Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DANIDA
GUIDELINES FOR
PREPARATION AND EVALUATION
OF
INVESTMENTS IN WIND FARMS
VOLUME 2:
ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL WIND FARM ISSUES
August 2001
Prepared for:
DANIDA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
2, Asiatisk Plads
DK-1448 Copenhagen K
Phone: +45 3392 0000
Fax:
+45 3154 0533
Danida file no.: 104.O.30.Kina
Page 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
0
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Requirements and Recommendations for the Collection of Wind Data . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
Measuring Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Number of Masts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Location and Height of Masts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Number of Sensors and Mounting Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Calibration and Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Maintenance / Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
Indication of Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
4
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5
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6
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6
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
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14
14
17
17
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4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
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24
25
27
28
28
28
30
31
5
5.1
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0 Introduction
This manual provides guidance for the preparation of feasibility studies of wind farm projects in
China. It is directed at new investors in wind farms that wish to apply for soft-financing under
Danida's Mixed Credit facility, and their consultants. In addition, it can be used by officials from
financing institutions that cooperate with Danida's Mixed Credit Program, and who deal with
requests for the financing of wind farm projects. Even though the manual is prepared for Mixed
Credit projects in China there are many universally applicable elements in the manual, making it a
valuable tool for anybody who is contemplating making use of Danida Mixed Credits for a wind farm
project.
The manual is divided into four volumes:
Volume 1: Checklist for Feasibility Studies introduces the typical outline of a Danida feasibility
report for a wind farm project. It provides a list of the content to be covered. Whether a
feasibility study follows the proposed structure is not important (form). But it should provide the
same amount of information (substance).
Volume 2: Analysis of Technical Wind Farm Issues gives recommendations for the data
collection phase and detailed recommendations on procedures and methodologies to be
followed in the technical analysis of a wind farm.
Volume 4: Methodology for Economic and Financial Analysis of Wind Farm Projects gives
details of the economic and financial analyses that are required in a feasibility study. It is subdivided into two sections. Volume 4A explains the methodology using as a case study the
appraisal of the Shanwei Wind Farm project in China by Danida. Volume 4B explains the use of
a spreadsheet model for the financial and economic analysis of wind farms developed by Danida.
Volume 3 provides information about the recommended depth of information for sound project
preparation within the area of technical project analysis. The chapters in this volume are linked to
specific sub-sections of the checklists in volume 1.
The text boxes highlight issues and illustrate points made in the text with practical examples of
worst and best cases.
The approach is pragmatic. The ambition has been to prepare a practical practitioners guide to
project preparation, not to prepare an ideal best practice manual.
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The ideal situation is a 20 year measuring period, a mast on each wind turbine site, anemometers
mounted at hub height, correct mounting of calibrated sensors and a maintenance programme securing
against loss of data.
As the ideal situation is not operational, the question is, what is acceptable ? There is no simple answer
to this question as it depends on the size of the project, the topography, the wind direction distribution,
the size and shape of the site, the availability of long term data, which can be correlated to the site
measurements, etc. The bottom line is that a wind measurement programme should be specially
designed at an early stage of the development of every wind power project.
It should be kept in mind and understood by investors and developers of wind power projects, that wind
energy specialists do not have a crystal globe permitting them to look into the future, they only have
their experience in handling wind data on which to form a conclusion based on the available information.
1.1
Measuring Time
If long term measurements are available (10 - 20 years) and a correlation between the site and the long
term station exists, the measuring time for the masts on the project site shall be at least 1 year and
preferably 2 - 3 years.
If long term measurements are not available or a correlation between the site and the long term station
does not exist, the measuring time for the masts on the project site shall be at least 2 - 3 years.
1.2
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Number of Masts
The number of masts depends primarily on the size of the project and the orography. A small project
located in flat terrain may need only one mast, whereas a large project (50 MW) located in complex
terrain may require up to 8 masts.
The actual number of masts may be reduced, if some (e.g. 2) are stationary for the entire measuring
period and some, (e.g. 3), are moved about on the site only measuring for a shorter period in each
position. In order to use this strategy, correlations between the primary and the secondary masts shall
be established. In this connection it shall be kept in mind, that the correlation between two masts can
change when the wind direction change, depending on the roughness and orography of the surrounding
terrain.
If a wind flow modelling program is used for the micro-siting and the individual production estimates
at the wind turbine sites, it is recommended to install at least two mast in order to be able to check the
softwares capability of handling the actual site.
1.3
The primary mast(s) should be located at (a) central position(s) on the site where the wind flow is
deemed to represent the flow at an average wind turbine site. If supporting measuring masts are installed,
these should be located in areas, which have a special flow due to obstacles, changes in the roughness
of the terrain in the main wind direction or at small ridges with steep slopes.
The height of the masts should be at least 30 m and preferably be equal to the height of the expected
turbines, i.e. about 40 to 50 m for 600 kW wind turbines.
1.4
Each mast should be equipped with at least two anemometers and one wind direction sensor.
Furthermore, the primary mast should be equipped with a temperature sensor and preferably a pressure
sensor. One anemometer should be mounted on top of the mast and the wind direction sensor
approximately 1 m below. The second anemometer should be mounted at a height of 20 or 30 m and the
temperature and pressure sensors as high as possible, without disturbing the wind flow to the other
sensors. When an anemometer is mounted on a boom, the distance from the mast should be 7 times the
diameter of the mast and the cups should be at least 7 times the boom-diameter above the horizontal
part of the boom. The booms shall be mounted in a direction perpendicular to the main wind direction
in order to avoid major influence from the mast.
