III 1 Electrification 1 28

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials
I-1
Farm Electrification
Delfin C. Suministrado
Omar F. Zubia
Professor
Assistant Professor
Agricultural Machinery Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
College, Laguna
I.
INTRODUCTION
Electricity is one of the most versatile and widely used forms of energy. It
is an important component of the countrys economy. Most agricultural operations
are becoming more dependent on electricity.
This text is designed to assist the reader in attaining basic understanding
of the nature of electricity and in developing skills in solving the problems
associated with applying electricity to agriculture.
II. PRIMARY METHODS OF PRODUCING ELECTRICAL ENERGY
a. Friction between moving objects. Clouds driven by strong winds can
gather huge electrostatic charges which are released to the earth in the
form of lightning.
b. Pressure (Piezoelectricity). Certain types of crystals produce a voltage
when subjected to pressure.
c. Heat (Thermoelectricity). Voltage is produced when the junction of two
unlike metals is heated. Thermocouples use the principle of
thermoelectricity.
d. Chemical action. Batteries and fuel cells rely on chemical reaction to
produce voltage.
e. Light (Photoelectricity). Solar or photo cells convert radiant energy to
electrical energy.
f. Magnetism. Magnetism produces a voltage by operating on the principle
of electromagnetic induction.
III. ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC UNITS
A. Electrical units
Symbo
l
Equation
Current
E
E
q
I
;I
;I
R
Z
t
Abampere
Quantity
q = it; q = CE
Abcoulomb
Electromotiv
e force
E = IR; E
Resistance
Resistivity
Quantity
cgs unit
W
q
Abvolt
E
l
; R
I
A
Abohm
RA
l
Abohm-cm
mks and SI
unit
Ampere (A)
Andre Marie
Ampere
(1775-1836)
Coulomb (C)
Charles
Augustin
Coulomb
(1736-1806)
Volt (V)
Alessandro
Volta
(1745-1827)
Ohm ()
Georg Simon
Ohm
(1787-1854)
Ohm-cm
(-cm)
Ratio of
magnitud
e of SI to
cgs unit
10-1
10-1
108
109
1011
I-2
Electrical units continued

cgs unit
mks and SI
unit
Ratio of
magnitud
e of SI to
cgs unit
Abmho
Mho,
siemens (S)
Werner von
Siemens
(1816-1892)
10-9
Abmho per
cm
Mho per cm
10-11
Abfarad
10-9
d
di
Farad (F)
Michael
Faraday
(1791-1867)
Abhenry
Henry (H)
109
L1 L2
Abhenry
Symbo
l
Equation
Conductance
A
G
l
Conductivity
Quantity
Capacitance
Selfinductance
Mutual
inductance
q
C
E
L N
M K
W
Energy
W = EIt
W
3600
Wh
kWh
1000
kWh
P
Active power
Reactive
power
jq
Power factor
pf
Erg
P = EI
dw
EI ;
dt
P EI cos
q=EIsin
pf
EI
Henry (H)
Joseph Henry
(1797-1878)
Joule (J)
James
Prescott
Joule
(1818-1889)
109
107
Watthour
(Wh)
36 x 109
Kilowatthour
(kWh)
36 x 1012
Abwatt
Watt (W)
James Watt
(1736-1819)
107
Abwatt
Watt (W)
107
abvar
Var (means
volt-amperereactive)
107
Wh
Wh
Apparent
power
l
l
RA
P2 Q2
Frequency
1
T
Cycles per
sec, Hz
Cycles per
sec, Hz
Period
1
f
Sec
Sec (s)
Angular
velocity
2f
Radians per
sec
Radians per
sec
Reactance,
inductive
XL
X L 2fL
Abohm
Ohm ()
109
Reactance,
capacitive
XC
XC
1
2fC
Abohm
Ohm ()
109
Impedance
Abohm
Ohm ()
109
Conductance
Abmho
Siemens (S)
10-9
Susceptance
Abmho
Siemens (S)
10-9
Admittance
Abmho
Siemens (S)
10-9
R2 X L X C 2
R
2
Z
X
Z2
E
G2 B2
I
I-3
I-4
B. Units for magnetic properties

