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WAVELENGTH
SELECTOR
SAMPLE
DETECTOR
READOUT
DEVICE
SOURCE
For molecular absorption measurements, a continuum source is required, whose radiant
power does not change sharply over a considerable range of wavelengths.
DEUTERIUM AND HYDROGEN LAMPS
A continuum spectrum in the ultraviolet region is produced by the electrical excitation of
deuterium or hydrogen at low pressure.
The mechanism by which a continuum spectrum is produced involves the initial
formation of an excited molecular species, which dissociates to give two atomic species
and an ultraviolet photon.
The consequence is a true continuum spectrum from about 160 nm to the beginning of
the visible region.
In low voltage deuterium lamps (operating at 40V), an arc is formed between a heated
oxide filament and a metal electrode.
This heated filament provides electrons to maintain a direct current. A regulated power
supply is required to obtain a constant light intensity.
Both hydrogen and deuterium lamps produce outputs in the range of 160-800 nm.
In the UV region (190-400 nm) a continuum spectrum exists, but at longer wavelengths
(>400nm), the spectrums no longer a continuum.
Quartz windows must be employed in deuterium and hydrogen lamps as glass absorbs
strongly at wavelengths less than 350nm.
The useful lower limit of deuterium lamps is 190nm.
They are used for band selection in the visible region and are less expensive than
interference filters.
They function by absorbing selected portions of the spectrum.
These filters consist of a coloured glass, or a dye suspended in gelatin, sandwiched
between glass plates.
They have effective bandwidths that range from 30 to 250 nm.
MONOCHROMATORS
They are used to continuously vary the wavelength of radiation over a broad range.
The components of a monochromator are - entrance slit, collimating lens, a prism or
grating, a focusing element and an exit slit.
Two types of dispersing elements are found in monochromators - reflection gratings and
prisms.
PRISM MONOCHROMATORS
Prisms can be used to disperse UV, visible and infrared radiation.
There are two types of prism - 30prism and 60prism.
60 prisms made from a single block of material. If crystalline quartz is used for
construction, two 30 prisms are made and cemented together.
Hence there is no net polarization and this type of prism is called Cornu prism.
The Littrow prism is a 30 prism that has a mirrored back.
Here refraction takes place twice at the same interface.
GRATING MONOCHROMATORS
Gratings consist of a hard, optically flat, polished surface, with a large number of parallel,
closely spaced grooves.
There are two major types of gratings - reflection gratings and transmission gratings.
ECHELETTE GRATING
This grating consists of a grooved or blazed surface.
It has broad faces from which reflection occurs and narrow unused faces.
This geometry provides a highly efficient diffraction of radiation.
The reason for blazing is to concentrate radiation in a particular direction.
- The other types of gratings are concave gratings and holographic gratings.
3. SAMPLE CONTAINERS
The cells or cuvettes must be constructed of a material that passes the radiation, in the
spectral region of interest.
For UV region (below 350 nm), quartz or fused silica is required.
Silicate glasses can be employed in the region between 350 and 2000 nm.
4. RADIATION TRANSDUCERS
Photon transducers are used in UV-visible spectroscopy.
BARRIER LAYER-PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
Photovoltaic cells are simple devices used to detect and measure radiation in the vivible
region.
These cells have maximum sensitivity at 550 nm.
It consists of a flat copper or iron electrode on which a semiconductor layer (E.g.
selenium) is deposited.
The outer layer of the semiconductor is coated with a thin transparent metallic film of
gold or silver, which serves as the second electrode. The entire array is protected by a
transparent envelope.
When radiation of sufficient energy reaches the semiconductor, electrons and holes are
formed.
The electrons move towards the metallic film and then migrate through the external
circuit, to interact with the holes that move towards the semiconductor base.
This results in an electrical current of magnitude, proportional to the number of photons
that strike the semiconductor surface.
Currents of the order 10 to 100 A are typical.
PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBES
They are sensitive to ultraviolet and visible radiation and used for the measurement of
low radiant powers.
The photocathode surface is coated with a photo emissive material and it emits electrons
when exposed to radiation.
Nine additional electrodes called dynodes are present.
The dynode D1 is 40V more positive than the cathode; hence electrons are accelerated
towards it.
Each photoelectron causes the emission of several other photoelectrons.
These electrons are in turn accelerated towards the dynode D2, which is 90V more
positive than the dynode D1.
10^6 to 10^7 electrons are formed for each incident photon.
This cascade of electrons is finally collected at the anode; the resulting current is
converted to voltage and then measured.
5. SIGNAL PROCESSORS AND READ OUT DEVICES
Alphanumeric devices directly give the output of the measurements. The output is
displayed on an LCD or an LED screen.
TYPES OF UV-VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
There are three types of UV-visible spectroscopic instruments.
1. Single beam instrument
2. Double beam in space instrument
3. Double beam in time instrument
FOR ABSORPTION MEASUREMENTS,
SOURCE
A tungsten or deuterium lamp
WAVELENGTH SELECTOR
A filter or a monochromator for wavelength selection
SAMPLE CONTAINERS
Cuvettes that can be placed along the radiation beam
TRANSDUCERS
Photon or thermal
AMPLIFIER
READOUT DEVICES
computer
SINGLE BEAM UV-VIS SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Source
Battery-operated tungsten bulb with stabilized voltage supply
Wavelength Selector
Glass filters
Sample Containers
Test tubes
Transducers
Photovoltaic cell
Amplifier
Readout Devices
Analog meter
Merits
Simple and least expensive
DOUBLE BEAM UV-VIS SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Sophisticated, computer-controlled instruments with a range of 200 to 1000 nm or more.
Source
Wavelength Selector
Sample Containers
Transducers
Amplifier
Readout Devices
Merits