The importance of the accuracy of wind direction measurements is often not recognized and one typical
error is that the north-mark on the wind direction sensor is not pointing towards north. It is strongly
recommended that the north-mark is made visible from the ground in order to determine the deviation
from north and correct the error in the data logger or in the data handling process.
1.5
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All anemometers should be calibrated in a wind-tunnel in order to secure the accuracy of the wind
measurements. The calibration equation should be entered into the data logger if possible and this
connection it should be noted, that a common error in wind studies is, that the calibration expression
actually found is not incorporated in the analysis. If an anemometer has been measuring on a mast for
several years it is recommended that a calibration is repeated after the anemometer has been dismounted
in order to determine whether the calibration expression has changed.
Regarding wind direction there is a deviation between magnetic North and geographic North and this
deviation should be identified and incorporated in the measurement or analysis.
1.6
Maintenance / Surveillance
Indication of Costs
The data-logger, which is the main part of the wind data collection system, should work on a real time
basis, have a chip or card recorded memory and an electric battery supply of at least one month.
There are several modern data logger systems, which can be used in a wind measurement programme.
The price differs, but the following should give an impression of the size of the hardware investment in
a measurement programme. The approximate prices are in US dollars and without freight, taxes and
duty.
1 data logger
2.000 USD
2 calibrated anemometers, 1 wind vane, 1 temperature sensor, 1 pressure sensor
1.600 USD
Accessories
400 USD
One 40 m mast
6.000 USD
Total for a 40 m measuring station
10.000 USD
In addition to the above, there will be the cost of a chip reader and reading software of approximately
1.000 USD, but these items will cover a whole measuring programme.
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Climatic Conditions
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wind regime
air temperature
air pressure
precipitation
lightning
icing
saline air
insolation
particles or insects in the air
All information shall have a reference to the actual measurement, which shall include all relevant
information, i.e. organization, location, instruments, calibration, measuring period, etc.
Wind Regime
The objective of the analysis of the wind regime is to collect and present all available information on the
wind relevant to the project site. The information of the wind regime shall form the base of:
1)
2)
3)
The analysis of the wind regime shall be based on wind measurements on the site or close to the site.
These measurements are normally carried out as short term measurements, i.e. in a period of 1 to 3
years. Furthermore, long term wind measurements, i.e. more than 10 years, which are representative of
the variations on the site shall be analysed and assessed, if possible. The long term wind data are usually
provided by local meteorological stations.
The requirements to the equipment, the amount of wind data and the location of the measuring stations
are determined by the project size and the complexity of the site and, hence, not fixed. A general wind
measuring program would be the following:
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The number of measuring masts, anemometers and years of measuring have a strong influence on the
uncertainty of the determination of the long term wind regime, i.e. a large number of anemometers and
long measuring periods will result in a low degree of uncertainty, whereas a low number of anemometers
and short periods will have the opposite effect. Minimum requirements cannot be fixed, as they depend
on the economy of the project. A marginal project economy demands a low degree of uncertainty and
a strong project economy can accept a higher degree of uncertainty.
The analysis and the assessment of the wind data shall include, but are not limited to, the following:
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Air Temperature
The air temperature is one of the parameters, which determine the air density. The minimum and
maximum values determine the requirements to the specifications of the wind turbine. Temperature
should be measured at the site along with the wind measurements, but may be transferred from
meteorological stations located not far from the site. If exposed to the same climatic conditions, the
transfer is primarily a function of the difference in height above sea level between the site and the
location of the measurement.
The analysis and assessment of the temperature data shall include the following:
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Air Pressure
The air pressure is the other parameter, which determines the air density. In many cases air pressure is
not measured on the project site and may be transferred from a meteorological station located not far
from the site. The transfer is primarily a function of the difference in height above sea level between the
site and the measurement location.
Precipitation
Information regarding precipitation is most
important in relation to project implementation, as
heavy rain can make site access, infrastructure
work and erection of wind turbines very difficult,
if not impossible. Risk of special incidents caused
by rain (flooding, streams, landslides etc.) shall be
evaluated.
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Lightning
The frequency of thunderstorms in the project site area shall be evaluated in order assess the risk of
lightning striking a wind turbine. The most threatened components are the blades and the controllers and
if not protected, the economic consequence of a strike of lightning can amount to 20 - 25 % of the total
price of the wind turbine.
Most Danish wind turbines have lightning protection as standard equipment and some manufacturers
offer extra protection as an option at extra costs.
Icing
If relevant, the risk of icing shall be assessed. If the problem is deemed severe, special precautions shall
be taken and discussed with the wind turbine manufacturer. If there is a risk, but not a severe one,
special anemometers and wind vanes equipped with heating elements may be the only measure necessary.
Saline Air
The possibility of saline air shall be assessed as the corrosive effect on the wind turbines can be severe.
Normally, inspection of existing steel structures in the site area will determine whether salinity is a
potential problem.
Insolation
The hours of insolation can be important in some areas as ultraviolet light in the long run destroys some
materials, such as rubber and electrical isolation material. Especially the cables on wind turbines on
lattice towers will be exposed to insolation.
Particles or Insects in the Air
The possibility of particles and/or insects in the air
shall be assessed as the impact on the power curve
can be significant. If the problem is assessed to
exist, a blade washing programme hall be
incorporated in the operation and maintenance
schedule.
2.2
All relevant issues which have an impact on the wind farm or wind turbine design shall be identified and
described in the feasibility study in order that the necessary precautions may be taken.
Terrain Parameters
In complex terrain there will be limitations to the micro-siting of the turbines, as the conditions of the
wind turbine approvals require a minimum distance to slopes above a certain value. (The criterion is
basically a load criterion converted into a siting criterion). The site area and the surroundings shall be
shown in an iso-height contour map in order to make it possible to evaluate the potential problem and
determine restrictions, if any.