Quantity
Symbo
l
Equation
Magnetomoti
ve force
(mmf)
F 0.4NI
Magnetic flux
Magnetic
field strength
(intensity)
F
l
Magnetic flux
density
Reluctance
Permeability
Gaussian & cgs

unit
Multiplier
to convert
cgs to SI
SI and
rationalized mks
10
4
ampere-turns (At)
Gilbert (Gb)
William Gilbert
(1540-1603)
maxwell (Mx), Gcm2
James Clerk
Maxwell
(1831-1879)
Oersted (Oe),
Gb/cm
Hans Christian
rsted
(1777-1851)
Gauss (G)
Karl Friedrich
Gauss
(1777-1855)
10-8
weber (Wb), voltsecond (V-s)

Wilhelm Eduard
Weber
(1804-1891)
10 3
4
At/m
10-4
tesla (T), Wb/m2

Nikola Tesla
(1856-1943)
l
A
Gb/Mx
At/Wb
B
H
G/Oe
T-m/At
IV. BASIC CONCEPTS AND INFORMATION

A. Atom
The smallest portion into which an

element can be subdivided without
losing its physical and chemical
properties
The nucleus contains protons (+) and
neutrons; electrons (-) are distributed
in the shells of the atom
Lithium atom
The number of electrons and protons
are equal, thereby producing an overall neutrality
Valence electrons are outermost electrons (farthest from the nucleus)
- control the chemical and electrical properties of an atom
- move randomly from one atom to nearby atoms
- random movement of electrons does not produce any permanent
change (neutral)
- an outside force disturbs this balance (i.e., battery, application of
heat), the electrons will tend to move in one direction
Negatively charged if an object contains more number of total electrons
than the total protons
Positively charged if an atom contains fewer number of total electrons
than the total protons
B. Units of charge
Elementary charge unit (ECU) the amount of electrical charge on a single

electron
Coulomb (C) used to measure quantity of electric charge; approximately
equal to 6.24 x 1018 ECU.
C. Current
The result of non-random movement of electrons
Defined as the rate at which electrical

charge flows
charge (q)
current (I)
time (s)
where: I = current in ampere, A

q = charge in coulomb, C
t = time in second, s
Measured in amperes (A)
One ampere is equal to one coulomb per
second
Flow
of
curren
t
Batter
y
I-5
Flow of
electrons
that carry
the
charges
Current flow
D. Electromotive force (emf) and potential difference
Not a force, despite its name

Causes electric charge to flow in an electrical system having potential
difference
Measured in volts, volt (V)
May be generated by means of mechanical, magnetic, pressure, thermal,

radiation or chemical effects
joule (J)
coulomb (C)
E. Electrical Resistance
The ability of a material to resist the flow of electrical charge when

subjected to a given potential difference
Electrical resistance is measured in
ohm ()
Resistivity is a property of a
material to oppose the flow of
electric current
L
A
Resistance of a piece of wire
where: R = resistance in ohm,

L = length of wire in meter, m
A = cross-section area of wire in square meter, m2
= resistivity in ohm-meter, m
Table 1. Electric resistivity of some metals.
Material
Conductor
Aluminum
Copper
Gold
Iron
Lead
Mercury
Nichrome
Platinum
Silver
Tungsten
Semiconductor
Carbon (graphite)
Germanium (pure)
Silicon (pure)
Insulators
Resistivity at 20C
(m)
Temperature
coefficient of
resistance at 20C
(per C)
2.83 x 10-8
1.72 x 10-8
2.24 x 10-8
9.71 x 10-8
22 x 10-8
98 x 10-8
100 x 10-8
10.6 x 10-8
1.63 x 10-8
5.51 x 10-8
4.03 x 10-3
3.93 x 10-3
3.4 x 10-3
6.4 x 10-3
3.87 x 10-3
8.9 x 10-4
4 x 10-4
3 x 10-3
3.8 x 10-3
5 x 10-3
1.5 x 10-5
5 x 10-1
3 x 103

107 1010
7.5 x 1017
Glass
Quartz
I-6
The lower the resistivity of the material, the better conductor it is

