Lab 5

Ohms Law
Objectives:
To apply the concepts of electric field and electric potential to a circuit.
To apply Ohms Law to series and parallel DC circuits.
To learn how to use a breadboard to build an electric circuit.
To correctly use a multimeter (ammeter and voltmeter) to measure voltage and current.
To use the continuity checker on the multimeter to trouble-shoot a circuit.

Equipment:

Breadboard and lead wires

Carbon composite resistors with color-code
1 Multimeter and 1 analog ammeter
1 SPST switch
7 Connecting leads with banana plugs
Safety:
Use standard laboratory safety precautions.
Care of the Equipment:
You will check out a multimeter from the stock room and verify that its ammeter has a working fuse in
it. You will be given instruction in the proper way to connect an ammeter to a circuit. It is important
that you observe these instructions, as the improper use of an ammeter will result in a blown fuse. You
will be responsible for the cost ($3.00) to replace the fuse should you blow it.

51

52

5.1
5.1.1

LAB 5. OHMS LAW

Theory
Electric Charges, Fields, and Potentials

We have seen in the previous experiment on electric fields that a point-shaped distribution of charge q1 , either
positive or negative, sets up a region of influence around it known as an electric field. A tiny positive test charge
q2 (tiny so that its presence does not noticeably alter the field) can be placed in the electric field E. The test
charge will accelerate in the direction of the electric field lines. An electric force F acts on the charge according
to Coulombs law (Eq. 5.1). The force is proportional to the electric fields strength at the location of the test
charge. The proportionality constant is the size of the test charge, as seen in Eq. 5.2.

F =k

q1 q2
, k = 8.99 109 N m2 /C2
r2
F = q2 E

(5.1)
(5.2)

We want to move the discussion from a charge distribution located in space to the charge distribution created
by the chemical reaction in a battery. The positive and negative terminals of the battery are repositories of positive
and negative charge, respectively. When wires and light bulbs or resistors are connected in a loop to the two
terminals, an electric field is set up through out the wire with one end at positive potential and the other end at
negative potential. Just as a free test charge is accelerated through space by an electric field, charged particles in
the wire are accelerated by this electric field. The charged particles in a conducting wire that are free to move are
not positive charges, but negatively charged electrons. Hence, the direction they are accelerated is opposite to the
direction of the electric field lines.
The conduction electrons throughout the wire all respond to the presence of the electric field. They experience
and respond to the potential difference established when the wires are connected to the batterys terminals. An
individual electron does not travel very far before it bumps into another particle, but the total response of all of the
electrons constitutes the electric current. The speed with which individual electrons move, the drift velocity, is not
very fast compared to the almost instantaneous speed with which the electric field is established. Thus, multiple
light bulbs in a loop will be seen to light at the same time. If these ideas seem strange to you, please ask your
instructor to discuss them with you.
The potential difference maintained by a battery is often called its emf or E . Originally, emf stood for
electromotive force, but since the potential difference is not a force with units of newtons (N), this is a bit of a
misnomer. Nevertheless, the term survives, but is usually called ee-m-eff rather than electromotive force. Consider the electric potential energy U a positively charged particle has by virtue of its position in an electric field
near the terminal of high potential (+V ). Its electric potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy (KE)
as the particle is accelerated by the electric force. Both types of energy are, of course, measured in joules (J). The
electric potential is the potential energy per charge, or
U
(5.3)
q
Hence, we see that the units of electric potential V are J/C or volts (V). In our work with circuits, we are generally
interested in a difference of potential V between two points in the circuit.
V =

U
(5.4)
q
We will speak of the potential difference between the two terminals of a battery, that is, the emf (E ) of the battery,
such as 6 V. We can designate one terminal as being at 6 V potential, and the other at 0 potential, or we could say
V =

5.1. THEORY

53

that one terminal is at 9 V and the other at 3 V, as long as the difference is 6 V. In the circuit, we will speak of the
voltage drop across a resistor. As we analyze simple circuits, we will generally assume that we are working with
ideal wires, wires that offer no resistance, and hence have no voltage drop. These concepts bring us to Ohms law
and Kirchhoffs laws.