Furthermore, the vegetation (surface roughness) on the site and in the surroundings shall be described
in order to permit the assessment of the possible impact on the output of the wind turbine. The
roughness of the terrain at the site and in the surroundings influence the distribution of the wind energy
potential over the site and the wind shear at all turbine locations in all directions.
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Earthquake
If the project site is located in a region exposed to earthquakes the magnitude of possible earthquakes
shall be assessed and presented, e.g. as a figure on the Richter scale.
Volcanic Activity
If relevant, it shall be assessed whether the project site is exposed to volcanic activity.
Dwellings - Local Inhabitants
Many countries have regulations determining the minimum distance to dwellings and other buildings,
either measured in meters or in acceptable noise levels. All major Danish wind turbine manufacturers
have computer programs, which calculate the noise level originating from the wind turbines. Buildings
on the project site and in its close surroundings shall be shown on a site map.
High Tension Lines and other Structures
Requirements to distance to existing or planned high tension lines, wind turbines, antennas or other
structures shall be evaluated and incorporated in the project planning.
Telecommunication
Telecommunication systems broadcast at a variety of frequencies
and in a number of ways. Interference with telecommunication
systems is known as electromagnetic disturbance or electromagnetic
interference (EMI). The potential interference shall be evaluated as
well as the need for approvals by authorities.
Air Traffic
As is the case for all tall structures, air traffic present a potential
problem at some locations. It shall be assessed whether rules and regulations limit the tower height or
require lighting.
Other Considerations
If special local conditions not mentioned above are determined to influence the wind turbine or the
project, the impact shall be evaluated.
2.3
Practical Considerations
The practical considerations include, but are not limited to, the following issues:
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Soil conditions
Concrete aggregates
Access roads
Crane availability
Routing of high tension overhead lines
Soil Conditions
The investigation of the soil conditions on the project site, which is relevant to installing wind turbines
on concrete foundations, shall be assessed. The investigation of the ground water level is normally part
of the soil investigation and it shall be assessed whether the project design complies with the result of
the investigation.
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If a solution other than a concrete foundation is considered, e.g. founding direct on solid rock, the
necessary parameters shall be assessed.
Concrete Aggregates
The availability of concrete aggregates as well as water of a sufficient quality shall be investigated and
evaluated. In some areas the lack of concrete aggregates and water of sufficient quality raise the price
of foundations significantly.
It should be noted that cooling of the foundations in the period from pouring to hardening may be
needed, if the surrounding temperature is very high.
Access Roads
The assessment of the accessibility of the project
site includes harbour, train, public roads, and local
roads. Most parts of the wind turbines are packed
in 40 foot containers, but the size of the blades and
the towers makes container transport of these
items impossible. The normal means of
transportation to the site is ship, (train), and truck.
The constraints may be the load capacity of roads
and bridges, as well as sharp curves.
Crane
The availability of mobile cranes shall be
investigated. The investigation shall focus on the
crane capacity necessary for the construction of the
wind farm and the erection of the wind turbines
and the capacity needed for operation and
maintenance. If sufficient crane capacity is not available locally, the possibility of renting and transporting
the necessary mobile crane to the site for construction and erection shall be investigated.
Some wind turbines (up to 600 kW) can be erected by a pull and erect system without a large mobile
crane. A smaller crane for handling and assembling the wind turbine on the ground is a necessity.
Routing of the High Tension Overhead Line
Feeders connecting the wind farm to the grid will often be over head lines. However, regardless of the
connection being based on overhead lines or cables, the trace has to be assessed. It should be ensured
that the trace does not impose difficulties on the project. Difficulties may arise from:
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2.4
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Grid conditions
In the ideal situation, the grid is available at all times and is able to maintain the nominal voltage and
frequency at the connection point. It is, furthermore, at all times able to supply the needed power
active or reactive, and able to absorb the produced power active or reactive.
This is, however, not always the case, and for the specific project and the specific conditions it must be
assessed how severe the deviations from the ideal situation are, and to what extent they will influence
technical, economic and practical conditions.
If the wind climate is of a nature that implies sudden and/or fast changes in the power production from
large wind farms, the ability of the grid to attune equally fast shall also be assessed.
In the data collection phase it is therefore important to gather all necessary information relating to the
capability and operational conditions of the grid in general and of potential connection points including
'electrical vicinity' in particular.
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Wind Farm
Location
The location of the wind farm shall be shown on maps:
C Large scale - country/state level
C 1 : 25 - 50.000 - showing the wind farm borders, roads, towns/villages, plantation etc. If possible,
this map shall include iso-height contour lines and UTM coordinates.
The description of the site location shall be unambiguous and a site visit by the appraisal team shall verify
the information.
Lay-out and Infrastructure
The feasibility study shall include a drawing of the project including all restrictions determined to have
an impact on the project lay-out. The project drawing (1 : 5.000) shall include the location of the wind
turbines, the wind measuring stations, buildings, transformers,
high tension lines, roads, etc. All restrictions shall be treated to
Local or State regulations may
show how the project complies with each restriction.
include stipulations regarding
The assessment shall include, but is not limited to, all the issues
minimum distance to the borders
treated in chapter 2 - Conditions at the Project Site. The
of the project site, restrictions
assessment shall also include the restrictions determined in the
due to visual impact etc.
environmental study as well as laws and regulations issued by
governmental bodies or state organizations.
