Geol

345 (Spring 2014)

Lecture 13

Folding I: Folds and Their Classification

Ch. 11, p. 219-226

1. Folds: Plastic deformation is the underlying mechanism by which rocks are folded. Folds fall into the realm of
ductile deformation. Recall, this is simply a nongenetic, scale of observation term, implying deformation without
obvious brittle processes or loss of cohesion (i.e., solid-state flow). Deformation is distributed through the rock on
the granular scale.

[Figure. Caledonides folding in Greenland (cliff is 800 m high)]


2. Fold Scales: Folds are wave-like undulations of formerly planar features in rocks, such as beds. They occur at all
scales: microscopic to outcrop to regional. They may constitute much of fold-and-thrust belts (orogenic belts) that
can extend for 100s of km (e.g., Appalachians; Alps).

[Figure. Folded landscape in the Appalachians and a cross section of folds in the European Alps]


3. Fold Characteristics: Before considering the processes by which folds form (including physical conditions and
rock mechanical properties), we will simply look nongenetically at the range of fold geometries, terminologies, and
criteria for classification, based on observable characteristics of folds.

[Figure. Typical fold geometries]


4. Fold Types: There are three fundamental, basic shapes of folds:

A monocline consists of a single warp along otherwise planar layers, with no change in dip direction.
A synform is a concave-upward fold.
An antiform is concave-downward.

Whenever bedding is initially NOT overturned (most commonly the case), synforms define synclines (youngest
rocks at the center) and antiforms define anticlines (oldest rocks at the center). Overturned rocks create antiformal
synclines and synformal anticlines.

[Fig. 11.8. Basic fold shapes] [Figure. Synform and antiform]


5. Fold Terminologies: Synclines and anticlines consist of two fold limbs that meet along a hinge line. This may be
an abrupt change at a hinge point, or a broader hinge zone. The change in curvature along each limb is the
inflection line.

[Fig. 11.1. Basic terminologies for fold components]

6. Hinge Points: Hinge lines are typically not observable in a cross section view. [Figure. Hinge points]

7. Fold Hinge Zones: Fold hinges may be abrupt hinge points, such as along kink bands or chevron folds, but are
more commonly broader hinge zones, such as within concentric folds.

[Fig. 11.2. Hinge zone variability] [Figure. Chevron folds in coastal California]

Geol 345 (Spring 2014)

Lecture 13

8. Fold Terminologies: The hinge line of a fold may be curved, but where it is a straight line, it is also called the fold
axis. If the fold axis is not horizontal, the fold is plunging. If a plane exists that contains the hinge line for each
folded layer, it is called the axial plane or axial surface. In cross section view, it is a line that passes through all the
hinge points and is called the axial trace.

[Fig. 11.1. Basic terminologies for fold components]


9. Axial Trace: This is the line of intersection between the axial plane and the plane of observation. In cross
sections, it connects the hinge points.

[Figure. Axial trace]

10. Fold Terminologies: The shape of a fold can be described as cylindrical or non-cylindrical. We typically assume
a cylindrical shape when projecting folds onto cross sections, even though this may be a poor approximation.

[Fig. 11.1. Basic terminologies for fold components] [Fig. 11.4. Concept of cylindrical and non-cylindrical folds]


11. Cylindrical Folds: In cylindrical folds, lines of constant bed dip are all parallel to the fold axis. When bed strikes
and dips from anywhere in the fold are plotted on a stereonet, they pass through a common point that defines the
fold axis, so a hinge line does not need to actually be observed in the field.

[Fig. 11.5. Cylindrical fold in aplite dike] [Figure. (A) Cylindrical folds, when represented on stereonets, have bed
orientations with great circles that pass through a common point (B): the fold axis. The poles to the beds (C) define
a great circle]


12. Folds on Geologic Maps: The line of intersection between the axial surface and the surface of the Earth is
called the axial surface trace. This line is drawn on geologic maps to show folding and is sometimes mislabeled as
being the fold axis (which is only true when the fold axis isnt plunging).

[Fig. 11.1. Basic terminologies for fold components]


13. Folds on Geologic Maps: If the axial surface is dipping, the intersection line with the Earths surface may
appear to cut across the fold limb. The fold orientation and plunge direction is then illustrated using either the
crestal trace or the trough trace.

[Fig. 6.16 (lab manual). Representation of folds on a geologic map]


14. Fold Orientation: The orientation of a fold can be described relative to the plunge of the hinge line and the dip
of the axial surface. Folds can be:
upright (or plunging upright)
vertical
horizontal or plunging inclined
reclined
recumbent

[Fig. 11.7. Fold orientation as dictated by the plunge of the hinge line and the dip of the axial surface]

Geol 345 (Spring 2014)

Lecture 13

15. Non-Cylindrical Folds: Non-cylindrical folds may plunge in opposite directions where the folds start to die out
along their hinge line directions. These are doubly plunging folds. If the hinge line length is comparable to the fold
half-wavelength, they may form domes (doubly plunging anticlines, with four-way dip closure) or basins (doubly
plunging synclines).

[Figure. Doubly plunging anticline at Sheep Mountain, WY]


16. Fold Style: Tightness: Other descriptive fold style terms are based on the interlimb angle between opposing
fold limbs, defining fold shapes such as gentle, open, tight, and isoclinal.

[Fig. 11.9. Fold style based on interlimb angle]


17. Fold Style: Dip Isogon Classification: Fold shapes differ depending on whether the bed thickness stays constant,
or if the hinge zone thins or thickens relative to the limbs. These differences create different patterns of dip
isogons, which connect points of equal dip on the outer and inner arcs of the fold.

The classes of folds are:

Class 1: dip isogons converge to center.

1A: thickened limbs.


1B: parallel fold (constant bed thickness)


1C: thinned limbs

Class 2: thinned limbs; dip isogons are parallel to axial trace.

Class 3: thinned limbs; dip isogons diverge from center.

[Fig. 11.10. Fold style based on dip isogons]


18. Fold Symmetry: If the axial surface is a plane of reflection symmetry in a section view oriented perpendicular
to the axial surface, the fold is symmetric. Else, it is asymmetric. When looking down-plunge, asymmetric folds are
z-folds or s-folds (obvious from their geometries). Small z- or s-folds on the limbs of bigger folds are called parasitic
folds.

[Fig. 11.12. Fold symmetry. Asymmetric folds may be z-folds or s-folds]


19. Fold Vergence and Order: Parasitic folds have a vergence that points towards the fold hinge of the larger fold
(the first-order fold). The parasitic folds are second-order. Higher order folds may be superposed on those. The
pattern of vergence allows the limbs of the lower-order folds to be inferred.

[Fig. 11.13. Fold vergence] [Figure. Different orders of folding superimposed on a first-order fold]