5.1.2

Ohms Law and Kirchhoffs Laws

Georg Ohm was a 19th Century German Physicist who discovered and codified the relationships between current,
potential difference, resistance to current flow, and power dissipation in DC circuits.
In many situations, it is found that the current through a component is proportional to the voltage drop across
that component, with the proportionality constant being the inverse of the resistance of the component. This relationship is known as Ohms law.
V
(5.5)
R
Thus, resistance, R = V /I, is the ratio of voltage to current, giving it SI units of volts per amp (V/A) or
joule seconds per coulomb (J s/C). For convenience, this unit is called an ohm in honor of the Georg Ohm,
and is given the symbol , the Greek letter Omega. A resistor has a resistance of 1 when a current of 1 ampere
is measured in a circuit that has a voltage drop of 1 volt across the resistor.
I=

It must be realized that Ohms Law generally only applies over a narrow range of voltages and currents. Resistance itself is inversely proportional to the temperature of the resistor, and the temperature of the resistor is in
turn dependent on the power dissipated within it and on the ambient temperature.
If the resistance (e.g., the ratio of voltage to current) does remain constant over a wide range of voltages, the
device is said to be ohmic and in a circuit it follows Ohms law. An example of this is the wire-wound resistor used
in the experiment. In contrast, are semiconductor devices such as diodes and transistors which show non-ohmic
behavior.
The power supplied to a circuit by a battery or DC voltage source is given by the product of the current through
the battery and the emf that the battery supplies.

P = IE

(5.6)

The power dissipated in resistive components in the DC circuit is given by

V2
(5.7)
R
The sum of the powers dissipated by the resistive components is equal to the power supplied to the circuit by the
source.
P = IV = I 2 R =

A brief mention can be made here of Kirchhoffs laws. Kirchhoffs voltage or loop law says that in any loop
of the circuit, the sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises. The current or node law says
that at any node the algebraic sum of currents is equal to zero.

5.1.3

Circuits

The simple circuits we will set up during this experiment model two basic types. A series circuit is defined as a
circuit in which there is only one path for current to flow. A parallel circuit is a circuit in which there are two or

54

LAB 5. OHMS LAW

more paths or branches through which current can flow. When a circuit has more than one resistor, analysis usually involves replacing the multiple resistors with equivalent resistors until the circuit is simplified to one source
and one resistor. This is known as the equivalent circuit. Ohms law can then be used to compute the current
through the source and the one resistor, given the E of the battery and the resistance R of the resistor.
R1

R2

R3

12VDC

Figure 5.1: A series circuit has one loop through which current flows.

When multiple (n) resistors with resistances, R1 , R2 , R3 , , Rn , are connected in series (Fig.5.1), the current in each resistor is equal to the current I through the source, since there is no opportunity for the current to
divide into portions. The E supplied by the source is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across each resistor,
following Kirchhoffs voltage law. The equivalent series resistance Rs is the sum of the resistances of each resistor. That is,

I = I1 = I2 = I3 = = In

(5.8)

Requiv (series) = R1 + R2 + R3 + + Rn

(5.9)

E = V 1 + V 2 + V3 + + Vn

(5.10)

R1
R2
R3
12VDC

Figure 5.2: A parallel circuit has multiple branches or paths into which the current divides.

When n resistors with resistances, R1 , R2 , R3 , , Rn , are connected in parallel, that is, in a circuit with
separate branches into which the current can divide, as shown in Fig.5.2, the following equations apply:
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + + In

(5.11)

1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ +
Requiv (parallel)
R1
R2
R3
Rn

(5.12)

5.2. PROCEDURE

55

E = V 1 = V 2 = V3 = = V n

5.1.4

(5.13)

Multimeters, Voltmeters, and Ammeters

In this experiment, you will use a multimeter to measure voltage and an analog ammeter to measure current.
By selecting different scales, a multimeter can be used as a DC ammeter, a DC voltmeter, an AC ammeter, and
a DC voltmeter. It can also be used to check continuity of a wire or portion of a circuit that has no power going to
it. These instruments are delicate and expensive. It is essential to understand the correct way to use them before
connecting them to your circuit. Ask your instructor to check your circuit before you connect the multimeter.
A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across a component, and is always connected in parallel with the component. That is, the voltmeters probes are placed across or one each side of the component. It is
vital that polarity always be observed when using an analog voltmeter (i.e., you must connect the positive terminal
of the meter to the terminal with the greater voltage, and the negative terminal to the lesser voltage). Since the
voltmeter introduces a new path for current to flow and we wish to minimize its effect on the circuit, an analog
voltmeter movement is wired in series with an internal resistor of very high (ideally, infinite) resistance, such that
very little current is diverted from the circuit being measured.
It is not necessary to observe polarity when using a digital voltmeter, as found in your multimeter.
The ammeter measures the amount of current flowing in the circuit. It is always connected in series with the
circuit. That is, the circuit is broken apart, and the ammeter is inserted into the circuit. Since the ammeter is in
series with the circuit, all current in the circuit passes through it. Again, it is vital that polarity is observed when
connecting an analog meter. The ammeter movement has an internal resistor of very low resistance (ideally, zero)
wired in parallel to the movement. This allows the ammeter to be in the circuit while contributing only a very
small extra voltage drop.
It is also not necessary to observe polarity with a digital ammeter.
In the ideal case, the act of taking a measurement with the ammeter and the voltmeter has no effect on the
circuit. In the real case, however, the voltmeters internal series resistance is not infinite but typically 1 M,
and the ammeters internal parallel resistance is not zero but typically 50 . Therefore, their use does exert a
small effect on the circuit. For high precision measurements, this effect can be calculated and the experimental
measurements can be adjusted.

