
- words and phrases that provide extra detail about what is going
on.
- answer the questions where? when? how? why? with whom? by
what means? for how long?

Text types:
- All text types.

301
A. Types of Adverbials

I. Adverbs

Formation:

- generally consist of a single word:

tomorrow

soon

upstairs

probably

quickly

well

there

finally

- Adverbs are often formed by adding –ly to the end of an adjective:

stupid stupidly

thankful thankfully

302
 When the adjective ends in –y, change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ before adding –
ly.

happy happily

angry angrily

Meaning:
- An adverb gives the circumstance of the verb in a sentence.

II. Adverbial Phrase

Formation:
- consist of a group of words generally beginning with a
preposition:

near the house

at five o’clock

in a deep voice

with her mother

Prepositions are generally single words (e.g. on, in, under) but can
sometimes be multiple words (e.g. on top of, in front of). The following
is a list of common prepositions:

at of to by with

from about in beside for

303
 into until near under during

like on after above

across

along among around before

behind

below beneath between down inside

off past through towards up

within away from close by in front of on top of

all over close to near to out of next to

Meaning:

- An adverbial phrase provides information about the verb.

Ex:

He was running in the park.

B. ADVERBIAL ROLES

- Adverbials can play a number of different roles in a clause.

I. Modifying the verb

- The main function of adverbials is to tell us more about the verb
(or more technically, they modify verbs).

She sang loudly.

304
 She sang at the concert.

- Apart from adding meaning to verbs, adverbials can take on

various other roles in the clause such as modifying an adjective,
modifying another adverb, and modifying a sentence as a whole.

II. Modifying an adjective

- Adverbs can modify adjectives:

She was too clever for words.

His face was very red.

I was a little scared.

III. Modifying another adverb

- Adverbs can also modify other adverbs.

The family almost always had porridge for breakfast.

He spoke very highly of you.

We ate well enough.

- Both the above groups of adverbs belong to the ‘degree’ type.

IV. Modifying a sentence

305
 - Sometimes adverbials function to set the tone for the whole
sentence. They often signal to the listener or reader how to interpret a
statement.

From my point of view, he’s wrong.

Technically, it was a fault.

Politically it was a smart move.

C. FORMATION OF ADVERBIALS

Meaning:

- Gives additional information about the time, place or manner

of the action described in a sentence.

- Answers the questions where, when, how, why, with whom,

by what means, for how long and so on.

Formation:

I. Time may be formed in:

- single-word adverbs like:

yesterday today tomorrow now

later before afterwards

seldom

- word groups, phrases, and clauses provide the most extensive

resources for time reference: Here are some examples:

306
 last night a minute ago before midnight

six years ago at 2:30 pm next Sunday

- There are also indications of duration:

all the morning for two hundred years indication of

frequency

every Friday once a month

II. Place may be formed by indicating:

- Side which is based on our body orientation:

left right

left-hand side right-hand side

- Directions which we use to refer to large scale geographical

relationships:

north south east west

- Words which indicates position which is relatively close to or

distant from the speaker’s position.

307
 everywhere somewhere elsewhere

Preposition may be use to indicate static processes and for

processes implying movement (in, at, on, etc.).

to the center of the town on people’s doors

over the moon

III. Manner can be formed by:

- Adding –ly to adjectives

carefully evenly lightly

slowly gently firmly

- Note: When an adjective ends in –y, change the –y to –I before

adding –ly.

D. DEGREE OF ADVERBIALS

Functions:

- Indicate speaker’s attitude

- Add emphasis
- Tone down a statement
- Limit the scope

Thus, these functions could also be categorized in this manner:

308
I. View Point

- gives comment about a topic

- expresses opinion
 e.g. a. She slept silently. (factual)
• b. She slept oddly. (opinion)
- expresses a speaker’s or writer’s agenda
- this kind of adverb generally comes at the beginning of a
sentence

E.g.: No doubt, he is the hero of their group.

Some View Point Adverbials.:

personally happily surprisingly plainly

hopefully presumablycuriously fortunately

apparently surely

Language Functions: Expressing belief or disbelief, giving opinions

II. Degree

- places emphasis on a statement

 e.g. Kenjie almost won the contest.
- sometimes, used to distance the statement and decrease
commitment to the statement:
 e.g. She’s ugly, so to speak.
• I love her, somehow.

Some Degree Adverbials:

309
 completely less almost worse

deeply basically certainly partly

nearly

Language Function: Explanation or Descriptive text type.

III. Focusing
- emphasizes the importance of something.
- focuses on a certain aspect of something.
o e.g. He just wanted to steal your wallet.

Language Function: Expressing preferences (ordering or availing a

product)

IV. Modal Adverbs

- States the degree of probabilty of a circumstance in a

statement.
e.g. Possibly, she could pass the exam because she’s cute.

Some Degree Adv’s:

probably perhaps

maybe definitely

surely possibly

310
 CLAUSES

F. CLAUSE

I. ORGANIZATION OF CLAUSES

Clause

Noun Group Verb Group Adverbials

311
Adjectivals

Determiners Adjectives Noun/Plural

Articles Quality

Pointing words Opinion

Possessives Factual

Comparing

Classifying

How clauses are organized?

Formation:

1. Syntax

- A generally well structured clause must contain a verb. The

verb will probably have a subject, i.e. a noun group or
pronoun which comes before the verb.

Sasha was reading.

SUBJECT VERB

312
 - Sometimes there is also a noun following the verb. This is
called the object of the verb.

Sasha was reading the newspaper.

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT

- With certain verbs, it is possible to have two objects: a direct

object and an indirect object:

Sasha was reading the newspaper to Tim.

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT INDIRECT OBJECT

Sasha was reading Tim the

newspaper.

SUBJECT VERB INDIRECT OBJECT OBJECT

2. Shifting Emphasis using the passive

- In English, we have a choice between the active (‘Police have

warned residents…’) and the passive (‘Residents have
warned…’). While the meaning is much the same, the
emphasis has shifted in the passive from the police to the
residents. The passive is an important resource fro shifting
emphasis. It might be that we want to maintain the focus to a

313
 particular participant. It might be that the ‘do-er’ is not
important and the emphasis should be on the ‘done-to’.

- The passive is found in texts such as newspaper stories,

beaurucratic memos, historical accounts, and explanations
(where the emphasis is not much ‘who is responsible’ but
rather ‘what is the effect’).
Meaning:

- We can also look at how the clause is organized in terms of

meaning and ask:

• How does a clause represent a particular size of

experience?
• What type of action is occurring?
• Who is initiating the action?
• Who is on the receiving end?
• Who is saying what to whom?
• Who is doing the thinking, feeling, and receiving?
• What are they thinking about?
• What are they feeling?
• What are they perceiving?
• What is being described, defined, or classified?
• How?

- These are questions often asked when looking at a text from

a critical literacy perspective.

314
 - When students are learning to read, it is helpful if they can
see the sentences in terms of meaningful chunks. It is not
necessary that they use the terminologies, but they are able
to recognize how a clause is made up of units of meaning.
This can be encouraged indirectly (e.g. pausing and
intonation when the teacher is reading aloud) of more
explicitly (e.g. asking students questions such as those
given).

Text types:

- newspaper stories
- beaurucratic memos
- historical accounts
- explanations

II. CLAUSE WITH PROCESSESS

Formation:

Types of Process:

a. CLAUSES WITH ACTION VERBS

1. (MATERIAL PROCESSES)

Ex. Maria ran towards the kitchen. - “What happened to

her?”

His cat killed the little mouse. - “What did his cat
do?”

315
- The processes (italicized words) express some action going on.
The question to be asked is “What happened?” or “What’s going on?”
This process closely related to the traditional definition of verbs as
action words or doing word.
2. (BEHAVIORAL PROCESSES)

Ex. She cried.

She laughed.

- Just like the material process that expresses action, this

process deals with action related to the aspects of behavior of the
participant.
b. CLAUSES WITH SENSING VERBS

(MENTAL PROCESSES)

- Verbs do not only express action but also it expresses

experiences that have something to do with the senses. This involves
the process of thinking, feeling and perceiving. Also known as mental
processes, it has three sub-types

1. Thinking process (cognitive)

Ex. He believed in God. – “What does he think about

God?”

I know about the culture of their country.

- In this sample sentence the verb is not deliberately expresses

an action but it is more on what the participant thinks toward a
circumstance.

2. Feeling process (affective)

316
 Ex. I like listening to music. –“What does he/she feel
towards to music?”

He loves me. – “What does he feel for me?”

- In these sample sentences, the process points out to feelings

more than visible action. It is more on the affective part wherein
sharing the human emotions is included as experiences.

3. Perceiving process (senses)

Ex. We felt the pain. - “What did they perceive?”

Mark saw the crime.

- In these sample sentences, the process expresses on how the

five senses (seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, feeling) can perceive.

- Sensing verbs also includes processes of thoughts of a person

presented as a message or state of mind.
Ex. She thought she would be home for dinner.

c. CLAUSES WITH SAYING VERBS

(VERBAL PROCESSES)

Ex: She said she’d be home for dinner. – “What did the
speaker do?”

- In this sample sentence, the process is more on the verbal

expression of the speaker or the more use of the language for
communication.