Conductors are materials which has low resistance to electron flow
Insulators are materials which has high resistance to electron flow
Semiconductors are materials having an intermediate
resistance to
electron flow; usually used in construction of solid state electronic devices
such as diodes and transistors
Most conductors increase its electrical resistance with an increase in
temperature
Rt Ri 1 T
where: Rt = resistance at specified temperature in ohm,
Ri = resistance at reference temperature in ohm,
= temperature coefficient of resistance, per C
T = temperature diffenrence between specified ad reference, C
Example 1: A piece of copper wire has a cross section area of 2.0 mm 2 and a
length of 5 meters. What is the electrical resistance at 20C?
L
1.72 10 -8 m 5 m 1000 mm
R
A
2 mm 2
m
0.043 or 43 m
Example 2: What will be the resistance of the wire in example 1 at 75C?
3.93 10 3

Rt Ri 1 T 0.043 1
55C 0.0523 or 52.3 m
C
1
), measured in mhos.
R
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance ( G
Conductivity is the ability of material to conduct electricity; reciprocal of

resistivity.
Superconductivity is a phenomenon when conductors lose their resistance
in extreme cold
F. Fundamental Laws
1. Ohms law
States that the current flowing in a circuit varies directly with the electrical
pressure and inversely with the opposition
This relationship maybe express as:
E IR
or
E
R
or
E
I
where: R = resistance in ohm,

E = voltage in volts, V
I = current in ampere, A
Example 3: A 40-W electric lamp draws a current of 0.25 ampere at 120 volts.
What is the resistance of the lamp?
E 120 V
480
I 0.25 A
Example 4. What is the current drawn by a 600- resistor when a potential

difference of 25 volts is maintained across it?
E
25 V
0.0417 A or 41.7 mA
R 600
I-7
I-8
2. Kirchhoffs current law
Because charge cannot be created but must be conserved, the sum of the
current in a node must be equal to zero
3. Kirchhoffs voltage law
The net voltage around a close circuit is zero
G. Power Calculations (Joules Law)
The power dissipated by an electrical circuit is given by:

The common unit of electric power is watt.
An instrument called a wattmeter measures power. The wattmeter gives a
reading of the product of the current and voltage in a circuit.
P IE
or
E2
R
P I 2R
or
where: P = power in watt, W

R = resistance in ohm,
joule
coulomb joule

second
second coulomb
watt ampere volt
Actual formula: P IE power factor

The value of the power factor depends on the kind of opposition offered. It
is never greater than 1.
Power factor is equal to one (1) for heaters, electric ranges and
incandescent lamps. The opposition is pure resistance.
Power factor is between 0.6 to 0.8 for electric motors.
Example 5. A piece of wire has a resistance of 50 . How much power is

dissipated in the wire if it carries a current of 0.50 A?
2
P I 2 R 0.50 A 50 12.5 W
Example 6. What is the current drawn by a 1000-W electric flat iron operated
at 220 V?
P IE I
P 1000 W
4.54 A
E
220 V
H. Energy Calculations
Energy is the power expended or used over a period of time
W IEt
or
where: W = energy in watt, W

R = resistance in ohm,
E 2t
R
or
W I 2 Rt
t = time in second, s
1 Wh 3600 watt - seconds 3600 joules
The common unit of electric energy consumption is watt-hour (Wh)

A kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed when a power of one kilowatt is
used steadily for one hour.
I-9
Total energy use over a period is measured by a watt-hour meter or

kilowatt-hour meter. This type of meter is used for billing customers for
electric usage.
Kh factor is printed on the nameplate of the kilowatt-hour meter. Range =
1.5-5.0
Power usage (watthours)
K h no. of disk revolutions

time
Example 7. A 60 lamp is left connected to a 220-V source for 3 hours. How

much energy is taken from the source?
E 2 t 220 V 3 hours
2,420 Wh or 2.42 kWh or 8.712 MJ

R
60
2
Example 8. All electrical equipment is off except an electric motor. The

kilowatthour-meter-disk revolutions are counted for a period of 6 minutes. The
disk makes 20 revolutions and the K h factor of the meter is 2.5. Determine the
energy that would be used by this motor if it were operated for 1 hour. What is
the power input to the motor?
Energy (Wh) K h no. of disk revolutions 2 .5 20 50 Wh