3.2
Wind Turbine
Technical Description
The technical assessment of the wind turbine
shall include:
C Manufacturer
C Wind turbine description & specifications
C Power curve
C Approvals and site conditions
Page 15
Manufacturer
Identification of the manufacturer of the wind
turbine. If the wind turbines are manufactured
and/or assembled partly abroad and partly locally, the relevant companies shall be identified and deemed
capable of fulfilling the contractual obligations. The assessment shall include experience and technical
capacity. Furthermore, it shall be assessed whether the type of wind turbine has an acceptable track
record.
Wind Turbine Description & Specifications
The feasibility study shall include a specific description of the wind turbine, i.e hub height, upwind or
downwind, number of blades, power regulation (pitch or stall), fixed or variable speed, 1 or 2
generators, lattice or tubular tower etc.
The wind turbine shall have a type approval issued by an internationally recognized institution in
compliance with the Danish rules for wind turbine approvals. Specifications of the wind turbines shall
be supplied by the manufacturer. It shall be assessed whether these specifications are complying with the
turbines intended to be supplied to the project, or if they are just general specifications.
The specifications shall include, but are not limited to, the following:
C Specification of main components, i.e. rotor, main shaft, main bearings, gear box, generator, yaw
system, tower, controller, lightning protection,
C Operational features, i.e. RPM, design frequency and voltage, cut-in and cut-out wind speed, survival
wind speed, turbulence intensity, temperature range, humidity, corrosion class/protection,
C Siting specifications, i.e. distance to slopes, slope angle, minimum distances between turbines,
C Requirements to crane capacity for construction and during operation, and requirements to access
roads and operation area during erection.
The description shall include special features, which correspond to special requirements, i.e. special
heating or cooling systems, special lightning protection, colour, etc.
The hub height of the wind turbines shall comply with all external and internal restrictions and
regulations and be equal to the height incorporated in the calculations of the annual energy production.
Power Curve
It shall be assessed whether the power curve used in the calculations of the annual energy production
is identical with the power curve, which is part of the approval. Furthermore, it shall be checked that this
power curve is equal to the one that the manufacturer guarantees in the contract for the supply of the
wind turbine.
It should be noted that power curves are normally presented in accordance with standard conditions, i.e.
air density = 1.225 kg/m3, temperature = 15/ Celsius , pressure = 1013 hPa, frequency = 50 Hz and a
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turbulence intensity of less than 15 %. The re-calculation to site conditions is part of the corrections in
the calculations of the annual energy production.
Approvals and Site Conditions
If the site conditions are assessed to be within the specifications of the general wind turbine approval this
can be accepted, but if the site conditions are assessed to exceed the limits of the general approval, a site
specific approval shall be issued by an approval institution.
The assessment shall include, but is not limited to the following:
3.3
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All modern wind turbines are designed for unattended, fully automatic operation. A computerized
controller manages all the functions of the turbines including stop and automatic start after grid failures
and other non critical incidents.
The controller normally also includes facilities for gathering data and information on the performance
of the wind turbine. The number of hours in operation, the energy production, the power curve and so
on are examples of data collected by the controller. A log book containing incidents and faults will
normally also be included in the controller.
The controller is often implemented with a main unit placed at the bottom of the tower and possibly a
sub-unit placed in the nacelle for collecting measurements and/or control of auxiliaries. It is also common
to include a possibility for remote data communication with the controller. Such a link makes it possible
to monitor the operation and performance of many turbines from one or more central computers.
If a central monitoring system is part of the project design, it shall be assessed whether it complies with
expectations for the operation and maintenance of the project. It is recommended that the central
monitoring system is part of the wind turbine supply.
3.4
Civil Infrastructure
The civil infrastructure includes roads, leveled space beside the turbines, the foundations of the wind
turbines and transformers and buildings for operation and maintenance.
Roads and Space for Cranes
It shall be assessed whether the roads are adequate for transport of the turbines on trucks and for
transport of the crane for erection. Furthermore, it shall be assessed whether the leveled space beside
the turbines is adequate for unloading and erection of the wind turbines.
Foundations
The design of the foundations shall be part of the
wind turbine supply or approved by the wind
turbine manufacturer. It shall be assessed whether
the wind turbine foundation design complies with
the soil investigation and other requirements.
Furthermore, it shall be assessed if the solution is
reflected in the cost estimate of the civil
infrastructure.
It should be noted, that the quality requirements to wind turbine foundations are often not recognized
by local contractors and it is important to have a common understanding of the necessity for high quality
concrete and workmanship in the construction of the foundations. The possible need for inspection under
construction shall be assessed. Furthermore, the availability of concrete aggregates and water of
adequate quality shall be assessed and the influence on the cost of the foundations incorporated in the
cost estimate.
Buildings
It shall be assessed whether the buildings are adequate
for the intended use. The assessment shall include:
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The specific project objectives regarding various subjects related to grid connection and grid quality are
as follows:
Grid Voltage:
The wind turbine must be able to function correctly at the normal voltage
level and the voltage fluctuations actually found at the planned grid
connection point.
Extreme voltage levels must not harm the wind turbines or other wind farm
equipment.
The operation of the wind turbines or wind farm must not imply an
unacceptable flicker level. Neither must the wind turbines emit an
unacceptable amount of harmonics.
Frequency:
Grid availability/uptime:
The grid must be available in order for the turbines to be able to feed the
produced energy into it.
A significant number of grid failures must not harm the wind turbine
structure, brakes or other wind farm equipment.
Power factor / phase angle: The wind turbines consumption of reactive power from the grid must not
exceed technical limits or limits imposed by utility policies.