317
d. CLAUSES WITH RELATING VERBS
(RELATIONAL PROCESSES)

- In this process, it establishes certain kinds of relationship.

Ex. Blossoms are creamy white.

She looked very comfy.

- In the examples above, the relationship established is

ATTRIBUTION. When a thing has some quality and that quality we
attribute to a thing. For example the first sentence the words creamy
white attributes to the blossom in order to relate them we use the verb
are.

Ex. Each leaf has a stem.

That car belongs to me

- In the examples above, the relationship established is more on

POSSESSIVE
Ex. This is the book he bought.

- In the example above, the relational process expresses

IDENTITY. The verb is used to indicate or identify that the book was the
one bought.
Ex. There is a lighthouse on the headland.

- In the example above, the relational process expresses more

on the EXISTENTIAL. This asserts the existence of something (the
clause commonly begins with there)

Meaning:

318
 - Everyday we deal with experiences and these events we refer to
as processes. In every clause there is a process which is
represented by the verb group. The verb group is based on the
verb. This component focuses on the question “what’s going
on?” or “what is the participant is doing?”

III. INTERACTING WITH CLAUSES

Different types of clauses in facilitating interaction:

a. simply state something – Statement

b. request information – Question
c. ask someone to do something – Command
d. express one feelings in an emphatic way – Request

I. STATEMENT (DECLARATIVE)

Formation:

- The key elements in the structure of Statement are the

subject followed by the verb (auxiliary).

Ex. She has answered the phone.

Subj. Aux.

Meaning:

- Statements are used to provide information, make remarks

and assertions, and so on.
Ex. It is raining in Manila.

319
 I have found the passionfruit.

- Most written texts ad oral presentations consist mainly of

statements.
II. QUESTIONS (INTERROGATIVE)

Formation:

- The key elements in the structure of Questions are auxiliary

now comes in front of the subject, and a question mark
is added.

Ex. Has she answered the phone?

Subj. Aux.

- If there is no auxiliary in declarative clauses, we need to

“invent” one by using do/does/did.

Ex. She likes pasta. > She does like pasta. > Does she like
pasta?

Cha found the wallet. > Cha did find the wallet. > Did
Cha find the wallet?

- Sometimes, we simply use a rising intonation to ask a

question:
Ex. She likes pasta?

- When we want confirmation, we can use a tag question:

Ex. She likes pasta, doesn’t she?

They have been renting an apartment, have they?

320
The type of question above is generally called yes/no questions. We
can also ask wh-questions. They still ask for information but require
an answer, which goes beyond a simple yes/no. Wh- questions require
lengthier, more complex response.

Question Type Question Response

Yes/No Do you love her? Yes.

Wh- question Why did you leave Because she deceived

her? me…

Meaning:

- Questions are used to inquire about something, to request

information, to probe, and so on.

Ex. Is it raining in Manila?

Have you found the passionfruit?

Where have you gone?

- It is through asking questions that we stimulate interaction.

Questions are used primarily in oral conversation, though you
will also find them in written texts (in dialogues).
Text types:

o Narrative/Literary Text
o Exposition

321
III. COMMANDS (IMPERATIVE)

Formation:

- drop the subject

e.g ( You )answer the phone = Answer the phone.

- drop the subject and auxiliary

e.g (Could) (you) answer the phone = Answer the phone.

- if we want a polite or gentle request we might use a question

e.g Could you get me a cup of tea.

- or we can make a statement which implies a request

e.g You might like to hold that for me.

Meaning:

- use to get things done to obtain goods and services and so on

- usually used in oral interaction

Text types:

- Instructions
- Literary text (stories)

IV. EXCLAMATION

Formation:

- we emit the verb altogether and use an expression such as How

322
+ adjectival or what + noun group
e.g How exciting? What a surprise?

- an exclamation mark is generally used to that a statement is

being used to that statement is being used as an exclamation
e.g We had a great time!

Meaning:

- express surprise or make an emphatic statement

- both in oral and written language (stories, poems, drama/plays)

Text types:

- Literary texts

IV. COMBINING CLAUSE

A. Simple Sentences

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which

contains only one independent clause.

Example

The ice melts quickly

B. Compound sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or

simple sentences) joined by coordinating conjunctions

Example

323
 Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.

C. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least

one dependent clause.

Example

The man who owns the nice red car is our neighbor.

D. Compound-Complex sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences which you might
want to note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together,
a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or
one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the
sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:

Example

The girl who I met in the park asked me to a date but I needed to go to
work in the evening.

Text Types:
- Mostly found in all text types

V. RELATIVE CLAUSES

- A relative clause--- is a clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

It answers the questions what kind? or which one?

- The relative clause will follow one of following patterns located in

the boxed items..

324
Formation:

Noun group + Relative pronoun + verb group (+NG/ADVLS) +

Verb group (+NG/ADVLS)

Noun group + Relative pronoun + Noun group + verb group

(+NG/ADVLS) + Verb group (+NG/ADVLS)

Noun group + Noun group + verb group (+NG/ADVLS) + Verb

group (+NG/ADVLS)

Examples

The man who owns the nice red car is our neighbor.

Brian said goodnight to hid roommate Justin, who continued to play

video games until midnight.

Mathew and Loretta, who skate in the streets, are very noisy in the
early evening.

We tried our luck at the same flea market where George found an
Amazing Spiderman #96.

The desk in the corner, which is covered in books, is mine.

The package that arrived this morning is on the desk

325
Hans who is an architect lives in Berlin.

The shirt I’m wearing today is made of cotton.

Looking at Meaning:

• Adds information about a noun or a pronoun

• Flexibly used in different text types (e.g. explanations,
descriptions, narratives, etc.)

Text types:

- Descriptions
- Explanations
- Narratives
- Recount
- Exposition

VI. QUOTING
- In some cases, we quote the actual words said or thought. When
using quote structure, you report what someone has said as if
you were using one’s own words.
- Also called direct speech

326
Formation:

- A quote structure consists of two clauses:

o The quoting/reporting clause which contains the
reporting verb.

‘I knew I’d seen you, I said.

‘Only one,’ replied the Englishman.

o The other part is the quote, which represents what

someone says or has said.

‘Let’s go and have a look at the swimming pool,’ she

suggested.

‘Leave me alone,’ I snarled.

- You can quote anything that someone says – statements,

questions, orders, suggestions and exclamations.
- In writing, you use inverted commas (‘’) or (“”), at the beginning
and end of a quote.
- List of reporting verbs which are often used with quote
structures.

add decide read

admit declare reason

327
 agree demand recite

announce explain reflect

answer grumble remark

argue inquire reply

ask insist report

assert muse respond

assure observe say

beg order state

begin plead suggest

boast ponder tell

claim proclaim think

command promise urge

comment vow

Complain warn

conclude wonder

confess write

continue

pray

328
 The reporting verb is found:
o At the beginning
He stepped back and said, “Now look at that.”

o At the middle
“You see,” he said, “my father was a clergyman.

o At the end
“You have to keep trying, Mabel,” he said.

Meaning:

- Quote structures are mainly used in written stories.

“We have abaca, piña, maguey and ramie fibers,” Mrs.
Ramos said.

o Quotes can also be used without reporting clauses if the

speakers have been established, and if you do not wish to
indicate what kind of utterances the quotes are.
‘When do you leave?’ – ‘I should be gone now.’ – ‘Well,
goodbye, Amy.’

- It is also used to indicate the way in which something was said.

‘Jump!’ shouted the oldest woman.

‘Oh poor little thing,’ she wailed.

- We use a verb which is usually used to describe the sound made by a

particular animal.
‘Sorry to be late,’ he barked.

- To indicate the expression on someone’s face while they are speaking,

we use quote structures.
‘I’m awfully sorry.’ – not at all,’ I smiled.
 Text types:

o Newspaper articles
o Stories
o Advertisements
o Biographies
o Recounts

VII. REPORTING / REPORT STRUCTURES

• It also known as “indirect speech

• It usually talks about what was said, thought, etc., rather than quoting
the exact words.
• It uses reporting verbs such as say, tell and ask.
FORMATION

1. It contains a reporting clause then a reported clause.

Reporting clause – contains the reporting verb.

Reported clause – contains the information you are reporting.

REPORTING VERBS

Accept consider Find note reflect

Admit convince Guarantee notice remember

Agree decide Guess object repeat

Announce deny Hear observe reply

Answer determine Hope perceive report

Argue doubt Imagine persuade reveal

 Assume dream Imply pledge say

Assure elicit Inform promise see

Believe expect Insist read sense

Claim explain Judge realize state

comment fear Know reason tell

complain feel Learn reassure understand

conclude forget Mean recall wish

Confirm figure Mention reckon write

2. The reported clause can be: ‘that’-clause, ‘if’-clause and ‘whether’-

clause.
Examples:

He said that the car broke down.

A woman asked if I knew her name.

They wondered whether the time was right.

Meaning:

• ‘that’-clauses are used in reporting statements

Examples:

“I brought home a new puppy,” said Jack.

Jack said that he had brought home a puppy.

“Dean will go to Baguio City,” Tina mentioned.

Tina mentioned that Dean would go to Baguio City.

• ‘if’-clauses and ‘whether’-clauses answer YES / NO QUESTIONS

 Examples:

"Did Diana's cousin win the contest?" Larry asked.