60 minutes
hour
500 W
6 minutes
Energy consumed by the motor in an hour 500 Wh or 0.5 kWh
in 6 minutes : Power 50 Wh
Power input to the motor 500 W

I.
Network Configurations and Transformations.
1. Resistive circuits
The equivalent resistance connected in series: RS R1 R2 R3 ... Rn

The equivalent resistance connected in parallel:
1
1
1
1
1
...
RP R1 R2 R3
Rn
2. Capacitors in combination
Capacitance is measured in farad (F):
The equivalent resistance connected in series:
The equivalent capacitance connected in parallel:
1
1
1
1
1
...
C S C1 C 2 C 3
Cn
C P C1 C 2 C 3 ... C n
3. Voltage divider
the concept is closely related to resistors connected in series

the voltage across each resistor is directly proportional to the ratio of its
resistance to the total series resistance of the circuit
4. Current divider
the concept is closely related to resistors in parallel

the current divides in inverse proportion to the resistances of the individual
parallel elements
I-10
5. -Y transformation
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
R1
R R R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb 1 2
R21
R R R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc 1 2
R3
Rb Rc
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rc
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc
R1
Ra
6. Equivalent circuits
it is always possible to view a very complicated circuit in terms of much

simpler equivalent source and load circuits
a. Thevinins theorem
From the point of the view of the load, any network composed of ideal voltage
and current sources, and of linear resistors, may be represented by an
equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source in series with an
equivalent resistance.
b. Nortons theorem
From the point of view of the load, any network composed of ideal voltage and
current sources, and of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent
circuit consisting of an ideal current source in parallel with an equivalent
resistance.
J.
Two Categories of Electrical Systems

Direct Current (DC)
Characterized
by
non-variant
current flow in one direction at all
times
Common source are batteries,
thermocouples, solar cells, and
rotating dc generators
Alternating Current (AC)

Characterized by an alternating
flow of in two directions
Most common variation is of a sine
wave
1. Advantages of AC over DC.
Easily produced
Cheaper to maintain
Can be distributed to farther distance with low voltage drop than DC
AC voltage can easily be transformed from lower to higher and then to
lower and/or desired voltage level as it passes the distribution line
I-11
I-12
2. Phase relations and power in AC circuits
P EI cos
where: P = power in watt, W

E = voltage in volts, V (rms)
I = current in ampere, A (rms)
= phase-shift angle
cos power factor
True power
Watts
Apparent power Volt Ampere
True power EI cos Watts
Apparent power EI volt - ampere (VA)
When voltage and current are in phase, all the power is positive.
When circuit contains elements with other than pure resistance
(capacitance or inductance), phase shift will occur between voltage and
current waves.
Reactive power, in VAR units, is the power below the axis. It is watt-less
and does no useful work. VAR means volt-ampere-reactive.
Example 9. Determine the true power output of an AC circuit with a voltage of

120 volts, a current of 10 amperes and a phase shift of 20 o between voltage
and current.
True power EI cos 120 V 10 A cos 20 1128 W

Example 10. Determine the power factor and phase shift angle for a circuit
where the true power is found to be 3840 watts, the voltage is 240 volts and
the current is 20 amperes.
cos
True power
3840 W
0.8
Apparent power 240 V 20 A
cos 1 0.8 36.87
I-13
For AC, Ohms law is expressed as:
E
Z
where Z = impedance
where:
Z = impedance,
3. Inductance and inductive reactance
Coils of wire such as those found in transformers, relays, and motors have
inductive reactance.
Inductance is the property to oppose current change.
The following formula is used to calculate the inductive reactance:
X L 2fL
where:
XL = inductive reactance
in ohm,
f = frequency in hertz, Hz
L = inductance in henry, H
Example 11. If a coil known to have an
inductance of 0.1 henry is connected to a 60
Hz source, what is the inductive reactance?
X L 2fL 2 60 Hz 0.1 H 37.7
Current in AC circuit with pure

inductance will lag the voltage by 90o.
Inductors in series: LT L1 L2 ... Ln
Inductors in parallel:
1
1
1
1
...
LT L1 L2
Ln
4. Capacitance and capacitive reactance
The amount of electric charge that a capacitor receives for each volt of
applied potential is called its capacitance.
Capacitance is measured in farads but practical devices are rated in terms
of microfarads.
1 microfarad = 1f = 10-6 farad = ( 1 f / 1,000,000 )
The following formula is used to calculate the capacitive reactance:
XC
1
2fC
where:
XC = inductive reactance in ohm,

C = inductance in farad, F
basic electrical elements found in controls, motors and welder circuits

when placed across a source,
- an electric charge will build up on the plates of the capacitor.
- this charge buildup represents a storage of energy.
- the plates of the capacitor will be charged with the polarity of the
source connected to each plate.