Load and load variations:
The wind turbines must be able to feed energy into the grid whenever the
wind is blowing, thereby requiring the grid load to be equal or larger than
the wind generated power plus the minimum power from controllable
power plants.
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The grid connection location should not impose severe technical, economic
or practical problems due to the distance to the wind farm, the connection
voltage level, the proposed routing of cables or over-head-lines or other
causes.
The project must comply with many externally given conditions, but in addition to these conditions, the
chosen internal electrical layout and configuration including low voltage lines, step-up transformers,
capacitor banks, medium and high voltage feeders etc. will be of major importance for assessment of the
various subjects. These choices will often be a balancing of advantages and disadvantages in terms of
investment, operational costs, loss, flexibility, convenience etc. and hence, they will obviously influence
the financial calculations. They are, however, equally important in connection with assessment of many
of the technical subjects.
When appraising the electrical aspects of a wind farm project it should therefore initially be ensured that
the internal layout has been well defined and presented in the feasibility study phase. It would often be
expedient to have the layout presented in the feasibility study report as well and thereby immediately
available to the appraisal team.
The electrical infrastructure comprises electrical installations from the wind turbines to the grid
connection points and includes transformers, cables (underground and overhead) and possibly a
substation or part of a substation.
The analysis carried out as part of the feasibility study regarding grid connection should cover the
mentioned subjects and overall major conclusions should be extracted and presented under a separate
heading. The conclusions may be subdivided under the following sub-headings:
C Exceptional technical details; i.e. whether alterations of standard turbines and/or other equipment will
be needed and whether special equipment or technical solutions, the project taken as a whole, has
been or has to be employed.
C Influence of the electrical conditions on the project including any impact on wind turbine
performance, maintenance requirements or life time and any impact on energy yield.
C Impact of the wind farm on the existing electrical grid.
Even if the feasibility study has not employed this or a similar structure, it may in any case be useful for
the appraisal team to bear the mentioned subjects in mind.
The assessment shall include transformer and cable specifications, need for maintenance and the expected
electrical loss from the turbines to the grid connection point. Furthermore, it shall be assured that the
electrical loss are included in the economic calculations.
In sections following below, more detailed proposals for appraisal of grid connection related issues are
given. As projects and conditions may differ widely the presented proposal must be taken as a proposal,
only. In each case it should be carefully considered, whether further subjects have to be assessed and/or,
on the contrary whether some of the presented subjects are less important or directly irrelevant.
At this point, it may be worth stressing again that a carefully prepared feasibility study can significantly
ease this process and thereby speed up the appraisal.
Detailed Proposals
Having established the basic electrical <map of the wind farm, it is suggested that the appraisal ascertains
that the following points have been assessed and the results duly incorporated in the project.
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C The normal operation voltage level does not deviate from nominal values to an extent which will
cause the wind turbine controllers to cut off the turbines (too often). The analysis should cover noload, low load and high load.
C The wind turbines do not cause unacceptable voltage variations and/or fluctuations (flicker).
C The wind turbines do not emit unacceptably large quantities of harmonics into the grid.
An assessment of these topics could include:
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C The normal operation grid frequency does not deviate from the nominal value to an extent which will
cause the wind turbine controllers to cut off the turbines (too often).
C The wind turbine power curve used in the AEP calculations and in turn in the economic calculations
is based on actually occurring frequencies rather than nominal values.
C The wind turbines do not cause unacceptably high levels of harmonics to be fed into the electrical
grid.
An assessment of these topics could include:
C Calculation of the fraction of total time in which the wind turbines will be cut off from the grid due
to too high or too low grid frequency.
C Transformation of wind turbine power curve applicable under standard conditions.
C Collection of sample wind turbine data.
A common situation in electrical grids suffering from low generation capacity reserve is a lowered grid
frequency as this can be used to reduce grid load and thereby stabilizing the whole grid. However, it
must be noted that even a very small change in frequency will significantly change the wind turbine
power curve. Energy production calculations must consequently be based on one or more modified
power curves, when grid frequency deviates from the nominal value for a considerable part of the total
time.
Grid Availability / Uptime
It should be ascertained that:
C The grid is capable of supplying the needed reactive power without destabilizing the grid.
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C Local reactive power compensation is included in each wind turbine enabling reduced voltage
increases in feeders, reduced loss and lowered demand on feeder dimensions.
C Possible capacitor banks are controlled so that a situation in which the wind farm is cut off from the
grid will not result in potentially damaging high voltage levels
within the wind farm.
Inclusion of capacitor banks in
C The possibility of offering reactive power support to the grid
the wind turbine can reduce
using internal, central capacitor banks has been assessed.
currents by 10 % thereby
An assessment of these topics could include:
reducing loss by 20% and
demands on cables etc. See
C Analysis of controller algorithms.
Appendix 2
C Load-flow analysis.
C Collection of sample wind turbine data.
It is worth bearing in mind that with minor changes of a wind farm design it is possible to provide the
utility with a support of the grid giving stabilized grid node voltages and reduced grid loss. It will require
controlled infusion of reactive power to the grid, but the increased costs can be counterbalanced by
better PPA provisions or by a special agreement regarding supplied reactive power. It is necessary to
assess the diurnal, monthly and yearly variations of the wind speeds as the available free reactive capacity
is a result of the wind farm power production and the resulting internal demand for reactive power.
Energy Need/Demand/Consumption: Load Variations
It should be ascertained that the energy demand in the grid at all times is sufficient taking into
consideration the technical minimum production of existing power plants being on-line.
An assessment of this topic could include:
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Objectives
The objective of the appraisal of the AEP calculation is to ensure that a realistic figure for the expected
output of the wind farm measured in MWh/year is used in the financial calculations.