Larry asked whether Diana's cousin had won the contest.

“Do you know Anna?” Richard asked.

Richard asked if I knew Anna.

• reported clauses put emphasis on the statement by altering the order

and using a comma
Examples:

All these things were trivial, he said.

It was rather odd, they thought.

Text types:

o Newspaper articles
o Stories
o Advertisements
o Biographies
o Recounts

VIII. DIRECT/INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT SPEECH means…

Directly stating the exact words of the speaker as if

 you were using them as your own words. In direct speech,

the exact words are enclosed in quotation marks.

‘I don’t know much about music.’ Judy said

INDIRECT SPEECH means…

Reporting what people have said using your own words

rather than the words they actually said.

The woman said she had seen nothing.

TRANSFORMING DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH

• If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be
in a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.

For example:

o He said the test was difficult.

o She said she watched TV every day.
o Jack said he came to school every day.
• If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting
verb (i.e. says) the tense is retained.

For example:
 o He says the test is difficult.
o She has said that she watches TV every day.
o Jack will say that he comes to school every day.
• If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.

For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important.

Changing Pronouns and Time Signifiers

When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary to

change the pronouns to match the subject of the sentence.

For example:

• She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted
to bring her children.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his
wife had gone with him to the show.

It is also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to

present, past or future time to match the moment of speaking.

For example:

• She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said
she wanted to bring her children the next day.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES
Jack said his wife had gone with him to the show the day before.

Indirect Questions

When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to

sentence order. When reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported
question using 'if'. When reporting questions using question words (why,
where, when, etc.) use the question word.

For example:

• She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if
I wanted to come with her.
• Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked
me where I had gone the previous weekend.
• He asked, "Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me
why I was studying English.

A. SPEECH
• We make use of the word ‘that’ in reporting what the other person has
said.

‘She is very beautiful.’ he said.

He said that I am very beautiful.

• The pronouns of the actual words are replaced by reference pronouns.

‘I love chocolates a lot.” said Ryan.

Ryan said that he loves chocolates.

• First and second person pronouns must be changed to third person

pronouns.
‘We will go to the parlor’, said Leah.

Leah said that they would go to the parlor.

• If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be
in a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the
original.
 ‘The final exam is difficult.’ she said.

She said that the final test was difficult.

• If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting

verb (i.e. says) the tense is retained.
‘I come to school everyday.’ says Jack.

Jack says that he comes to school everyday.

• If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.

‘Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health.’ said the
doctor.

The doctor said that cigarette smoking is dangerous to

your health.

B. THOUGHT

• Thinking is sometimes represented as talking to one’s self. In reporting

it follows the same structure as with declaratives.
He has someone new, he thought.

He thought that he had someone new.

C. QUESTIONS

• Yes/No questions are introduced by conjunctions if or whether

‘Are you alone?’ Jewel asked.

Jewel asked if I was alo

• Wh- questions make use of their own.

‘Where are you going?’ asked Jimmy.

Jimmy asked where I was going.

D. COMMANDS

• In reporting commands, we make use of imperatives or verbs used in

expressing commands.
e.g. order

told

command

‘Watch your little brother!’ mom said.

Mom told me to watch my little brother.

Mom ordered me to clean my room.

E. TIME

• If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must

change it to fit in with the time of reporting.

Expressions reported on a different day:

this evening – that evening

today – yesterday

these days- those days

now- then

ago- before

last weekend- the previous weekend

here- there
Place Where, Today
wherever
e.g. (reported on a different day)

Time Today’s lesson is on presentations.’

she said.
• When?
• How long? Since, -24 hours
• How often? before, after,
while

Since, once, She said that yesterday’s lesson was

until on presentations.

Whenever, Text types:

as soon as, o Newspaper articles

o Stories
o Advertisements

Manner o Biographies

• Quality o Recounts

• Means As

• Comparison With IX. CONJUNCTIONS

As if, - are words used as joiners, words

likewise, that connect (conjoins) parts of
similarly a sentence

- They are used to connect two independent clauses, to

Causeestablish relationship between the dependent clause and
• Reason
the rest of the sentence, and to join various sentence
• Purpose Because
elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
• Result So that
• Condition
So…that,
therefore,
thus,
consequently
, therefore,
Text Types:

- Found in all text types.

TEXT LEVEL
G. TEXT ORGANIZATION

After exploring some of the grammatical implications of the first

two functions of the language-(a) acting upon the world (the interpersonal
function) and (b) reflecting the world and making sense of it (the
experiential function); and it is time to deal with the third- (c) making
connections within the text (the textual function).

Formation:

- Text Structure

I. Paragraphs

• Help the reader to discern the major points being made in the text and
the shifts between those points.
• The length can range from an individual sentence through to a number
of sentences.
• The author needs to decide how to divide the written material into
manageable and logical bundle, each of which deal with a single
unified topic or event.

II. Topic Sentence

• A paragraph generally contains a topic sentence. This is generally

occurs at the beginning of the paragraph (summarizes the main
point being made n the paragraph).
• It is often a relatively general statement, which is followed up in the
rest of the paragraph with various elaborations such as examples,
definitions, descriptions, supporting evidences, and so on- depending
on the purpose of the text.

III. Theme
 • It refers to the beginning of the clause. At the text level, the beginning
of the clauses focus our attention on how the topic is being developed.
• This helps to make the text coherent and to enable the reader to
predict how the text is unfolding.

Meaning:

Let us look at the those features in a descriptive text about the city of
the New York.

New York is a city of things unnoticed. It is a city with cats sleeping

under parked cars, two stone armadillos crawling up St. Patrick’s Cathedral,
and thousands of ants creeping on top of the Empire State Building.

Some of the New York’s best informed men are elevator operators,
who rarely talk, but always listen- like doormen. Sardi’s doormen listen to the
comments made by Broadway’s first- nighters walking by after the last act.
They listen closely. They listen carefully. They can tell you within ten minutes
which shows will flop and which will be hits….

New York is a town of 3,000 bootblacks whose brushes and rhythmic

rag- snaps can be heard up and down Manhattan from midmorning to
midnight. They dodge cops, survive rainstorms, and thrive in the Empire
State Building as well as on the Staten Island Ferry. They usually wear dirty
shoes……

The text is subdivided into paragraphs, each dealing with a particular aspect
of the topic. Each paragraph begins with a topic sentence. The beginning of
each sentence or theme, alters us to the topic which is being developed
while the end of the sentence introduces the new information about the
topic.

New York is a city of things unnoticed. It is a city with cats

sleeping under parked cars, two stone armadillos crawling up St. Patrick’s
Cathedral, and thousands of ants creeping on top of the Empire State
Building.

Topic Sentence: It is exemplified with various things: cats, stone

armadillos and ants. This topic sentence also acts as an organizer for the
whole text, each paragraph of which elaborates on all the unnoticed
things which inhabit the city

Theme: New York. This is picked up as the theme of the followed

sentences.

Some of the New York’s best informed men are elevator

operators, who rarely talk, but always listen- like doormen. Sardi’s
doormen listen to the comments made by Broadway’s first- nighters walking
by after the last act. They listen closely. They listen carefully. They can tell
you within ten minutes which shows will flop and which will be hits….

Topic Sentence: It is elaborated with an example of how Sardi’s

doormen (another of New York’s unnoticed) listen intently to the first-
nighters.

Theme: “Some of the New York’s best informed men, which

becomes more specific (Sardi’s doormen) who are then pick up as “they”.
 New York is a town of 3,000 bootblacks whose brushes and
rhythmic rag- snaps can be heard up and down Manhattan from
midmorning to midnight. They dodge cops, survive rainstorms, and thrive
in the Empire State Building as well as on the Staten Island Ferry. They
usually wear dirty shoes……

Topic Sentence: It introduces another of New York’s silent

inhabitants, the bootblacks, who are then descried in the followed sentences.

Theme: It starts off as a New York, but then changes to the

bootblacks who have just been introduced. The theme then follows through
the bootblacks for the rest of the paragraph.

There are number of possible theme patterns which a writer can drawn upon
reading the text.

• In a recount, the writer might use the beginning of the clause to

develop the timeline (e.g. In 1968...,Later on...,In the early 70’s..,Soon
after…).
• In a procedure the beginning focus is generally on the sequence of
actions which need to be carried out (e.g. Pour..,Mix..,Stir..,Bake..).
• In an exposition, the beginning of the clause is often used to structure
the argument (e.g. Firstly..,However..,In cinclusion..).
• In literary text, the writer might want to unsettle the reader or to
hoghloght the unusual (e.g. Slobbering and foolish, the young retrieve
dog jumped excitedly.

-
TEXT TYPES

I. Recount Text

Functions:

1. to tell what happened

2. to reconstruct past experiences by retelling events in the order in
which they have occurred.

Formation:

1. Orientation- background information about who, where and when.

2. series of events in chronological order
3. a personal comment
Two Types of Recount

1. Factual recounts- these are used to record details and facts of a

particular event which the speaker or writer has not necessarily been
involved in.
2. Personal recounts- these describe events that the speaker/writer
was personally involved in. In written form this is usually
autobiographical writing.