-
I-14
electrons cannot cross the dielectric

when capacitor is fully charged, no
current will flow in the circuit
Example 12. Find the capacitive reactance

of a 13 f capacitor connected to a 60 hertz
source.
XC
1
1
204
2fL 2 60 Hz 13 F
In an AC circuit with pure capacitance

loading, the current will lead the voltage
by 90o.
Capacitors in series:
1
1
1
1
...
C T C1 C 2
Cn
Capacitors in parallel: C T C1 C 2 ... C n
5. Series and parallel RLC networks.
In a series RLC circuit, the magnitude of the total impedance Z is:
Z R2 X C X L
The angle between the pure resistance, R, and the total impedance, Z, is
the phase shift angle, .
The magnitude of the
sum of the voltages is:
ET E R E C E L
2
In a parallel RLC circuit,

the magnitude of the
current is:
I S I R IC I L
2
The
angle
between
current due to pure
resistance IR and the
total current IS is the
phase shift angle, , of the circuit.
Example 13. Determine the total impedance, current flow, true power and
apparent power in a circuit with an 80 ohm resistance, 90 ohm inductive
reactance and 30 ohm capacitive reactance connected in series. The voltage
is 100 V.
Z R2 XC X L
2
power factor cos
80 2 30 90 2
80
0.8
100
100
current flow I
I-15
E 100 V
1A
Z 100
true power EI cos 100 V 1 A 0.8 80 W

apparent power EI 100 V 1 A 100 VA
Example 14. A 30 ohm resistance, 20 ohm inductive reactance, and a 30 ohm

capacitive reactance are connected in parallel. The total voltage is 120 V.
Determine the current flow in each element, the source current, the true
power and the apparent power.
IR
E R 120 V
4A
R
30
IL
E L 120 V
6A
XL
20
IC
E L 120 V
4A
XC
30
I S I R IC I L
2
power factor cos
4 A 2 4 A 6 A 2 4.47 A
4
0.89
4.47
true power EI cos 120 V 4.47 A 0.89 480 W

apparent power EI 120 V 4.47 A 536.65 VA
The optimum situation for transmission of power exists when the power
factor of the load equals unit, that is, when the phase shift angle is zero,
= 0o.
In practice, majority of electrical circuits contain devices that create
inductive loads. Therefore, capacitors are needed to improve the power
factor.
Power factor improvement can be accomplished either by addition of
series or parallel-connected capacitors.
Example 14. Given a 220 V, single phase, 60 Hz inductive motor which draws
7.6 A at a power factor of 0.787, calculate the size of a parallel-connected
capacitor required to obtain a power factor of unity (1).
phase factor cos 1 0.787 38.09
I L 7.6 A sin 38.09 4.69 A

To have a pf = 1: IC = I L = 4.69 A
XC
C
EC
220 V
46.92
IC
4.69 A
1
1
56.53 F
2fX C
2 60 Hz 46.92
I-16
I-17
Example 15. Given the same motor, calculate the parallel connected
capacitance required to obtain the power factor to 0.95.
With the power factor of 0.95, phase shift angle is:
phase angle shift cos 1 0.95 18.19

the current through the motor does not change:
I R I M cos 7.6 A cos 38.09 5.98 A

IR
5.98 A
6.3 A
cos cos18.19
IS
new IL: I L 6.3 A sin 18.19 2.0 A
I C old I L new I L 4.69 A 2.0 A 2.72 A