The objective of calculating the net annual energy production (AEPnet) is to estimate the long term mean
annual production (MWh/year) that can be expected to be supplied from the wind farm to the grid at the
metering point.
The objective of the wind data analysis is to determine the long term mean distributions of annual wind
speed and wind direction, representative of the conditions on the project site in the lifetime of the
project.
Method
The prediction of the behaviour of the wind rests on an analysis of the past. There are a number of
methods applicable to the task of assessing the basic data and reaching the result. A detailed description
of just one AEPnet calculation is therefore not desirable.
The first step in the general method is to establish a wind distribution and a wind direction distribution,
which are representative of one point on the site at the height equal to the hub-height of the wind
turbines. This wind distribution is often referred to as the project wind distribution, but it should be
kept in mind that it actually refers to one point at the site, which is not necessarily an average point.
The general procedure is as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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WDProject, MA
PCWT
AEPGross = WDProject, MA @ PCWT
fc1, fc2, fc3, ... and
fl1, fl2, fl3, ... respectively
fcombined = fc1 @ fc2 @ fc3 @ fl1 @ fl2 @ fl3, .....
AEPnet = AEPgross @ fcombined
The most important and difficult part is the assessment and determination of the wind energy resource
on the project site for the lifetime of the project represented by WDProject, MA, although the assessment of
the corrections and loss also have a significant impact on the final result.
The calculation of the AEPnet must include all relevant parameters, which means that all issues have to
be taken into consideration and applied to the calculation in an appropriate manner.
Uncertainties
Both the data and the methods apply uncertainties to the AEPnet estimate and whenever possible
uncertainties shall be assessed and/or sensitivity analyses conducted. If a great deal of reliable
information on the past is available, it means less uncertainty. If, on the other hand, the information is
less reliable, it means increased uncertainty. It shall be assessed whether the reliability of the basic data
is acceptable.
4.2
The aim of the wind data analysis is to determine the long term mean annual wind speed and wind
direction distribution, which is representative of the conditions on the project site based on available
wind measurements. In the preparation of the establishment of larger wind farms (more than 5 to 10
MW) wind data are often collected by more than one measuring station at the site and there are two
methods, which can be used in the calculation of the AEP's. The choice of method depends on the length
of the individual measuring periods and the complexity of the site (the orography).
Method 1 One mast is nominated as reference mast and the others as secondary or supporting masts.
If a flow modeling computer program is used in the analysis, the secondary masts are used
to check the programs capability of calculating the wind energy over the site area and
possibly determine correction factors for certain areas of the site.
This method is normally used when one measuring mast is placed in a central position on the
site and has a long measuring record whereas the other measuring masts are located near the
borders and have short measuring records.
Method 2 Each mast covers the local area in the vicinity of the mast. This method is normally used in
complex terrain and when all masts have long measuring records.
On-Site Wind Measurements
The analysis of the on-site wind data shall include:
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Correlation Calculation
Calculations of correlations are used when having two stations measuring at the same time. The wind
speed data pairs (V1,V2) can be plotted in a diagram to make the correlation curve showing the
correlation between the two sites.
If used with caution the correlation can be used to extrapolate a short measurement period from one
station to cover the longer measurement period of another station. It should be noted that the correlation
changes by direction (orography and surface roughness) and that it may not exist. Furthermore, it may
not be the same in a high and a low wind season. If the correlation line is determined by the least square
root distance to plotted points, the standard deviation is a measure of the uncertainty of the correlation.
The method is used when having measurements from one station (reference station) for a long period
(one to several years) and other stations for shorter periods.
Ratio Calculation
The ratio method has been widely used in the USA and is a simplified version of the correlation
method. The ratio between the mean wind speed of two measuring stations for a certain period expresses
the ratio for all periods. The method is not recommended as better options are usually available.
4.3
Micro Siting
The wind turbines of a project can be situated on the project site in accordance with different lay-outs.
The micro siting is the determination of the optimum lay-out, i.e. the siting of the wind turbines, which
optimizes the project economy.
The micro siting process has two purposes:
1)
2)
to determine the best configuration of the wind turbines on the site with respect to
restrictions, wind conditions and project economy
to determine the corresponding AEPnet
How much the micro siting process can improve the AEP depends on the size of the project, the
complexity of the site, the constraints and the wind direction distribution, but in many projects it is not
unrealistic to expect the micro siting process to improve the AEP by 2 to 4 %. As shown in Appendix
4, the cost of the measuring campaign and the micro siting may be paid back by the improved production
in 3 to 5 years.
4.4
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The power curve, which is guaranteed by the wind turbine manufacturer shall be used in the AEP
calculation. All conditions attached to the power curve shall be compared with site conditions and the
appropriate corrections applied in the calculation of the AEPnet.
4.5
AEPgross Calculation
After establishing a site wind distribution at a specific point on the site and at a height equal to the hub
height of the wind turbines, the AEPgross can be calculated as previously described in this chapter by
applying a multiplication-like technique.
When multiplying the power curve by the wind distribution it is of great importance that the wind
speed intervals at the X-axis of the two curves are equal. It is often seen that e.g. V = 6 m/s is the
interval from 5 m/s to 6 m/s with regard to the wind distribution and that it is the interval from 5.5 m/s
to 6.5 m/s with regard to the power curve. This error could lead to an overestimate of the AEP of 10 15 %.
If the wind distribution is calculated at each individual wind turbine site the AEPgross will be the sum of
the individual estimates. If the wind distribution is calculated for one specific site, the AEPgross will be
the estimate of this site multiplied by the number of turbines and a correction factor. The correction
factor shall be 1.0 if the specific site is calculated as an average site compared with the wind turbine sites.