Grammatical features

Factual recounts Personal Recounts

Use of passive as well as active A range of verbs and verb phrases

verbs, for recounting and reporting

Use of indirect speech for reporting Use of direct and indirect speech

Use of the past and past perfect Use of wide range of tense,
tenses for retelling events and particularly past tense for narrative:
reporting speech possible use of the present tense for
 dramatic immediacy

Emphasis on time expressions, Some use of time expressions to

conjunctions to denote sequence of express chronology in retelling
events, prepositional phrases and
prepositions of time

coordinating and subordinating Coordinating and subordinating

conjunctions with a strong sense of conjunctions
sequence

Likely to be written in the third Likely to be written in the first person

person (I)

(he/she they)

Nouns, nouns phrases, adjectives and A wide range of nouns, noun phrases,
adjective phrases used to clarify adjectives and adjective phrases
events and people used to describe; likely to be largely
realistic

II. Informational Report

Functions:

1. to present factual information about a class of things, usually by

classifying them and describing their characteristics.
Formation:

1. opening general definition or classification

2. sequence of related statements about the topic.
3. concluding statement
Grammatical Features:
 1. use of third person pronouns and demonstrative pronouns
2. verb in the simple present for timeless statements
3. verbs in the past tense for historical or biographical information
4. adjectives to describe groupings and subdivisions
5. note form, using minor sentences, or lists of words.

III. Instruction/ Procedure

Functions:

1. To show how something is accomplished through a series of steps

2. to enable the reader to carry out the procedure

Formation:

1. Opening statements of goal or aim.

2. Materials required listed in order of use.
3. Series of steps listed I chronological order.

Grammatical Features

1. use of the imperative for instructions

2. use of conjunctions of time to create a sense of order and sequence
3. use of personal pronouns, especially the second person
4. nouns and phrases to identify people, materials, equipment
5. quantifiers to indicate the amount or number of objects or materials

IV. Explanation
 Functions:

1. to explain how or why things are as they are, or how things work
2. to enable the reader to understand the process that is being explained

Formation:

1. a general statement
2. a series of events in chronological order
3. concluding statement

Grammar Features:

1. use of the present tense of the verb

2. use of conjunction to link phrases
3. adjectives and adjectival phrases to describe materials and equipment
4. verb phrases and participles
5. use of passive to describe processes
6. conditional sentences

V. Exposition

Functions:

1. Use present information about one side of an argument to persuade

the reader that one position is most valid or certain action should be
taken.
Formation:

1. point of view stated

2. justification of arguments in logical order
3. summing up of arguments
4.
Grammar Features:

1. use of generic terms, such as government, democracy, freedom,

related to the subject
2. emotive(appeals to the emotions) language that will convince the
reader
3. present tense as verbs used describe mental processes to express
opinion( e.g. I believe that)
4. use of modals
5. use transitional words

IV. Literary

Functions:

1. to tell a story

2. to entertain reader

3. to gain or hold reader’s interest.

4.to tech or inform

5.to change attitudes/ social opinions

Formations:

1. orientation- who/what, where and when

2. complication

3. series of events.

4. resolution

Grammar Features:
1. Action verbs: Action verbs provide interest to the writing. For example,
instead of The old woman was in his way try The old woman barred his path.
Instead of She laughed try She cackled.

2. Written in the first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they).

3. Usually past tense.

4. Connectives,linking words to do with time.

5. Specific nouns: Strong nouns have more specific meanings, eg. oak as
opposed to tree.

6. Active nouns: Make nouns actually do something, eg. It was raining could
become Rain splashed down or There was a large cabinet in the lounge could
become A large cabinet seemed to fill the lounge.

7. Careful use of adjectives and adverbs: Writing needs judicious use of

adjectives and adverbs to bring it alive, qualify the action and provide
description and information for the reader.

8. Use of the senses: Where appropriate, the senses can be used to describe
and develop the experiences, setting and character:

a) What does it smell like?

b) What can be heard?
c) What can be seen - details?
 EXAMPLE OF RECOUNT:

Vacation to London

Mr. Richard’s family was on vacation. They are Mr. and Mrs. Richard
with two sons. They went to London. They saw their travel agent and booked
their tickets. They went to the British Embassy to get visas to enter Britain.
They had booked fourteen days tour. This includes travel and
accommodation. They also included tours around London
They boarded a large Boeing flight. The flight was nearly fourteen hours. On
the plane the cabin crews were very friendly. They gave them news paper
and magazine to read. They gave them food and drink. There was a film for
their entertainment. They had a very pleasant flight. They slept part of the
way.
On arrival at Heathrow Airport, they had to go to Customs and Immigration.
The officers were pleasant. They checked the document carefully but their
manners were very polite. Mr. Richard and his family collected their bags and
went to London Welcome Desk. They arranged the transfer to a hotel.
The hotel was a well-known four-star hotel. The room had perfect view of the
park. The room had its own bathroom and toilet. Instead of keys for the
room, they inserted a key-card to open the door. On the third floor, there
was a restaurant serving Asian and European food. They had variety of food.
The two week in London went by fast. At the end of the 14-day, they were
quite tired but they felt very happy.

MY DAY AT THE BEACH

Last week my friend and I were bored after three weeks of holidays, so we
rode our bikes to Smith Beach, which is only five kilometres from where I
live.

When we arrived at the beach, we were surprised to see there was hardly
anyone there.
After having a quick dip in the ocean, which was really cold, we realised one
reason there were not many people there. It was also quite windy.

After we bought ourselves some hot chips at the takeaway store nearby, we
rode our bikes down the beach for a while, on the hard, damp part of the
sand. We had the wind behind us and, before we knew it, we were many
miles down the beach.

Before we made the long trip back we decided to paddle our feet in the
water for a while, and then sit down for a rest. While we were sitting on the
beach, just chatting, it suddenly dawned on us both that all the way back we
would be riding into the strong wind.

When we finally made it back home, we were both totally exhausted! But we
learned some good lessons that day!

EXAMPLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL

How to Raise Potatoes in the Home Garden

You will need to purchase the following:

Shallow trays
Water hose
Seed potatoes
Fertilizer
Insecticide to control insects

Preparing the Soil

Although potatoes can be raised in virtually any type of soil, best results can
be achieved in loam which is a red clay, sandy combination. Once the garden
plot has been selected, the following steps will utilize the best growing
conditions: (1) clearing the land, (2) loosening the soil, and (3) digging the
holes.

1. Clearing the land of all debris and plants will improve growth of your
potatoes. Best results can be achieved if all debris and previous
growth is removed from the area. It is suggested that raking the entire
plot will prove beneficial as the plants start to grow.
2. Loosening the soil will allow the potatoes to develop into healthy
plants. Although a hoe and rake will provide satisfactory results, the
 job will be much easier with the use of a gas-powered tiller. Thesecan
be rented from local equipment rental facilities.
3. Digging the holes correctly will enable the potatoes to grow above and
below the ground. Although there is some difference in varieties, most
potatoes should be planted from 3-5 inches below the ground. These
holes can be dug with a hoe in a long trench or individual holes.

Preparing the Potatoes

Although any type of potato can be used for planting, best results can be
achieved with the purchase of certified seed potatoes from a local
nursery. After securing the potatoes, they can be prepared for planting
by (1) cutting into pieces and (2) sprouting the eyes.

1. Cutting the potatoes can be achieved with a small, sharp knife. Cut the
seed potato into several pieces making sure each piece as at least one
eye and a large piece of the potato.

Note: It is important to include at least one eye on the planting portion

since the new potato will grow from the eye. The first food for the plant
will be derived from the portion of potato.

2. Sprouting the eyes will provide better results for future plants. Lay the
pieces out on flat or shallow trays and allow them to sit in a sunny, airy
place for several weeks until the eyes sprout. These sprouts will be
dark green and closely clustered in the eye.

Planting the Potatoes

Once the soil has been prepared and the potatoes have sprouted, you are
ready to put them into the ground. This procedure is extremely important to
the success of your future crop. The planting can be divided into these
steps: (1) inserting the potatoes, (2) covering the potatoes and (3) giving the
potatoes a boost.

1. Inserting the potatoes correctly will insure the emergence of your

plant. Place a small segment of the sprouted seed potato in your
previously dug trench or hole. Place one piece of potato every 12
inches. Make sure the eye of the potato is facing up to direct the plant
out of the soil.
2. Covering the potatoes with sufficient loose soil will enable the plant to
emerge successfully from the soil. If the trench or hold has been dug to
the correct depth, you should be able to cover each potato piece with
approximately 3 inches of surrounding loose soil.
3. Giving your planted potatoes a boost with water and fertilizer will start
them off on the right track. Since the eyes are already sprouted, water
 and fertilizer will allow for the continued growth of the plant toward the
surface of the soil. Sprinkle lightly with commercial fertilizer or manure
and then water each location thoroughly.

Maintaining the Crop

Although the potatoes are now in the ground, it is important to follow some
simple procedures to guarantee the success of your potato yield. This is a
crop with a fairly long growing period, so maintenance of the garden will
ensure success. The steps for maintenance include: (1) weeding the plants,
(2) fertilizing the plants, (3) controlling insects, and (4) watering when
necessary.

1. Weeding the plants should be done on a regular basis. Use a sharp-

pointed hoe to chop out the foreign weeds. Removal of the chopped
weeds will ensure that they do not start to grow again.