5.2
5.2.1

Procedure
Notes Before You Start

CAUTION: Do NOT connect to the power supply terminals, or close the power switch, until your circuit has been
checked and approved by your instructor. The ammeter can be instantly and permanently ruined by an improper
connection. Any changes in the circuit are to be made only after the switch has been opened.
For each of the procedures below, you will find a schematic diagram. Refer to the diagrams when you construct your circuits.
Note that if finding the resistance of a circuit element is your goal, the voltmeter and ammeter must be read
simultaneously. Fluctuations in the line voltage from one moment to the next dictate simultaneous measurements.

56

5.2.2

LAB 5. OHMS LAW

Experimental Procedure

Figure 5.3: A breadboard is mounted with convenient sockets for making connections with banana plugs.

Figure 5.4: Connections from the sockets to the multimeter,ammeter, and power supply are made using leads with banana
plugs. Connections (not shown) on the breadboard and from the breadboard to the sockets are made with plain lead wires.

5.2. PROCEDURE

57

Figure 5.5: A breadboard provides a convenient way to construct and test a circuit. The lower portion of the figure shows the
pattern of hidden electrical connections. Notice which sockets are electrically connected.

Figure 5.6: This is the schematic for a series circuit with three resistors. The use of a breadboard to wire this circuit is shown
in Fig. 5.7.

Figure 5.7: The longer upper and lower strips of connected sockets are called buses. The positive bus is connected with a lead
wire and to the positive side of the power source. The negative bus is connected to the negative of the power source. The three
resistors are connected in a series arrangement.

58

LAB 5. OHMS LAW

+

R1

R2
2

+
12 VDC

Figure 5.8: The voltmeter is placed in parallel or across a component and measures the voltage drop across that component.
The ammeter is placed in series or in line with the component and measures the current passing through the component. If the
ammeter is not connected in this manner, it can easily be destroyed.

1. Connect the two resistors in series on your breadboard as shown in Fig. 5.8. This will place the ammeter
and voltmeter at the points marked A and V, as shown in the schematic diagram. Be sure that you connect
the + terminals of both the ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the diagrams. Do not connect the power
leads to the power supply terminals yet, and be sure to leave the switch open. Have your circuit approved
by your instructor before continuing.
2. Connect the power leads to the power supply terminals (be sure to observe polarity!), and close the switch.
Record the current I through the circuit, and the voltage drop V across the series combination in the table
provided. Remember, these measurements must be done simultaneously.
+

V
R1

R2
2

+
12 VDC

Figure 5.9: Measuring the voltage drop across R1 .

3. Open the switch before continuing. Connect the voltmeter across R1 as shown in Fig. 5.9, without
disturbing the rest of the circuit. Close the switch and record the voltage drop V1 across R1 and the ammeter
reading I1 .
4. Open the switch before continuing. Connect the voltmeter across R2 as shown in Fig. 5.10, without
disturbing the rest of the circuit. Close the switch and record the voltage drop V2 across R2 and the milliammeter reading I2 .
5. Open the switch before continuing. Disconnect all wires except the power leads.

5.2. PROCEDURE

59

R1

R2
2

+
12 VDC

Figure 5.10: Measuring the voltage drop across R2 .

V
R1

R2

+
12VDC

2
A

Figure 5.11: Measuring the current I through the main branch of this parallel circuit.

60

LAB 5. OHMS LAW

6. With the switch still open, rewire your breadboard and connect the two resistors in parallel, as shown in
Fig. 5.11. Connect the voltmeter across both parallel branches. Insert the ammeter into the main branch of
the circuit. Leave the switch open, and have your circuit approved by your instructor before continuing.
7. Close the switch. Record the current through the circuit, I, and the voltage drop V across the parallel
combination.
+

V
R1

R2

+
12VDC

Figure 5.12: Measuring the current through R1 . Note that the current I in the main branch divides into I1 and I2 , the currents
in the two parallel branches.

8. Open the switch before continuing. Connect the milliammeter in series with R1 , as shown in Fig. 5.12,
without disturbing the rest of the circuit. Close the switch and record the current I1 through resistor R1 ,
and the voltmeter reading V1 .
+

+
12VDC

V
R1

R2
A

Figure 5.13: Measuring I2 .