4.6
Air Density
The air density is a function of the air temperature and the air pressure. The mean air density at the site
can be calculated by
where T is the mean temperature and P is the mean pressure at the site. T0 = 15oC and P0 = 1.013 hPa
are standard conditions, which correspond to the standard air density of Do = 1.225 kg/m3.
It shall be kept in mind that the power curve, which is part of the wind turbine approval, is only valid
under standard conditions and that the influence of the actual air density on the site shall be incorporated
in the AEP calculation.
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The energy of the wind is proportional to the air density and so is the output from a stall regulated wind
turbine from cut-in wind speed up to the stall level. For a pitch regulated turbine, the power curve does
not change in proportion to the change in the air density and in that case a recalculated power curve
(valid under site conditions) has to be used either in the AEPgross calculation or in the determination of
the correction factor.
Correction factor, air density, stall regulated WTs
fc = D / Do
If the actual air density has not been incorporated in the AEPgross calculation, a correction has to be
applied in accordance with the conditions on site.
Wake Loss
A turbine situated behind another turbine, as seen from the wind direction, will experience a decrease
in wind speed compared to the situation in which there is no turbine in front of it. This effect is called
the wake loss and one of the objectives of the micro siting process is to minimize the loss in due
consideration of the project constraints. The computer program PARK, or a similar program can be used
to calculate the wake loss, but it shall be kept in mind that a prerequisite for using the program is that
the project is located in flat terrain. If the project is located in complex terrain the wake loss calculated
by PARK will be conservative in most situations.
The wake loss shall be assessed and corrections applied in accordance with the lay-out.
Blade Contamination
The power curve used in the calculation of the AEP is valid only if the blades are clean and smooth. In
some areas bugs and/or dirt may build up on the surface of the blades and this will have a negative
impact on the output from the turbines. The effect may be reduced by washing and polishing the blades
as part of the maintenance programme.
The potential problem shall be addressed, although it can be hard to quantify, if data from existing wind
turbines in the area are not available. The influence on the power curve is most severe in the stall area,
i.e. wind speed above 10 m/s, and hence most critical in the high wind season. It shall be kept in mind,
that if the potential problem is not quantified, the impact is automatically determined to be none.
Availability Loss - Wind Turbine
The wind turbines are not always available due to maintenance
or repairs. The availability loss due to scheduled maintenance
and small repairs should not exceed 1- 2 %, but depend, of
course, very much on the service organisation and the spare
part inventory.
The availability loss of modern turbines (designed after 1986 88) has proven to lie in the interval of 1 - 5 % for the first 10
years. There is, of course, no experience of the availability for
the 10 - 20 year period.
The availability loss shall be assessed and the corresponding
correction applied in the calculation.
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AEPnet Calculation
The AEPnet is the output from the wind farm which as an average is expected to be supplied to the grid
at the connection point and it is the figure that will form the basis of the calculations of the income.
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The AEPnet is calculated by multiplying the AEPgross by the combined loss and correction factor.
AEPnet = fcombined * AEPgross
4.8
The AEPnet estimate is one of the most important parameters in the economic calculation of the projects
feasibility and it is recommended to present
a base case scenario
a low case scenario
a high case scenario
in which the latter two reflect the uncertainties involved in the estimate of the base case.
- The base case estimate shall represent the situation, which is assessed to have the highest probability
of occurring
- The low and high case estimates shall cover a 95 % confidence interval, i.e. the interval within which
the mean AEPnet (actual in the lifetime of the project) will lie with a probability of 95 %.
The assessment of the uncertainties is not always a mathematical calculation, but rather a subjective
assessment of all the parameters and their impact on the project made by an experienced wind energy
specialist.
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C
C
If relevant:
C
C
C
C
C
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Project Cost
The objective of estimating the project cost for each individual offer is to determine the cost side of the
comparison on equal terms.
If the RFQ is based on a turn-key project, the prices should be adjusted to cover comparable supplies.
For example, if one quote is including an extra set of spare part blades and the other quotes do not have
this included, the first quote needs to be adjusted.
If the RFQ is based on a wind turbine supply including erection and commissioning, estimates on
foundation prices, civil and electrical infrastructure, CMS etc. for each individual offer should be added
to form an equal base for comparison.
If different terms of payment or delivery can be quantified, the relevant adjustments should be included
in the comparison.
AEP Calculations
The calculations of the expected AEP for each offer have to be based on the same prerequisites and be
as close to the realistic values as possible, without making individual wind studies for each offer.
The calculations of the individual AEPs pertinent for each offer in the comparison, are a multiplication
of the guaranteed power curve (included in each offer) by the project wind distribution corrected by
applicable correction factors.
Project Wind Distribution
From the wind data analysis or the final wind study, a project wind distribution can be determined. This
wind distribution is valid for a specific height and in principle also for one location on the project site,
which should be an average wind turbine site.
If the turbines are offered with different hub heights, the wind distribution has to be transferred to the
relevant hub height by a wind shear transformation. It should be noted that an overestimate of the wind
shear will give an advantage to the highest turbines and an underestimate will give an advantage to the
lowest turbines.
AEP Corrections
Corrections of the AEP should follow the lines of the AEP calculation in the wind study, although the
determination is less critical if the same value is used for all offers. The AEP does not necessarily have
to be the AEPNet as long as the estimates are comparable and are based on the same prerequisites.
Only loss and corrections significantly different in the various offers should be included in the
calculations.
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Blade Contamination
It should be noted that wind turbines based on different concepts (stall, pitch or variable speed) do
not loose equally amount of energy due to blade contamination.