Warning: The vines of the potato can grow freely along the ground.
Be careful not to damage the growing plant.

2. Fertilizing the plants of the potato can ensure growth above and below
the ground. The type of soil will determine the correct fertilizer to be
used. A local nursery can provide the information you need.
3. Controlling insects in your potato garden will enable your plants to
continue growing. There is an all-purpose potato dust or spray that can
be purchased to control most bugs that will damage this vegetable.
4. Watering the plants may be necessary if there is not sufficient
rainfall. Keep a water hose nearby to water whenever the plants seem
dry. This will become even more important as the summer months get
hotter.

Harvesting the Potatoes

After several months of anticipation, your potatoes should be carefully
observed to determine if they are ready to be harvested. Because your crop
should provide potatoes for many meals to come, it is important to
finalize your project with the following procedures for harvesting: (1)
determining correct time of harvest, (2) removing potatoes from the ground,
and (3) storing the potatoes for extended use.

1. Determining the time of harvest will depend upon several

factors. When the vines have completely died down, the potatoes
below the ground will no longer grow. You may also check the size of
your potatoes by digging up in various spots throughout your garden.
 2. Removing potatoes from the ground will be hard work but very
rewarding. Very carefully dig up a large area of earth around each vine
using a spading fork. Turn over the soil and carefully remove the
potatoes from the soil. Allow the potatoes to dry completely.
3. Storing the potatoes for extended use will allow you to enjoy them for
many months to come. The best environment for storing potatoes is a
cool, dark place with plenty of air. Slat crates are much better than
solid boxes or bins.

Warning: Potatoes that have been dug up should not be exposed to

the sun any longer than is necessary to remove dirt. The sun will make
the potatoes acquire an unpleasant flavor.

Although the process of raising potatoes is a time-consuming, lengthy

procedure, the results can be very satisfying. Not only can you enjoy the
benefits for many months, you may also be able to share your harvest with
friends and neighbors.

How to Protect Your Home With an Indoor Security Camera

There are some important points to consider when you decide to protect
your home with an indoor home security camera. To find the best home
security camera once you have determined your needs, take into
consideration the following.

Instructions

• STEP 1: Determine the purpose of your indoor security camera: will you
be monitoring your home or home office for keeping tabs on your kids
when they are with the babysitter?
• STEP 2: Determine the view angle you need from your camera. In
general, the wider the view the more the camera will record. This is
particularly important if you will be using your camera outdoors.
• STEP 3: Determine the picture quality that you will need from your
security camera and choose a camera that will provide it. While many
screens are small and can use a lower resolution, a higher resolution
will provide a clearer picture.
• STEP 4: Choosing a wireless security camera? Choose a camera with a
transmission range that will suit your needs; keep in mind that walls
and ceilings will reduce the range a wireless camera will have.
• STEP 5: Planning to record the signal? Choose a camera that will
broadcast to the system that you have chosen: closed circuit tv, your
computer or a digital video recorder.
 • STEP 6: Do you want a camera that will start recording when
movement is detected? Choose a camera with a motion sensor.
• STEP 7: Determine the size and type of security camera you are
looking for. Some cameras are small enough to hide on a shelf or with
your child's toys; other are larger and provide you with the opportunity
to zoom in.
• STEP 8: Determine whether or not you want to be able to record sound
with your security camera.
• STEP 9: Lastly, determine whether you want a camera that is
monitored by a security company or not; if you do, be sure to choose
the right company. Ask questions and get recommendations.

Overall Tips & Warnings

• Ask questions. Just because you are trying to find the right camera for
your needs does not mean that you're on your own. Ask friends, family
and even your insurance agent for recommendations.

• Remember that a system that you monitor yourself will require a bit
more maintenance: think about whether or not you'll be able to break
away from a meeting or be able to have access when on vacation
before you choose to monitor the system yourself.
• Keep in mind that some small wireless cameras are battery operated;
remember that you will have to routinely change the batteries to keep
your camera functioning well.

EXAMPLE OF INFORMATIONAL REPORT

Priest jailed after nun's death in exorcism

19/02/2007 - 18:16:42

A Romanian priest has been sentenced to 14 years in prison today

after a nun died during an exorcism ritual.

Sister Maricica Irina Cornici, 23, who was being treated for
schizophrenia, said she believed the devil was talking to her.

Daniel Petru Corogeanu, a monk who served as the priest for a

secluded Holy Trinity convent in northeast Romania, and four other
nuns, chained Cornici to a cross in an attempt at exorcism.

She survived several days without food or water, but died of

dehydration, exhaustion and suffocation.
The court in the northeast city of Vaslui convicted Corogeanu and the
four nuns of holding Cornici captive, resulting in her death.

One of the nuns, Nicoleta Arcalianu, was sentenced to eight years in

prison, and the other three – Adina Cepraga, Elena Otel and Simona
Bardanas – received five-year sentences.

Dozens of the priest’s supporters packed the courtroom and prayed for
him. Several burst into tears when the verdict was announced.

The defendants’ lawyers plan to appeal, saying the prison sentences

are too harsh.

Robot-driven cars on roads by 2030: scientist

Scientists are developing the next generation of robot-driven cars and

predict they could be shuttling humans around by the year 2030, a
conference was told.

The first wave of intelligent robot cars, capable of understanding and

reacting to the world around them, will be tested this November in a
competition run by the US Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA).

Scientists are developing vehicles which will not only be driven by

robots independently, but will be able to operate in a simulated city
environment.

"In the past it was sufficient for a vehicle just to perceive the
environment, said Sebastian Thrun, an associate professor of computer
science and electrical engineering at Stanford University.

"The new challenge will be to understand the environment. The robot

must be able to recognize another car, to understand that it is moving
and that it will interact with it as it gets closer."

Thrun, who was speaking at the American Association for the

Advancement of Science annual meeting in San Francisco, is a member
of the Stanford team participating in the DARPA competition, which will
take place on November 3.
 Stanford's entrant "Junior" is a converted 2006 Volkswagen Passat
whose steering, throttle and brakes all have been modified by
engineers to be completely computer-controllable.

An array of lasers fitted on the car bumpers, radar and global

positioning systems feed data into the on-board computer to
determine its location and position.

Thrun predicted that leaps in artificial intelligence would lead to

driverless cars on the roads by 2030.

"Today we can drive about 100 miles (160 kilometers) before human
assistance is necessary, by 2010 I expect this to go 1,000 miles (1,160
kilometers), by 2020 up to a million miles (1.6 million kilometers)," he
said.

"By 2030 you'll be able to see them on the highway, with a driving
reliability that will exceed humans by orders of magnitude.

"We believe this technology will affect all of us. It is going to have
enormous significance for people who can't drive because of
disabilities or because they are ill or impaired."

Thrun said he believed robot-driven vehicles would be deployed in war

zones before they are seen in everyday civilian environments.

"I think they'll be on the battlefield by around 2015," he said. "It is

going to make sense to use them in situations such as convoys, or in
hostile environments where there is danger to personnel."

EXAMPLE OF EXPOSITION

Love Vs. Infatuation

MichelleDrew

.
Finally, you have met, HIM/HER. You know what I mean, THE ONE. All your
life, or so it seems, you have been waiting for the person who made your
heart pound, made the stars bright, and taken over all reasonable thought
processes with ideas of making love on every beach from here to Tahiti.
You have a weird expression on your face, food suddenly seems like a mere
inconvenience and sleep is just something you used to do. Your friends tease
you about being in love. Your mother WARNS you about being in love.

Of course, you’re not stupid. You’ve been around (more than Mom knows
about), and you have spent time in meditation/therapy having explored your
own needs in the world. You want a soul mate but this guy/gal is just so sexy
that it’s hard to imagine introducing him/her to your parents at all.

So, things are going well and you are looking toward the NEXT STEP,
becoming an item. Going public. Everyone knows and invites you as a
couple. People you know speculate about the future of YOUR RELATIONSHIP.
But the future means forever when it comes to commitment, so how do you
know if this is really a good thing?

Are people whispering about how happy they are for you, or are they
wondering if you should be committed yourself (like in a secure mental
health facility)? And how about yourself? Do you feel comfortable with your
newest love interest or do you just want to feel comfortable with someone?
Is this the person that you want to spend your life with or are you just afraid
to march into the future alone?

These very large questions deserve great considerations. The passions of

new love are so entwined in our own emotional makeup, that it seems
impossible to find objective considerations when proceeding along love’s
thorny paths. So, for the purposes of this discussion, let us define love and
infatuation so each can be thought about in a more organized manner.

Love as a dynamic process. For me, that means that there is a relationship
that flexes, changes and grows as people mature, experience happens upon
them, priorities and dreams are built and goals are met. Love brings out the
best in people as individuals. The relationship between them becomes the
way they define their lives. As jobs, careers, and family concerns change,
people are able to work as a team to be understanding and flexible so the
relationship (their lives) will flourish.

Dynamic process of love equals a sharing of emotion, trust, and growth of

relationship. Growth is increasing ability of a couple to live symbiotically,
enjoy each others company, trust each other with more secrets, depend on
each other in more crises over the years, in raising children and taking care
of aging relatives. It’s about growing old together, and long-term
investments like real estate and children.

