GEOL411: Fabrics: foliations and lineations

11.1 Rock fabrics

A fabric is a geometrical arrqngement of component features in a rock, viewed on a scale large enough to include many examples
of each feature.
Individual components are called fabric elements.
Primary fabrics form during the formation of the rock, e.g. bedding
These may give information on rock formation conditions and way up.
Tectonic fabrics form as a result of tectonic deformation
These may give information about the orientation and intensity of tectonic events.
On the 411 field trip, we saw primary fabrics (bedding) in sandstone and limestone at Matthieson State ark.
We saw tectonic fabrics at Devils Lake (cleavage in phyllites)
11.2 Terminology
A random fabric shows no preferred orientation
e.g. undeformed sandstone, basalt, granite
A non-random fabric shows an alignment of fabric elements, usually repeated at an approximately regular spacing. We can
distinguish:
Continuous fabrics are spaced at less than ~ 1mm (visibly continuous)
Discontinuous fabrics are spaced at more than ~ 1mm (visibly discontinuous)
Rocks with a penetrative tectonic fabric are called tectonites. The two main types of fabric are planar (foliations) and linear
(lineations):
Note that planar refers to a surface, whch may be curved (curviplanar)
S-tectonites have a dominantly planar fabric (S = surface)
L-tectonites have a dominantly linear fabric
LS-tectonites have both planar and linear fabrics, with neither dominant
May have several generations of fabrics, in which case the earliest(usually bedding) is S 0, then later ones are called S1, S2, and so
on.
11.3 Foliations
There is a progressions with increasing metamorphic grade (basically increasing temperature) from cleavage to schistosity to
gneissic layering.
Cleavage is a secondary fabric element, formed under non-metamorphic or very low grade metamorphic conditions, that imparts a
tendency for the rock to split along planes.
i.e.
(i) forms subsequent to formation of the rock
(ii) low grade
(iii) planes of weakness which rock may split along when uplifted and exposed, although cleavage forms without loss of
cohesion.
We will now go through a typical progression from low grade to high grade foliations, although not all of these will form in all
rocks (think of quartzites!)
(i) disjunctive cleavage is defined by an array of subparallel cleavage domains (where original fabric ad composition have been
changed by pressure solution), separated by microlithons (relatively unchanged):

Also known as pressure solution cleavage or stylolitic cleavage.

It forms by removal of calcite or quartz grains leading to a concentration of clay minerals. Remember water must be bonded to
grain, otherwise just hydrostatic stress and no pressure solution.

Different morphologies may occur, for

example
a) sutured domains
b) planar domains
c) wavy domains
d) anastomosing array
The scale for describing different cleavages is approximately:
Spaced cleavage

I Continuous cleavage

1m
10 cm
1 cm
1 mm
0.1 mm
_____]__________]__________]__________]__________]_____
isolated ]
weak
] moderate ] strong ] slaty
(ii) pencil cleavage is a result of a tectonic fabric (cleavage) superimposed on a primary fabric(bedding) in clay-rich rocks.
During sedimentation, clays settle out of suspension with a prefrered orientation, so rock splits easily parallel to bedding
(shales). Superimposed tectonic fabric gives near-orthogonal intersections of clay-rich domains, which allows the rock to
break into pencils (typically 5 - 10 cm by 0.5 - 1 cm)
Pencil cleavage may form as a prelude to slaty cleavage:

(iii) slaty cleavage : clays throughout the rock have the same tectonically induced preferred orientation, and there are no
microlithons visible to the naked eye. Strain ellipsoid is oblate and parallel to the fabric. Forms at lowest grade metamorphic
conditions, with some new mineral growth
(e.g. smectite -> illite + H2O)
(iv) phyllitic cleavage is a result of higher grade (greenschist) metamorphism, where clays + illite -> white mica + chlorite. New
mineral growth has a strong preferred orintation if it occurs in an anisotropic stress field. Phyllites look like slates only shinier.
(v) crenulation cleavage forms when a rock is compressed at a low angle to an existing slaty cleavage. It may be symmetric or
asymmetric:

Crenulation cleavage is usually S2, after the slaty

cleavage (S1) has overprinted bedding (S0).
Pressure solution may occur simultaneously, in
which case a mineralogical differentiationoccurs,
with quartz concentrated in hinges and micas on the
limbs of kink folds.
If complete, differentiation results
intransposition of the old fabric into a new
orientation, and may also give rise to small-scale
compositional layering.
Or quartz may be removed by pressure solution, in
which case the rock will once again have a slaty
cleavage.
(vi) schistosity is a result of medium grade metamorphism, where new minerals such as garnet can grow. They may grow up to
several cm, and muscovite, chlorite and biotite are also coarser. There are no clay minerals left.
(vii) gneiss is a metamorphic rock in which foliation is defined by compositional banding. This may occur in several ways:
a) inheritance from original lithology

b) transposition may create a new compositional banding (in this case as fold hinges are stretched and fold hinges become
separated):

c) metamorphic differentiation, where diffusion processes result in alternating mafic (Fe, Mg-rich) and felsic (Si, Al, and alkalirich) bands:

d) lit-par-lit intrusion, where melt is injected as thin

sills along weak planes in the protolith

11.4 Tectonic interpretation of foliations

Where deformed reduction spots are present in a slate, this is a useful indicator of strain for the time subsequent to reduction spot
formation (i.e. after the slaty cleavage already formed). The XY planes of deformed reduction spots (strain ellipsoids) are usually
parallel to slaty cleavage domains.
Note that cleavage does not have to form in the XY plane (normal to s1), for example in flexural slip folds (topic 10). Also
wherever we find sigmoidal crenulation cleavage there has clearly been shear on the cleavage plane so it cannot be a plane of
principle stress.
In many folded regions there will be an axial planar cleavage, formed approximately normal to s1, and parallel to the axial planes
of the folds, which gives the following cleavage-bedding relations:

Cleavage is steeper than bedding if the fold is upward-facing.

Sometimes there my be cleavage refraction, where cleavage in more rigid (more competent) layers retains its originally high angle
to bedding:

Note that cleavage refraction gives a tool for determining sense of shear
(dextral on the left hand limb, sinistral on the right hand limb)
Note that pressure solution may result in considerable (<50%) volume loss, so beware when measuring finite
strain!

11.5 Lineations
A lineation is a fabric element that can be represented by a line.
(i) Form lineations are manifestations of the occurrence of other structures:
(a) fold-hinge lineations andcrenulation
lineations
(hinge lines of folds or microfolds)
(b) rods
(detached fold hinges where limbs have
thinned to zero)

(c) mullions (cusp-like contacts between rocks of different competency)

(d) boudins (sausage-shaped lenses of relatively rigid layers in soft matrix)

(e) elongate objects e.g. pebbles (beware that these are not primary features!)
(ii) Surface lineations are found on planar surfaces such as bedding planes:
intersection lineations occur at the intersection of two planar fabric
elements (e.g. bedding-cleavage intersection)
slip lineations form on fault surfaces, or on bedding planes during
flexural folding, and are parallel to the slip direction.
Groove lineations are caused by plowing of asperities
Fibre lineations form when vein mineral fibres precipitate via crack-seal (topic 7).
(iii) Mineral lineations are defined by preferred orientation of mineral grains
this may be due either to growth in a preferred orientation
(controlled by differential stress field or flow-controlled diffusion)
or due to rotation of elongate grains towards a principal strain direction during progressive deformation
11.6 Rock anisotropy
Foliations and lineations cause rocks to be strongly anisotropic. Detected by:
speed of sound waves in different directions
reflectivity of sound waves
magnetic anisotropy
e.g. mineral lineations (olivine) in the mantle record mantle flow directions, detected by speed of sound waves in different
directions
(shear wave splitting)
11.7 Review / summary
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Definition of fabric most common are foliation and lineations

Growth and development of cleavage, schistosity, gneissic layering
Different lineations (form, slip, mineral)
Tectonic interpretations: bedding/cleavage relations, axial planar cleavage, cleavage refraction
Rock anisotropy results from fabrics and can be useful!