9. Open the switch before continuing. Connect the milliammeter in series with R2 , as shown in Fig. 5.13,
without disturbing the rest of the circuit. Close the switch and record the current I2 through resistor R2 ,
and the voltmeter reading V2 .
10. Open the switch before continuing. Disconnect all wires and clean up your lab area.

5.3. CALCULATIONS

61
Table 5.1: Experimental Data

Circuit

I (mA)

I1 (mA)

I2 (mA)

E (V)

V1 (V)

V2 (V)

Series
Parallel

5.2.3

5.3

Data

Calculations

1. Series circuit: Using the experimentally determined values of I, I1 , I2 , E , V1 , and V2 from Table 5.1,
compute the values of R1 and R2 , and Requiv , by the application of Ohms Law as shown in Eq. 5.14. Enter
these values in the Series row of Table 5.3.

Requiv =

E
I

R1 =

V1
I1

R2 =

V2
I2

(5.14)

2. Parallel circuit: Using the experimentally determined values of I, I1 , I2 , E , V1 , and V2 from Table 5.1,
compute the values of R1 and R2 , and Requiv , by the application of Ohms Law (Eq. 5.14). Enter these
values in the Parallel row of Table 5.3.

Figure 5.14: To read the color code on a resistor, place the gold tolerance band to your right. The first two bands on the left
correspond to digit values, and the third band is the multiplier. For example, a resistor with bands red, red, red, gold has a
value of 2200 .

3. Series circuit: Using the values of R1 and R2 that are obtained by reading the color code (see Figure 5.14
and Table 5.2) on the resistors, and Eq. 5.9, compute the theoretical equivalent series resistance Requiv .
Enter these values in the Series row of Table 5.4.
4. Parallel circuit: Using the values of R1 and R2 that are obtained by reading the color code on the resistors,
and Eq. 5.12, compute the theoretical equivalent parallel resistance Requiv . Enter these values in the Parallel
row of Table 5.4.

5.4

Analysis

Compare the experimental and theoretical values for the equivalent resistance of the series circuit. Determine the
percent error using Eq. 5.15 in which Xexp represents the experimentally determined value and Xth represents the
theoretical value of the resistance. Do the same for the parallel circuit.
Percent error =

|Xexp Xth |
100%
Xth

(5.15)

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LAB 5. OHMS LAW

Table 5.2: Resistor Color Code

Color

Digit value

Multiplier

Tolerance

Black

100

Brown

101

1%

Red

102

2%

Orange

103

Yellow

104

Green

105

0.5%

Blue

106

0.25%

Violet

107

0.10%

Grey

108

0.05%

White

109

Gold

10

5%

Silver

10

10%

Table 5.3: Experimental Resistance Values

Circuit

R1 ()

R2 ()

Requiv ()

Series
Parallel

Table 5.4: Theoretical Resistance Values

Circuit
Series
Parallel

R1 ()

R2 ()

Requiv ()

5.5. QUESTIONS

5.5

63

Questions

1. Why should the ammeter and voltmeter be read simultaneously to determine the resistance of a circuit
component?
2. Figure 5.9 shows a series circuit with an ammeter and a voltmeter being used simultaneously for the purpose of obtaining the unknown resistance of R1 . If the meters are connected as illustrated, the voltage drop
measured across R1 is not completely accurate because it is affected by the voltage drop across the 50-
internal resistance of the non-ideal ammeter. On the other hand, the ammeter, in the position shown, is
reading an accurate current. Show the schematic diagram for another possible way of making simultaneous current and voltage readings and describe the error involved in this measurement. Compare the error
involved in each of the two choices of measurement with non-ideal meters. Be specific and use either a
symbolic analysis with equations or a numerical analysis with typical values.
3. The conductance G is equal to the reciprocal of resistance, i.e., G = 1/R. Using this definition, rewrite
Ohms Law, the formula for the equivalent resistance of series resistors, and the formula for the equivalent
resistance of parallel resistors in terms of conductance. The SI unit for conductance is the siemen (S).
4. If a lamp has a resistance of 25 , what must the resistance of a second lamp, which is connected in parallel
to the first, be for the total resistance to be 18.75 ?
5. A radio with a resistance of 40 and a clock with a resistance of 20 are connected in series on a 120V
line.
(a) What is the equivalent resistance?
(b) What is the current?
(c) What is the total voltage drop across the the radio and the clock? What is the voltage drop across each
component?
(d) What is the power supplied to the circuit? How much power is dissipated by each component?
(e) Suppose the radio and clock were connected in parallel. What is the equivalent resistance?
(f) In the case that they are connected in parallel, what is the current in the radio, the current in the clock,
and the current through the source?
(g) What is the power supplied to the circuit in the parallel case? How much power is dissipated by each
component?

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LAB 5. OHMS LAW