So what about infatuation? That’s when you think of someone all the time,
you go out of your way to be around him/her, and you begin to center your
priorities around him/her as well. There is history with this person: Maybe a
short history, but maybe quite a while. You both enjoy being together. You
both daydream about each other and get all crawly in your underwear. But is
it LOVE? I mean, you hate to be wrong about this kind of thing, especially if
you have in mind perhaps reproducing together (or maybe if you forget to
think about it JUST ONCE).

Infatuation as are defining it here, is a static process characterized by an

unrealistic expectation of blissful passion without positive growth and
development. Characterized by a lack of trust, lack of loyalty, lack of
commitment, lack of reciprocity, an infatuation is not necessarily foreplay for
a love scenario. People, however, have many reasons for making
commitments.

Most people are infatuated with their love partners to a certain degree.
People who are in love think of their partners periodically when they are
apart (some more than others). Men seem to be better, in general, in
compartmentalizing their lives, thereby putting thoughts of loved ones aside
until the mind is free to dwell on life. And yes, there are many exceptions
and many ranges within the genders.

So how do you know? The question, actually is simple, the answer, however,
is not easy to own or accept. And here it is: Does this relationship bring out
the best in both of you?
This is the part where you get to assess and evaluate yourself and your
partner, and your relationship HONESTLY.

Though difficult, evaluating how things are going at regular intervals can
help to give some direction (and re-direct misdirection) to people who are
self-guided toward happiness and success. For those who are on a negative
course, people who are unhappy,
confused and perhaps self-sabotaging, regular evaluation can point out some
hard truths about oneself, and/or about the person you want to take the next
step with.
While you try to evaluate whether or not it is THE REAL THING, here are
some things to consider:

Are you happy? That would be a yes or no. When you wake up, are you glad
to be alive? Are you grateful for the blessings that you receive daily, like
being alive and loved? Are you loved and treated as a person of value? Does
HIS/HER MOTHER know about you?

Is your life on a positive track? Do you have hope for the future? Do you have
dreams and work toward them all the time? Is your life better because your
boy/girlfriend is in it? Really?

Are you in this relationship alone? Having someone on your arm makes life
less complicated. You get a built in escort and date. Most people seem to
think and feel better as part of a pair. There is a sense of social relief as well
meaning family and friends stop trying to fix you up. Are you thinking and
planning as a pair? Do you automatically consider both of your plans for the
weekend, or merely anticipate maybe meeting up sometime? Have you
postponed or given up your hopes and dreams for the relationship or have
you restructured your dreams together?

The answers, and the courage to face the facts is the key to making the
determination. In infatuation, your gaze, your thoughts and maybe your
world revolves around someone. You have blinders on. It seems that all the
world pales in comparison to this person’s looks, talents, intelligence,
creativity, etc. What you might not see by keeping the blinders on, what can
be serious flaws in any relationship, are the destructive traits and behaviors
that degrade self esteem and cause some pretty negative effects on one’s
choices and decisions.

Many have had the experience of looking back at some early romance, in
middle or high school perhaps, when we were “in love” with a special
teacher, or camp counselor. It can be easier to see in retrospect, what you
weren’t ready to see at the time. Your thoughts of
romance were simply an innocent fantasy: An infatuation that felt like love at
the time.

Aside from your age, what was it about you that made you make that
mistake. Innocence? Loneliness?: A longing to grow up, maybe. But those
were things going on in your head. In fact, these feelings had little to do with
the actual object of your infatuation (crush). It could be that some of those
same feelings and needs exist for you today. Beware of your own
vulnerability, and your own desire to “get rescued” from that solitary life of
the unpaired.

In time, the faults that you refuse to see will begin to come to the
foreground. You may be infatuated with a rich and powerful person, but as
you come to know that person on a more intimate basis, the qualities that
intrigued you will begin to fade into the background.

In the case of love, your focus is on your special someone, and that someone
exists in the real world. Give and take, compromise and cooperation are
characteristics of love relationships. Working toward common goals, sharing
dreams and values define the dynamics of a good love relationship. People
know each other on a separate and private level than the world at large.

Infatuation can even be thought of as love with only 2 dimensions. With love,
that third dimension is REALITY. So, it is actually your ability to tell what is
real in a relationship, versus what is imagined. You love being part of a
couple, but is this the person you want to be in a couple with?

Look at the reality of who this person is, not who she/he wants to be. Do you
always interact over dinner and drinks? Meet under different circumstances.
Become part of each other’s lives. If that is not happening, why not? Are you
spending and enjoying time together? What happens when you’re apart? Are
you sure?

Trying to differentiate your love interest from your lust interest is requires a
level head and the courage to face the unpleasant. It also requires maturity
and the ability to take a step back and survey the big picture. The result is
more control and confidence as you stride your way in love’s direction.

EXAMPLE OF EXPLANATION

The effects of acid soil

Soils with a pH of less than 7.0 are acid. The lower the pH, the more acid the
soil. When soil pH falls below 5.5, plant growth is affected. Crop yields
decrease, reducing productiv Soils provide water and nutrients for plant
growth and development. Essential plant nutrients include phosphorus,
nitrogen, potassium and sulfur. Plants require other elements such as
molybdenum, in smaller quantities. Some elements eg aluminium and
manganese, are toxic to plants.

Nutrients become available to plants when they are dissolved in water.

Plants are able to take up phosphate, nitrate, potassium and sulfate ions in
solution.

The solubility of nitients changes with pH. In acid soils (low pH), molybdenum
becomes less soluble and aluminium becomes more soluble. Therefore, plant
growth may be affected by either a deficiency of molybdenum or too much
aluminium.

Both crop and pasture plants are affected by acid soils. there may be a range
of symptoms. Crops and pastures may be poorly established resulting in
patchy and uneven growth. Plant leaves may go yellow and die at the tips.
The root system of the plant may be stunted. Crops may yield less.

Plants vary in their sensitivity to low pH. Canola and lucerne are very
sensitive to acid soils so do not grow well. Lupins and triticale are tolerant to
soils of low pH so they still perform well.

Land can become unproductive if acid soil is left untreated. Incorporating

lime into the soil raises the pH. Therefore, liming soil can reverse the effects
of acid soil on plants and return a paddock to productivity.

EXAMPLE OF A LITERARY TEXT

SONNET #18

by: William Shakespeare

HALL I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate.
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer's lease hath all too short a date.
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimmed;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance, or nature's changing course, untrimmed:
But thy eternal summer shall not fade
 Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,
Nor shall Death brag thou wand'rest in his shade
When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st.
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

Matrix in Text Types

Name/Definiti Types/ Text Language

on Characteristics Organization/ Features
Framework

Instruction/ Types of The information is These texts are

Procedural Procedural presented in a usually written in
Texts Texts logical sequence of the present tense.
There are events which is
*INSTRUC The text usually:
different broken up into
TIONS • focuse
procedural texts small sequenced
tell the s on
for different steps.
listener genera
purposes:-
or reader • Goal - lised
• Texts that
what to clearly people
explain
do stated rather
how
explain (often than
something
how or in the individ
works or
why headin uals
how to use
somethin g) (first
instruction /
g • Materi you
operation
happens als - take,
manuals eg
listed rather
how to use
in than
eg: directions, the video,
order first I
instructions, the
of use take)
recipes, rules computer, • Method • the
for games, the tape - the reader
manuals and recorder, steps is often
agendas the are referre
photocopier chronol d to in
, the fax. ogical a
• Texts that and genera
instruct are l way,
how to do a numbe ie.
particular red or pronou
activity eg listed ns
recipes, (you or
rules for one)
Each type of
games, • action
procedural text
science verbs
has a format.
experiment (imper
• Recipe
s, road ative
s
safety verbs),
usually
rules. (cut,
have
• Texts that fold,
the
deal with twist,
inform
human hold
ation
behaviour etc)
presen
eg how to • simple
ted in
live presen
at least
happily, t tense
two
how to (you
basic
succeed. cut,
groups
you
:
fold,
ingredi
you
 ents mix)
and • linking
metho words
d. to do
• Games with
instruc time
tions (first,
usually when,
include then)
instruc are
tions used to
on how connec
to t the
play, text
rules of • detaile
the d
game, inform
metho ation
d of on how
scoring (carefu
, and lly,
the with
numbe the
r of scissor
players s);
. where
• Scientif (from
ic the
experi top);
ments when
usually (after
 include it has
the set)
purpos • detaile
e of d
the factual
experi descrip
ment, tion
equip (shape
ment, , size,
proced colour,
ure, amoun
observ t)
ations
and
conclu
sion.
Explanation There are two • often • written in the
basic types of have a 'timeless' present
*EXPLAN
explanation logical tense (are, turns,
ATIONS
which focus on: sequen happens)
explain
• "How" (How ce • use of action
how or
does a • use verbs (falls, rises,
why
pump cause/ changes)
somethin
work? How effect • use of non-
g
does a relatio human participants
happens
computer nships (the sea, the
e.g. work? How (then, mountains, the
are as a computers, the
explain how
mountains conseq engine)
soil erosion
formed? uence, • conjunctions
occurs, explain
How does a so, if) (when, then, first,
why Australian
fauna is unique spider spin • use after this so)
a web?) time • some passives
• "Why" relatio (is saturated, are
(Why do nships changed)
some (first, • use of nouns
things float then, tends to be
or sink? followi general rather
Why is the ng, than specific (cars,
ozone layer finally) boats, spiders,
getting schools)
thinner? • use of pronouns
Why does (their, they, them)
iron go
rusty? Why
do living
things need
food?)