Metamorphic Rock Textures

This document last updated on 21-Mar-2012

Metamorphic rocks exhibit a variety of textures. These can range from textures similar to the original protolith at
low grades of metamorphism, to textures that are purely produced during metamorphism and leave the rock with
little resemblance to the original protolith. Textural features of metamorphic rocks have been discussed in the
previous lecture. Here, we concentrate on the development of foliation, one of the most common purely
metamorphic textures, and on the processes involved in forming compositional layering commonly observed in

metamorphic rocks.
Foliation

Foliation is defined as a pervasive planar structure that results from the nearly parallel alignment of sheet silicate
minerals and/or compositional and mineralogical layering in the rock. Most foliation is caused by the preferred
orientation of phylosilicates, like clay minerals, micas, and chlorite. Preferred orientation develops as a result of
non-hydrostatic or differential stress acting on the rock (also called deviatoric stress). We here review the
differences between hydrostatic and differential stress.
Stress and Preferred Orientation
Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary with depth in the Earth.
Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions. It is a type of stress, called hydrostatic
stress or uniform stress. If the stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is called a differential stress.
Normally geologists talk about stress as compressional stress. Thus, if a differential stress is acting on the rock, the
direction along which the maximum principal stress acts is called 1, the minimum principal stress is called 3, and
the intermediate principal stress direction is called 2. Note that extensional stress would act along the direction of
minimum principal stress.

If differential stress is present during metamorphism, it can have a profound

effect on the texture of the rock.

Rounded grains can become flattened in the direction of maximum

compressional stress.

Minerals that crystallize or grow in the differential

stress field may develop a preferred
orientation. Sheet silicates and minerals that have
an elongated habit will grow with their sheets or
direction of elongation orientated perpendicular to
the direction of maximum stress.

This is because growth of such minerals is easier along directions parallel to sheets, or along the direction
of elongation and thus will grow along 3 or 2, perpendicular to 1.
Since most phyllosilicates are aluminous minerals, aluminous (pelitic) rocks like shales, generally
develop a foliation as the result of metamorphism in a differential stress field.

Example - metamorphism of a shale (made up initially of clay minerals and quartz)

Shales have fissility that is caused by the

preferred orientation of clay minerals
with their {001} planes orientated
parallel to bedding. Metamorphic
petrologists and structural geologists
refer to the original bedding surface as
S0.

Slate Slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of fine grained chlorite and clay minerals. The
preferred orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily break planes parallel to the sheet
silicates, causing a slatey cleavage.

Note that in the case shown

here, the maximum principle
stress is oriented at an angle to
the original bedding planes so
that the slatey cleavage develops
at an angle to the original
bedding. The foliation or surface
produced by this deformation is
referred to S1.

Schist - The size of the mineral grains tends

to enlarge with increasing grade of
metamorphism. Eventually the rock
develops a near planar foliation caused by
the preferred orientation of sheet silicates
(mainly biotite and muscovite). Quartz and
feldspar grains, however show no preferred
orientation. The irregular planar foliation at
this stage is calledschistosity

Gneiss As metamorphic grade increases, the sheet silicates become unstable and dark colored minerals
like hornblende and pyroxene start to grow.

These dark colored minerals tend to

become segregated into distinct bands
through the rock (this process is called
metamorphic differentiation), giving the
rock agneissic banding. Because the dark
colored minerals tend to form elongated
crystals, rather than sheet- like crystals,
they still have a preferred orientation with
their long directions perpendicular to the
maximum differential stress.

Granulite - At the highest grades of metamorphism most of the hydrous minerals

and sheet silicates become unstable and thus there are few minerals present that
would show a preferred orientation. The resulting rock will have a granulitic
texture that is similar to a phaneritic texture in igneous rocks.