Appendix 1 - 4
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Appendix 1
Voltage level calculation, an example
Wind turbines of the typical Danish concept1 are in general producing active power and consuming
reactive power. This is not the usual situation in connection with conventional design of low voltage
feeder design and calculations to be used for electricity distribution. Therefore, special care should be
taken. The ruling factor is in the case of designing wind farm connections normally not the cross section
of the cables used and it is therefore not sufficient to confirm whether the chosen cables are capable of
carrying the currents in question.
To illustrate this fact, we look at a
sample wind farm electrically connected
as sketched in the figure.
Node A is the connection of the wind
farm to the utility grid. The connection A
to B is the feeder, and B is the switch
board at the wind farm. Connection B to
C is high voltage connections within the
farm and C to WT is one of the low
voltage connections of the turbines.
In the example, we assume that node A
(the grid) has a voltage level of 11.0 kV
with allowable variations of 5%. Node
B is connected to node A via two
parallel cables. The length is 20 km and
the cross section of each cable is
Figure 1, Sample grid connection
3150 mm.
At node B, a number of cables are connected, each feeding the power produced on a group of turbines.
The details are shown for one of the groups only.
The shown group consists of a 900 m long 3150 mm cable connected to a 11.0/0.4 kV transformer.
The low voltage side of the transformer is connected to a bus, to which three wind turbines are
connected; only one shown in detail. The length of the cables from the bus to the wind turbine shown is
350 m and the cross section of one cable is 3150+75 mm. The 'WT' on the drawing denotes wind
turbine.
Based on the active and reactive power, P and Q, we can in general calculate the current in a cable:
(1)
Applying this formula, we calculate the phase-currents Iph in each of the cables WT to C, C to B and B
to A as follows:
By the Danish concept is at least as of year 2000 normally understood a threebladed wind turbine with the rotor placed up-winds, equipped with a gearbox and
a asynchronous generator.
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(2a-c)
We notice that none of the currents exceeds 2.0 A/mm, which is a rule-of-thumb limit for aluminium
cables often applied in connection with design of conventional electricity distribution systems.
If the production in the wind farm is zero and the voltage level at node A is 11.0 kV, the voltage level
at the wind turbine will be 400 V, as there are no currents and hence no voltage drops in the cables. (The
cables' charging currents have been ignored and the nominal voltage level is assumed to be 400 V).
We will now calculate the voltage at the wind turbine, if all the turbines are producing the nominal power
and the voltage level at node A is 11.0 kV plus the allowed variation 5% equal to 11.6 kV. The voltage
level at node B can be calculated as:
(3)
where
(4)
The voltage levels of the nodes B and at the high tension side of the transformer at C is now calculated
as follows: (the phase angles are ignored in the results)
(5a-b)
The voltage level at the low tension side of the transformer is calculated from the nominal ratio:
(6)
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Appendix 2
Current and compensation calculation, an example
In order to give an idea of the size of the currents we calculate the phase current Iph for a 400 V generator
with a nominal power of 300 kW and a cosn of 0.89:
(1)
Using the same example as above we can calculate the nominal size of the reactive power consumption
of the generator, Qnom:
(2)
The reactive power, or part hereof, needed for excitation of the squirrel cage generator is, as mentioned
earlier, generated by capacitor banks placed in the cabinet.
In order to minimize the risk of isolated operation of the wind turbine and the drastically increased
voltage levels prone in such situations, the capacitors installed in the turbine are limited to the size of the
consumption of reactive power at idle operation of the generator.
If the wind turbine is equipped with a 100 kVAr capacitor bank for compensation, the phase current
Iph,comp is then limited to:
(3)
Inclusion of a 100 kVAr capacity bank will, hence, reduce the phase currents by 10%. Line loss are
proportional to the square of the line current and the loss will hence, all other things being equal, be
reduced by some 20%.
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Appendix 3
The 1/7 -law
The wind shear formula is often referred to as the 1/7 power law, which indicate that the exponent, ",
in the formula is 1/7 or approximately 0.14. This is actually a specific value corresponding to levelled
grass plains or a surface roughness of 0.01 m and must only be used under these conditions.
In order to quantify the influence on the AEP calculation using different " two examples are shown
below. ) AEP is the ratio between the calculated AEP at hub height and the calculated AEP at the
measuring height.
A: Height of measurement = 10 m. Hub-height = 50 m.
" = 0.1
" = 0.14
" = 0.2
)AEP = 1.34
)AEP = 1.52
)AEP = 1.76
The example shows that if " = 0.2 is used in an AEP calculation instead of the real value of " = 0.1 the
result will be an overestimate of 1.76/1.34 = 1.31 or 31 %
B: Height of measurement = 20 m. Hub-height = 50 m.
" = 0.1
" = 0.14
" = 0.2
)AEP = 1.20
)AEP = 1.28
)AEP = 1.40
The example shows that if " = 0.2 is used in an AEP calculation instead of the real value of " = 0.1 the
result will be an overestimate of 1.40/1.20 = 1.17 or 17 %
The example shows that if the measuring height is increased the uncertainty due to the estimate of the
wind shear is decreased.
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Appendix 4
Economic benefit from micro-siting
An example of the economic benefit of an improved micro siting.
Conditions:
Micro siting:
Project size:
Wind turbine size:
Number of wind turbines:
Mean annual wind speed:
AEPgross per wind turbine:
Combined loss and correction factor:
Price or value per kWh:
Project lifetime:
24 MW
600 kW
40
7 m/s (Weibull distribution)
1,55 GWh
0.85
0.55 RMB/kWh
20 years
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