XC
C
EC
220 V
80.8
IC
2.72 A
1
1
32.83 F
2fX C
2 60 Hz 80.8
K. Magnetism
First magnets were known as magnetite or

lodestones (Fe3O4). Ancient Greeks
observed that this material had the ability
to attract bits of iron.
Like poles repel (N-N, S-S), unlike poles
A magnetic dipole showing
the magnetic fields B and its
attract (N-S, S-N).
direction as represented by
When electrons flow through a conductor,
the lines.
a magnetic field will be produced around
that conductor.
Magnetic fields are lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet or a
moving charged particle.
The forces between magnets are caused by the forces that moving electric
charges in atoms exert on each other.
Magnetomotive force (mmf) is the quantity of magnetic field force or
"push"; also known as magnetic potential difference; analogous to electric
voltage (emf).
Magnetic flux is the quantity of total field effect or "substance" of the field;
analogous to electric current.
Magnetic field strength (intensity) is the amount of field force (mmf)
distributed over the length of the electromagnet.
Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic field flux concentrated in
a given area.
Reluctance is the opposition to magnetic field flux through a given volume
of space or material; analogous to electrical resistance.
I-18
Permeability is the specific measure of a material's acceptance of

magnetic flux, analogous to the specific resistance of a conductive
material (), except inverse (greater permeability means easier passage of
magnetic flux, whereas greater specific resistance means more difficult
passage of electric current).
The magnetic field force produced by a current-carrying wire can be
greatly increased by shaping the wire into a coil instead of a straight line.
1. Comparison of concepts for electric and magnetic circuits:

Electrical Circuit
Magnetic Circuit
E IR
F (mmf)
l
A
l
A
2. Right-hand rule
The thumb of the right hand

points in the direction of
conventional current I, the fingers
curl around the wire in the
direction of the magnetic field.
The direction of the

magnetic force F on a
current-carrying wire is
perpendicular to both the
current I and magnetic
field B.
The orientation of the

magnetic dipole moment
of a current loop is the
same as the direction in
which the thumb points if
the fingers are curled in
the direction of the
positive current.
3. Maxwells Equations
Completely describes the laws of electromagnetism and its effect based on
four equations or theories developed by Gauss, Ampere and Faraday.
i.
Gausss law for electricity describes that the electric field due to
electric charges can be derived by Coulombs Law.
ii. Gauss law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any
(real or imaginary) closed surface is zero. Magnetic field lines do not start
or stop at any point in space, but form a close loop thus any magnetic field
line entering a closed surface must also leave that surface, so the net flux
is zero.
iii. Amperes law describes the production of magnetic fields not only by
electric currents but by changing electric field as well.
iv. Faradays law of induction describes the production of electric fields as
a result of changing magnetic fields.
I-19
L. Electromagnetism
the set of phenomena associated with electricity and magnetism

electromagnetic field exerts a force on particles that possess the property
of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of
the charged particles
the voltage (emf) induced in a loop of wire is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux through the coil. (see faradays law of induction)
induced emf voltage induced by a changing magnetic flux
induced current current produced during electromagnetic induction
common applications: generator, motor, transformers, and ignition system
in ICEs
M. Electric generator
In generators, voltage is induced through the wire as the wire is made to cut
through a magnetic field.
1. Factors which control the magnitude of the induced voltage
a.
b.
c.
d.
the
the
the
the
strength of the magnetic field

length of the conductor within the field
speed at which the conductor passes through the field
angle at which the conductor passes through the field
2. Main classification of electric generators

a. DC generator - produces unidirectional current
b. AC generator - also called alternator, produces alternating current
3. Physics in electricity generation
The induced emf in a generator (or motor) is
ZNP
60P 108
where: E = induced emf, V

= flux in maxwell entering the armature fro one north pole, Mx
Z = total number of conductors on the armature
N = speed in revolution per minute, rpm
P = number of poles
P = number of parallel path through the armature
In SI system is in weber (Wb) and the 10 8 is omitted. Since with given generator,
Z, P, and P are fixed, the emf induced becomes:
E KN where K is a constant.
When the armature delivers current, the terminal voltage is
V E I a Ra
where:
V = terminal voltage in volt, V