In general, the grain size of metamorphic rocks tends to increase with increasing grade of metamorphism, as seen
in the progression form fine grained shales to coarser (but still fine) grained slates, to coarser grained schists and
gneisses.
Metamorphism and Deformation
Most regionally metamorphosed rocks (at least those that eventually get exposed at the Earth's surface) are
metamorphosed during deformational events. Since deformation involves the application of differential stress, the
textures that develop in metamorphic rocks reflect the mode of deformation, and foliations or slatey cleavage that
develop during metamorphism reflect the deformational mode and are part of the deformational structures.
The deformation involved in the formation of fold-thrust
mountain belts generally involves compressional stresses.
The result of compressional stress acting on rocks that
behave in a ductile manner (ductile behavior is favored by
higher temperature, higher confining stress [pressure] and
low strain rates) is the folding of rocks. Original bedding
is folded into a series of anticlines and synclines with fold
axes perpendicular to the direction of maximum
compressional stress. These folds can vary in their scale
from centimeters to several kilometers between hinges.
Note that since the axial planes are oriented perpendicular
to the maximum compressional stress direction, slatey
cleavage or foliation should also develop along these
directions. Thus, slatey cleavage or foliation is often
seen to be parallel to the axial planes of folds, and is
sometimes referred to axial plane cleavage or foliation.

Metamorphic Differentiation
As discussed above, gneisses, and to some extent schists, show compositional banding or layering, usually evident
as alternating somewhat discontinuous bands or layers of dark colored ferromagnesian minerals and lighter colored
quartzo-feldspathic layers. The development of such compositional layering or banding is referred to
as metamorphic differentiation. Throughout the history of metamorphic petrology, several mechanisms have been
proposed to explain metamorphic differentiation.

1.

Preservation of Original Compositional Layering. In some rocks the compositional layering may not
represent metamorphic differentiation at all, but instead could simply be the result of original bedding.
For example, during the early stages of metamorphism and deformation of interbedded sandstones and
shales the compositional layering could be preserved even if the maximum compressional stress direction
were at an angle to the original bedding.

In such a case, a foliation might develop

in the shale layers due to the
recrystallization of clay minerals or the
crystallization of other sheet silicates
with a preferred orientation controlled
by the maximum stress direction.

Here, it would be easy to determine that the compositional layers represented original bedding because the
foliation would cut across the compositional layering.

In highly deformed rocks that have

undergone both folding and shearing, it may
be more difficult to determine that the
compositional layering represents original
bedding. As shearing stretches the bedding,
individual folded beds may be stretched out
and broken to that the original folds are not
easily seen.

Similarly, if the rock had been injected by dikes or sills prior to metamorphism, these contrasting
compositional bands, not necessarily parallel to the original bedding, could be preserved in the
metamorphic rock.
2.

Transposition of Original Bedding. Original compositional layering a rock could also become
transposed to a new orientation during metamorphism. The diagram below shows how this could occur.
In the initial stages a new foliation begins to develop in the rock as a result of compressional stress at
some angle to the original bedding. As the minerals that form this foliation grow, they begin to break up
the original beds into small pods. As the pods are compressed and extended, partly by recrystallization,
they could eventually intersect again to form new compositional bands parallel to the new foliation.

3.

Solution and Re-precipitation. In fine grained metamorphic rocks small scale folds, called kink bands,
often develop in the rock as the result of application of compressional stress. A new foliation begins to
develop along the axial planes of the folds. Quartz and feldspar may dissolve as a result of pressure
solution and be reprecipitated at the hinges of the folds where the pressure is lower. As the new foliation
begins to align itself perpendicular to 1, the end result would be alternating bands of micas or sheet
silicates and quartz or feldspar, with layering parallel to the new foliation.

4.

Preferential Nucleation. Fluids present during metamorphism have the ability to dissolve minerals and
transport ions from one place in the rock to another.

Thus felsic minerals could be dissolved

from one part of the rock and
preferentially nucleate and grow in
another part of the rock to produce
discontinuous layers of alternating
mafic and felsic compositions.
5.