Informational Reports usually

Report consist of the
• Nouns
following:
"Reports can and
• an
be noun
openin
straightforward phrase
g
recounts of s are
statem
events, but used
ent.
many of them rather
(The
are more than than
Antarc
this. They may person
tic is a
contain al
large
accounts and pronou
descriptions, contin ns. The
but they often ent at use of
do more than the person
describe a South al
thing, event or Pole; pronou
situation. Some Possu ns is
reports state a ms are limited.
problem and noctur • Most
suggest a nal reports
solution. Some animal are
argue a case s that written
for or against a were in the
particular introdu presen
option, ced to t
supporting New tense.
their case with Zealan • Some
evidence and d from reports
making a Austral use
recommendatio ia.) technic
n." • a al or
series scientif
when we talk
of facts ic
and write
about terms.
about, eg.
various • Linking
Bikes. (When
aspect verbs
writing a
s of are
description
the used,
we only
subject eg. is,
talk/write about
eg are,
one specific
where has,
thing, eg. My
possu have,
Bike). ms belong
live, to, to
what give
they cohere
eat, nce.
proble • Uses
ms some
they action
cause, verbs
etc. (climb,
These eat).
facts • Descrip
are tive
groupe langua
d into ge is
paragr used
aphs that is
and factual
each rather
paragr than
aph imagin
has a ative
topic eg
senten colour,
ce. shape,
• diagra size,
ms, body
photog parts,
raphs, habits,
illustra behavi
tions ours,
 and functio
maps ns,
may be uses.
used to
enhanc
e the
text
• reports
don't
usually
have
an
'ending
",
althou
gh
someti
mes
the
detaile
d
inform
ation is
rounde
d off
by
some
genera
l
statem
ent
 about
the
topic.

Recount Types of • the recount has a • is written in

Recount title, which usually the past
*RECOUN
• Personal summarises the tense (she
TS
Recount text yelled, it
(Personal
These • specific nipped, she
, Factual)
usually participants (Mum, walked)
tell what
retell an the crab) • frequent use
happene
event that • The basic recount is made of
d
the writer consists of three words which
was parts: link events in
• Personal personally 1. the time, such as
retellings involved in. setting or next, later,
, eg. • Factual orientation - when, then,
diary Recount background after, before,
• Factual Recording information first, at the
retellings an incident, answering who? same time,
, eg. eg. a when? where? as soon as
science science why? she left, late
 experime experiment 2. events on Friday)
nt or , police are identified and • recounts
news report. described in describe
Imaginative • Imaginativ chronological events, so
recounts e Recount order. plenty of use
Writing an 3. conclu is made of
imaginary ding comments verbs (action
The purpose of role and express a personal words), and
a recount is to giving opinion regarding of adverbs
list and details of the events (which
describe past events, eg. described describe or
experiences by A day in • details are add more
retelling events the life of a selected to help detail to
in the order in pirate; How the reader verbs)
which they I invented... reconstruct the • details are
happened activity or incident often chosen
(chronological (Factual Recount) to add
focuses on
order). • the ending may interest or
individual
Recounts are describe the humour to
participants/even
written to retell outcome of the the recount.
ts
events with the activity, eg. in a • use of
purpose of science activity personal
either (Factual Recount) pronouns (I,
informing or • details of time, we)
entertaining place and incident (Personal
their audience need to be clearly Recount)
(or both). stated, eg. At • the passive
11.15 pm, voice may be
between Reid Rd used, eg. the
and Havelock St a bottle was
man drove at 140 filled with ink
 kms toward the (Factual
shopping centre Recount)
(Factual Recount)
• descriptive
details may also
be required to
provide
information, eg.
He was a skinny
boy with a blue
shirt, red sneakers
and long tied back
hair (Factual
Recount)
• includes personal
thoughts/reactions
(Imaginative
Recount)

Exposition • aims to show

Description
rather than
*EXPOSIT (Creative
tell the
ORY Writing)
reader what
TEXTS Descriptive something/so
present writing is usually meone is like
or argue used to help a • relies on
viewpoint writer develop an precisely
s aspect of their chosen
E.g., work, eg. to vocabulary
create a with carefully
a letter of particular mood,
protest, poster atmosphere or chosen
advertising describe a place adjectives
sun-smart so that the and adverbs.
reader can create • is focused
Description is
vivid pictures of and
used in all
characters, concentrates
forms of writing
places, objects only on the
to create a
etc. aspects that
vivid
Features add
impression of a
Description is a something to
person, place,
style of writing the main
object or event
which can be purpose of
eg to:
useful for a the
• describe
variety of description.
a special
purposes: • sensory
place and
• to engage a description -
explain
reader's what is
why it is
attention heard, seen,
special
• to create smelt, felt,
• describe
characters tasted.
the most
• to set a mood Precise use
importan
or create an of adjectives,
t person
atmosphere similes,
in your
• to bring writing metaphors to
life
to life. create
• describe
images/pictu
the
res in the
animal's
Arguments mind eg
habitat in
Their noses
your
were met
report
with the
 acrid smell
of rotting
flesh.
• strong
development
of the
experience
that "puts
the reader
there"
focuses on
key details,
powerful
verbs and
precise
nouns.

• The
argument is
written in the
timeless
present
tense. This
might
change to
the past if
historical
background
to the issue
was being
 given. If
predictions
are being
made the
tense might
change to
the future.
• The writer
uses
repetition of
words,
phrases and
concepts
deliberately,
for effect.
• Verbs are
used when
expressing
opinions, eg.
I think ___
are the best!
We believe
students
should not
be stopped
from eating
junk food.
• Strong
effective
adjectives
are used.
• Thought
provoking
questions
are used.
These may
be asked as
rhetorical
questions.
(Rhetorical
questions: a
question
asked only
for effect,
not for
information,
eg. Would
you give
your pre-
schooler
matches to
play with?)
• Use of
passive
verbs to help
structure the
text.
• Written in
the timeless
present
tense.
• Use of
 pronouns (I,
we, us) is
used to
manipulate
the reader to
agree with
the position
argued. eg.
We all know
that smoking
causes
cancer so we
do not
smoke.
• Use of
emotive
language ie.
words that
will appeal to
the reader's
feelings, eg.
concern,
unreasonabl
e, should.
• Use of
passive voice
ie verbs in
which the
subject is
acted upon
and not
 doing the
action. This
helps
structure the
text, eg. We
would like to
suggest that
an enquiry
be held into
the running
of the steel
mills. Water
is being
polluted.
• Conjunctions
that can
exemplify
and show
results - they
are usually
used in
concluding
statements
to finalise
arguments
More Language
Features
Debates
Debates, which are
conducted orally,
are a form of
 argument in which
two opposing
points of view are
stated and both
sides are argued.
Supporting
evidence for each
side is put forward
and finally an
opinion is stated
based on the two
arguments.

Narrative There are many In a Traditional • Action verbs:

types of Narrative the focus Action verbs
NARRATI
narrative. They of the text is on a provide interest to
VES tell a
can be series of actions: the writing. For
story,
imaginary, Orientation: example, instead of
usually to
factual or a (introduction) in The old woman
entertain
combination of which the was in his way try
both. They may characters, setting The old woman
fairytales, include fairy and time of the barred his path.
legends, plays, stories, story are Instead of She
science fiction, mysteries, established. laughed try She
myths, science fiction, Usually answers cackled.
cartoons, romances, horror who? when? • Written in the
adventure stories, where? eg. Mr Wolf first person (I, we)
stories adventure went out hunting or the third person
stories, fables, in the forest one (he, she, they).
myths and dark gloomy night. • Usually past
The basic
purpose of legends, Complication or tense.
narrative is to historical problem: The • Connectives,linki
entertain, to narratives, complication ng words to do with
gain and hold a ballads, slice of usually involves time.
readers' life, personal the main • Specific nouns:
interest. experience. character(s) (often Strong nouns have
However Features mirroring the more specific
narratives can • Characters complications in meanings, eg. oak
also be written with real life). as opposed to tree.
to teach or defined Resolution: There • Active nouns:
inform, to personalitie needs to be a Make nouns
change s/identities. resolution of the actually do
attitudes / • Dialogue complication. The something, eg. It
social opinions often complication may was raining could
eg soap operas included - be resolved for become Rain
and television tense may better or splashed down or
dramas that change to worse/happily or There was a large
are used to the present unhappily. cabinet in the
raise topical or the Sometimes there lounge could
issues. future. are a number of become A large
Narratives • Descriptive complications that cabinet seemed to
sequence language to have to be fill the lounge.
people/charact create resolved. These • Careful use of
ers in time and images in add and sustain adjectives and
place but differ the interest and adverbs: Writing
from recounts reader's suspense for the needs judicious use
in that through mind and reader. of adjectives and
the enhance To help students adverbs to bring it
sequencing, the story. plan for writing of alive, qualify the
the stories set narratives, model, action and provide
up one or more focusing on: description and
problems, • Plot: What is information for the
which must going to reader.
eventually find happen? • Use of the
a way to be • Setting: senses: Where
resolved. Where will appropriate, the
the story senses can be used
take place? to describe and
When will develop the
the story experiences,
take place? setting and
• Characteris character:
ation: Who • What does it
are the main smell like?
characters? • What can be
What do they heard?
look like? • What can be
• Structure: seen - details?
How will the • What does it
story begin? taste like?
What will be • What does it feel
the problem? like?
How is the • Imagery
problem • Simile: A direct
going to be comparison, using
resolved? like or as or as
• Theme: though, eg. The
What is the sea looked as
theme / rumpled as a blue
message the quilted dressing
writer is gown. Or The wind
attempting wrapped me up
to like a cloak.
communicat • Metaphor: An
e? indirect or hidden
comparison, eg.
She has a heart of
stone or He is a
stubborn mule or
The man barked
out the
instructions.
• Onomatopoeia: A
suggestion of
sound through
words, eg. crackle,
splat, ooze, squish,
boom, eg. The
tyres whir on the
road. The pitter-
patter of soft rain.
The mud oozed
and squished
through my toes.
• Personification:
Giving nonliving
things (inanimate)
living
characteristics, eg.
The steel beam
clenched its
muscles. Clouds
limped across the
sky. The pebbles
on the path were
grey with grief.
• Rhetorical
Questions: Often
the author asks the
audience
questions, knowing
of course there will
be no direct
answer. This is a
way of involving
the reader in the
story at the outset,
eg. Have you ever
built a tree hut?
• Variety in
sentence
beginnings. There
are a several ways
to do this eg by
using:
• Participles:
"Jumping with joy I
ran home to tell
mum my good
news."
• Adverbs:
"Silently the cat
crept toward the
bird"
• Adjectives:
"Brilliant sunlight
shone through the
window"
• Nouns: "Thunder
claps filled the air"
• Adverbial
Phrases: "Along the
street walked the
girl as if she had
not a care in the
world."
• Conversations/Di
alogue: these may
be used as an
opener. This may
be done through a
series of short or
one-word
sentences or as
one long complex
sentence.
• Show, Don't Tell:
Students have
heard the rule
"show, don't tell"
but this principle is
often difficult for
some writers to
master.
• Personal Voice: It
 may be described
as writing which is
honest and
convincing. The
author is able to
'put the reader
there'. The writer
invests something
of him/her self in
the writing. The
writing makes an
impact on the
reader. It reaches
out and touches
the reader. A
connection is
made.
Media Short Narrative -product as a focus Questions
of narrative
-these are the -emphasis on Imperatives
texts linked to visual impact -use of humor,
Puns
the media. positive
-subliminal
presentations Alliterations
e.g. css, html, messages
javascript. Metaphorical
-upbeat
plain text language rhyme
conclusion to
Maximum reinforce the Conditional
information brand
Technical language
dissemination
if appropriate
 Electronic texts Short and simple
sentences
-transmitted by
technology Use of lists, labels,
different colors,
highlighted words

H. COHESION

- making use of grammatical devices which show that the various parts
of the text are related to each other – an interrelatedness.
- making connections within the text and to the context (the textual
function)

Sample text:

The Vain Jackdaw

Aesop
Jupiter announced that he intended to appoint a king over the birds, and
named a day on which they were to appear before his throne, when he would
select the most beautiful of them all to be their ruler. Wishing to look their
best on the occasion they repaired to the banks of a stream, where they
busied themselves in washing and preening their feathers. The Jackdaw was
there along with the rest, and realized that, with his ugly plumage, he would
have no chance of being chosen as he was: so he waited till they were all
gone, and then picked up the most gaudy of the feathers they had dropped,
and fastened them about his own body, with the result that he looked gayer
than any of them. When the appointed day came, the birds assembled
before Jupiter's throne. After passing them in review, he was about to make
the Jackdaw king, when all the rest set upon the king-select, stripped him of
his borrowed plumes, and exposed him for the Jackdaw that he was.

I. Referring Words
- using words which refer back to something which has already been
mentioned.
Pronouns

o reference pronouns (basic: he, she, it, they)

Examples:

Terry was drifting off to sleep when he heard a strange news.

Fossil plants and animals discovered in Antarctica have been

found on other continents that once formed the southern
landmass. They provide very strong evidence for the existence
of Gondwana.

o Types:
 Backward reference
Once Mr. Dewsbery had finished his breakfast he threw his
manuscript on the fire and burnt it – he had never done
anything on an empty stomach.

 Forward reference
Once he had finished his breakfast, Mr. Dewsbery threw his
manuscript on the fire and burnt it.

 Outward reference (not a cohesive device)

CAUTION

Freshwater crocodiles inhabit this area.

For your own safety

do not approach or feed these animals.

The definite article (‘the’)

The pointing words (demonstratives) - this, that, these, those

 The water vapor cools and condenses into clouds of droplets.
These fall as rain on land and sea.

Words which replace verb groups or noun groups or even

whole clauses (Substitution)

- do, so, such, one

I told him to leave. And he did.

CHILD: I liked the big snake.

TEACHER: The big one.

CHILD: Yes

Ellipsis

TEACHER: What do they use their tongues for?

CHILD: Smelling.

II. Word Associations

Repetiton Some words may simply be repeated several times to

refer to the same thing or things at different points in the
text.

Synonyms Words with the same meaning

Antonyms Words that are opposite in meaning

Collocation Words which typically occur in the same context

Example: cook, stove, oven, bake

Word sets (class/subclass; part/whole) Clusters of words in a

text
 *whole and part (Meronymy)

*class and subclass (Hyponymy)

*thing and its attribute

*word chains

*by using similes, metaphors, and allusion

I. TEXT CONNECTIVES

They are often called connector, discourse markers or signal words. It

refers to 1) relationship, the connection between elements within a text,
either within a single sentence or a cluster and 2) the class of word, word
groups, and phrases. The following is a list of commonly used text
connectors:

• Clarifying – to clear certain points previously mentioned.

Examples: in other words, I mean, to put it

Sentence: She just told you to leave. In other words, she doesn’t want to
have you here.

• Additive – joins elements together (for expository texts or narrative

texts)

Examples: and, and also, furthermore, in addition, besides, or, or else,

nor, and…not
Sentence: The rehearsals for the stage play were postponed.
Furthermore, the play date was moved.
• Causal - shows cause or effect where explanations, arguments, and
discussions are involved (for expository texts with cause-effect rhetorical
pattern)

Examples: so, then, hence, therefore, for, consequently, accordingly, for

this reason, as a result, with this in mind, because of this

Sentence: Linda has been complaining about chest pains for several
days now. So, doctors recommended her bed rest.

• Temporal – for indicating time sequence of ideas (for instructions or

procedures)

Examples: Then, after, subsequently, at the same time, soon,

meanwhile, first of all, secondly, finally, in conclusion, before that,
previously

Sentence: First, mix the butter, flour, milk and egg together. Then, pour
batter on pan.

• Adversative – used to contrast or oppose ideas

Examples: but, yet, tough, however, on the other hand, nevertheless,

none the less, despite this

Sentence: Justin was injured during the game yesterday. Despite this, he
still played in today’s game.

• Continuatives – signals pressing on with the text

Examples: of course, well, surely, after all, now, anyway, after all

Sentence: Bruce Willis’ new film is coming soon at the cinemas. Surely,
it will be a blockbuster movie.

• Concession – expresses condition, dispensation or consideration

 Examples: in that case, otherwise, if not

Sentence: You have to submit your compilation. Otherwise, you will be

removed from the roster.

Meaning (Grammatical Patterns):

The sorts of questions we could ask about a text might include:

 What kinds of nouns might we find in the text?

- living or non-living, human or non-human, etc.

= This gives an indication of the subject matter being developed in the text
and the kind of knowledge being build-up.

 What kinds of adjectival might we find in the text?

- possessives, quantity adjective, opinion

= Helps us focus on the description in the text: quantities in a math problem,

persuasion in an explanation, objectivity in a factual recount, comparison in
a description, or classification in an information report

 What kinds of pronouns might we find in the text?

- personal pronoun, possessive pronoun

= This is to determine the kind of reference being made.

 What kinds of noun groups might we find in the text?

- simple, complex, or mixture

 What kinds of verbs might we find in the text?

 - action verbs, saying verbs, sensing verbs, relating verbs

 What other information does the verb group contain?

- tense, modals, negative forms

= This is to focus on the time, degree of comparison, and positive & negative
aspects.

 What kinds of adverbials might we find in the text?

- place, time, manner, cause, accompaniment, viewpoint, and
comment adverbials, degree adverbials, focusing and
emphasizing adverbials

 What patterns of clause organization might we find in the text?

- do-er +action verb +done – to
- sayer + saying verb + what is said
- senser + sensing verb + what is sensed
- Entity + relating verb +-ing verb + description

 What different types of clauses might we find in the text?

- statements, questions, commands, exclamation

 What different types of sentences might we find in the text?

- simple, compound, complex, compound-complex

= This focuses on the text and its structure in sentence level.

 Which features contribute to the organization of the text?

- text structure, paragraphs, topic, theme

= The features zero in on the rhetorical pattern of the text to determine the
interrelatedness of ideas
  Which features contribute to the cohesion of the text?
- referencing, word association, text connectives

= This is a basis for understanding the entirety of the text.