E = induced emf in volt, V
Ia = armature current in ampere, A
Ra = armature resistance including contact resistance in ohm,
I-20
4. Principle of operation of a DC generator
In DC generators, the emf induced in the individual conductor is alternating

but this is rectified by the commutator and brushes, so that the current to the
external circuit is unidirectional, hence direct current.
There are three standard types of DC generators: (a) shunt generator; (b)
series generator; and (c) compound generator
5. Principle of operation of an AC generator
Notice how the polarity of the voltage across the coils of wire reverses as the
opposite poles of the rotating magnet pass by. Connected to a load, this
reversing voltage polarity will create a reversing current direction in the
circuit. The faster the alternator's shaft is turned, the faster the magnet will
spin, resulting in an alternating voltage and current that switches directions
more often in a given amount of time.
There are three general classes of synchronous generators: (a) slow-speed

engine-driven type (75-90 rpm, though runs as high as 150 rpm); (b)
moderate-speed waterwheel-driven type (80-900 rpm and sometimes
higher); and (c) high-speed turbine-driven type (720-3600 rpm).
The frequency of a synchronous machine is:
PN
120
where:
P = number of poles
N = speed of rotation in revolution per minute, rpm
Example 16. Determine the number of poles on a rotor of a single-phase

generator, if the frequency of 60 Hz is generated at a rotor speed of 3600 rpm.
PN
120 f 120 60 Hz
P
2 poles
120
N
3600 rpm
When large quantities of electrical power are being transmitted, 3-phase

AC power systems are used.
The power is
P 3EI cos
where:
P = power in watt, W
E = voltage in volt, V
I-21
cos = power factor
In a 3-phase delta ()
phase voltage = line voltage

Line current, I C 3 I P
In a 3-phase wye (Y)
phase current = line current

Eline-to-line, E line to line 3 E P
The main reason for the use of 3-phase systems is that for the same
voltage and current, a 3-wire, 3-phase system will deliver 1.73 times as
much power as a 2-wire, single-phase system.
The total power output for a 3-phase system is a constant value.
N. Electric Motor
The principle of electromagnetism as applied in generators is also used in

the design and operation of motors, but reversed.
1. Classification based on type of electrical service

Direct current
Alternating current (Single-phase or three-phase)
2. The theoretical speed of motors
N rpm
sec
frequency of source 60 min
120 frequency
number of poles 0.5

number of poles
Single-phase motors are the most common in the home, on the farm and
in light industry. All single-phase motors require some type of starting
mechanism.
3. Seven general types of single-phase, AC motors found in the farm:

a. Split phase
b. Capacitor
e. Wound rotor
h. Shaded pole
i. Universal
series
j. Synchronous
k. Soft start
Capacitor-start, induction-run
Capacitor-start, capacitor-run
Permanent split capacitor
Repulsion-start
Repulsion-induction
Repulsion
or
Three-phase motors are inherently self-starting. They are common in

ratings from hp to 400 hp.
4. General rules for determining motor sizes for equipment:
Consult the manufacturer of the equipment.

If the equipment can be successfully operated by hand, a hp motor will
do.
I-22
If an electric motor is to replace a gasoline engine, provided that the speed

and other load factors remain the same, select a size equal or slightly
greater than (
2
3
engine hp).
Example 17: To replace a 2-hp engine:
2
3
2 hp = 1.333 hp. Select one
1 12
hp motor
5. Motor ratings and selection
a. Determine load characteristics
By examining motor performance curves, we can determine if a motor has
enough torque to start the load, accelerate to full speed and handle the
maximum overload which may occur.
Locked-rotor torque is the motor torque at zero speed. It is the maximum
torque available to start the load.
Motor code letters applied
Example 18. Calculate the locked-motor current
full voltage starting
for hp, 240 V motor with an H code.
Code
Locked rotor
letter
KVA /hp
H : 6.3 7.1 KVA/hp
F
5.0 - 5.6
G
5.6 6.3
(6,300 VA/hp) hp (1/240 V) = 13.1 A
H
6.3 7.1
J
7.1 8.0
(7,100 VA/hp) hp (1/240 V) = 14.8 A
K
8.0 9.0
L
9.0 10.0
Locked-rotor current would be between 13.1
A and 14.8 A.
b. Determine insulation system
Motor temperature must be maintained at
safe levels. Nameplate data most often give the
permissible temperature rise above the ambient air
or the maximum ambient temperature that will
keep hot spot temperature within specified limits.
c. Common motor enclosure types
Four common insulations