Migmatization. As discussed previously, migmatites are small pods and lenses that occur in high grade
metamorphic terranes that may represent melts of the surrounding metamorphic rocks. Injection of the
these melts into pods and layers in the rock could also produce the discontinuous banding often seen in
high grade metamorphic rocks. The process would be similar to that described in 4, above, except that it
would involve partially melting the original rock to produce a felsic melt, which would then migrate and
crystallize in pods and layers in the metamorphic rock. Further deformation of the rock could then stretch
and fold such layers so that they may no longer by recognizable as migmatites.

STRUKTUR DAN TEKSTUR BATUAN METAMORF

A. Struktur Batuan Metamorf
Adalah kenampakan batuan yang berdasarkan ukuran, bentuk atau orientasi unit poligranular batuan tersebut. (Jacson, 1997).
Secara umum struktur batuan metamorf dapat dibadakan menjadi struktur foliasi dan nonfoliasi (Jacson, 1997).
1. Struktur Foliasi
Merupakan kenampakan struktur planar pada suatu massa. Foliasi ini dapat terjadi karena adnya penjajaran mineral-mineral
menjadi lapisan-lapisan (gneissoty), orientasi butiran (schistosity), permukaan belahan planar (cleavage) atau kombinasi dari
ketiga hal tersebut (Jacson, 1970).
Struktur foliasi yang ditemukan adalah :
1a. Slaty Cleavage
Umumnya ditemukan pada batuan metamorf berbutir sangat halus (mikrokristalin) yang dicirikan oleh adanya bidang-bidang
belah planar yang sangat rapat, teratur dan sejajar. Batuannya disebut slate (batusabak).

Gambar Struktur Slaty Cleavage dan Sketsa Pembentukan Struktur

1b. Phylitic
Srtuktur ini hampir sama dengan struktur slaty cleavage tetapi terlihat rekristalisasi yang lebih besar dan mulai terlihat pemisahan
mineral pipih dengan mineral granular. Batuannya disebut phyllite (filit)

Gambar Struktur Phylitic

1c. Schistosic
Terbentuk adanya susunan parallel mineral-mineral pipih, prismatic atau lentikular (umumnya mika atau klorit) yang berukuran
butir sedang sampai kasar. Batuannya disebut schist (sekis).

Gambar Struktur Schistosic dan Sketsa Pembentukan Struktur

1d. Gneissic/Gnissose
Terbentuk oleh adanya perselingan., lapisan penjajaran mineral yang mempunyai bentuk berbeda, umumnya antara mineralmineral granuler (feldspar dan kuarsa) dengan mineral-mineral tabular atau prismatic (mioneral ferromagnesium). Penjajaran
mineral ini umumnya tidak menerus melainkan terputus-putus. Batuannya disebut gneiss.

Gambar Struktur Gneissic dan Sketsa Pembentukan Struktur

2. Struktur Non Foliasi
Terbentuk oleh mineral-mineral equidimensional dan umumnya terdiri dari butiran-butiran (granular). Struktur non foliasi yang
umum dijumpai antara lain:
2.a Hornfelsic/granulose
Terbentuk oleh mozaic mineral-mineral equidimensional dan equigranular dan umumnya berbentuk polygonal. Batuannya disebut
hornfels (batutanduk)

Gambar Sruktur Granulose

2b. Kataklastik
Berbentuk oleh pecahan/fragmen batuan atau mineral berukuran kasar dan umumnya membentuk kenampakan breksiasi. Struktur
kataklastik ini terjadi akibat metamorfosa kataklastik. Batuannya disebut cataclasite (kataklasit).
2c.

Milonitic

Dihasilkan oleh adanya penggerusan mekanik pada metamorfosa kataklastik. Cirri struktur ini adalah mineralnya berbutir halus,
menunjukkan kenampakan goresan-goresan searah dan belum terjadi rekristalisasi mineral-mineral primer. Batiannya disebut
mylonite (milonit).

Struktur Milonitic
2d. Phylonitic
Mempunyai kenampakan yang sama dengan struktur milonitik tetapi umumnya telah terjadi rekristalisasi. Cirri lainnya adlah
kenampakan kilap sutera pada batuan yang ,mempunyai struktur ini. Batuannya disebut phyllonite (filonit).
B. Tekstur Batuan Metamorf
Merupakan kenampakan batuan yang berdasarkan pada ukuran, bentuk dan orientasi butir mineral dan individual penyusun batuan
metamorf. Penamaan tekstur batuan metamorf umumnya menggunakan awalan blasto atau akhiran blastic tang ditambahkan pada
istilah dasarnya. (Jacson, 1997).
1. Tekstur Berdasarkan Ketahanan Terhadap Proses Metamorfosa
Berdasarkan ketahanan terhadap prose metamorfosa ini tekstur batuan metamorf dapat dibedakan menjadi:
a. Relict/Palimset/Sisa
Merupakan tekstur batuan metamorf yang masih menunjukkan sisa tekstur batuan asalnya atau tekstur batuan asalnya nasih
tampak pada batuan metamorf tersebut.
b. Kristaloblastik
Merupakan tekstur batuan metamorf yang terbentuk oleh sebab proses metamorfosa itu sendiri. Batuan dengan tekstur ini sudah
mengalami rekristalisasi sehingga tekstur asalnya tidak tampak. Penamaannya menggunakan akhiran blastik.
2. Tekstur Berdasarkan Ukuran Butir
Berdasarkan butirnya tekstur batuan metmorf dapat dibedakan menjadi:
1.
2.

Fanerit, bila butiran kristal masih dapat dilihat dengan mata

Afanitit, bila ukuran butir kristal tidak dapat dilihat dengan mata.
3. Tekstur berdasarkan bentuk individu kristal
Bentuk individu kristal pada batuan metamorf dapat dibedakan menjadi:

1.
2.

Euhedral, bila kristal dibatasi oleh bidang permukaan bidang kristal itu sendiri.
Subhedral, bila kristal dibatasi oleh sebagian bidang permukaannya sendiri dan sebagian oleh bidang permukaan kristal
disekitarnya.
Anhedral, bila kristal dibatasi seluruhnya oleh bidang permukaan kristal lain disekitarnya.
Berdasarkan bentuk kristal tersebut maka tekstur batuan metamorf dapat dibedakan menjadi:

3.

1.
2.

Idioblastik, apabila mineralnya dibatasi oleh kristal berbentuk euhedral.

Xenoblastik/Hypidioblastik, apabila mineralnya dibatasi oleh kristal berbentuk anhedral.
d. Tekstur Berdasarkan Bentuk Mineral
Berdasarkan bentuk mineralnya tekstur batuan metamorf dapat dibedakan menjadi:

1.
2.
3.

Lepidoblastik, apabila mineralnya penyusunnya berbentuk tabular.

Nematoblastik, apabila mineral penyusunnya berbentuk prismatic.
Granoblastik, apabila mineral penyusunnya berbentuk granular, equidimensional, batas mineralnya bersifat sutured (tidak teratur)
dan umumnya kristalnya berbentuk anhedral.
Granoblastik, apabila mineral penyusunnya berbentuk granular, equidimensional, batas mineralnya bersifat unsutured (lebih
teratur) dan umumnya kristalnya berbentuk anhedral.
Selain tekstur yang diatas terdapat beberapa tekstur khusus lainnya diantaranya adlah sebagai berikut:

4.

Perfiroblastik, apabila terdapat mineral yang ukurannya lebih besar tersebut sering disebutporphyroblasts.
Poikloblastik/Sieve texture, tekstur porfiroblastik dengan porphyroblasts tampak melingkupi beberapa kristal yang lebih kecil.
Mortar teksture, apabila fragmen mineral yang lebih besar terdapat padamassadasar material yang barasal dari kristal yang sama
yang terkena pemecahan (crhusing).
Decussate texture yaitu tekstur kristaloblastik batuan polimeneralik yang tidak menunjukkan keteraturan orientasi.
Saccaroidal Texture yaitu tekstur yang kenampakannya seperti gula pasir.
Batuan mineral yang hanya terdiri dari satu tekstur saja, sering disebut berstekturhomeoblastik.