systems of motors
Maximum hot
spot
Class type
continuous
temperature
Class A
105oC (221oF)
Class B
130oC (266oF)
Class F
155oC (311oF)
Class H
180oC (356oF)
i. drip proof
ii. splash-proof
iii. totally enclosed
Other types are available which will protect against corrosive environments,
allow motor to be submerged in liquid, or protect against ignition of explosive
gases.
d. Over current protection
Overcurrent protection rating as % full-load
current
Motors with service factor of 1.15
Motors with a marked temperature rise not over
40oC
All other motors
e. Wiring for motor branch circuits
125%
Maximu
m
140%
125%
140%
115%
130%
Recommended
I-23
Example 19. What size copper conductor would be required for a hp,
120 V, single-phase motor located 20 meters from the service entrance?
From table, full load current = 9.8 A
Allowable voltage drop = 2%120V=2.4V
Allowable resistance = E/I = 2.4 V / (1.25 9.8 A) = 0.20 ohm
Resistance1000m=[0.20ohm/(220 m)]1000
= 5.00 ohms/1000 m. Select no. 10.
I-24
Full-load currents for single-phase motors

Hp
115 V
230 V
4.4 A
2.2 A
5.8 A
2.9 A
7.2 A
3.6 A
9.8 A
4.9 A
13.8 A
6.9 A
16 A
8A
1 12
20 A
10 A
24 A
12 A
34 A
17 A
56 A
28 A
7 12
80 A
40 A
10
100 A
50 A
1
1
1
3
O. Transformer
A device that transfers energy from one electric circuit to another without
change in frequency and usually (but not always) with a change in voltage.
The energy is transferred through the medium of a magnetic field through
the primary windings and is delivered by means of the secondary windings.
Transformers only work with changing voltages, not steady voltages. Thus,
they may be classified as an AC device and not a DC device.
A simple transformer contains a primary and a secondary coil.
1. Transformer theory.
The primary coil has an alternating current in it that creates a varying
magnetic field. Part of the magnetic field links the primary coil to the
secondary coil. The varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary
coil.
Step-up transformer: The primary winding has more turns than the
secondary.
Step-down transformer: The primary winding has fewer turns than the
secondary.
I-25
2. The Lenzs law

States that the induced voltage in a coil is always in a direction so as to
oppose the effect which is producing it.
Transformers enable efficient long distance high voltage transmission of

electric energy.
Associated losses due to transfer of power in a transformer

a. Copper loss
b. Eddy-current loss
c. Hysteresis loss
3. Transformer voltage change
E primary
E sec ondary
where:
N primary
N sec ondary
E = voltage in volt, V
N = number of turns of wire in the coil
Example 20. What is the primary voltage of a transformer with a secondary

voltage of 120 and ratio of 20 primary turns to one secondary turn?
EP N P
20
E P 120 V 2400 V
ES N S
1
In isolation transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary is the same

as the voltage applied to the primary. Isolation transformer provides
physical separation between a load circuit and power source.
4. Transformer current and power relations

Powerprimary = Powersecondary,
EP IP ES IS
5. Transformer current by turns relations
IS NP
IP NS
I-26
I-27
V. RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICAL PLANNING

A. Some useful symbols
C eiling light fixture

Wall mounte d light
Fluorescent
fixture
light fixture
Duplex re ceptacle outlet
F
J
R ange outle t
S3
Three-way
Fan
Four-way switc h
Key-operate d switch
outlet
Junction box
Single-pole wall switch
switch
Distribution pane l
B. Branch circuit
Branch circuit refers to the portion of electric conductors that extends from
the service entrance to an outlet or a certain group of outlets. It connects the
loads to the final overcurrent protection device.
1. Types of branch circuits:
a. Lighting and general-purpose circuits, e. g. table lamps, radios,
television and other portable appliances.
b. Small appliance circuits, e. g. portable appliances in the kitchen, dining
area and laundry.
c. Special purpose circuits, e. g. ranges, air conditioners, water heaters,
water pumps, furnaces, dishwashers.
2. General guidelines
a. No point along the floor line in any wall space should be more than 1.8 m
(6 ft) from a receptacle outlet. Any wall space greater than 0.6 m (2 ft)
shall have an outlet.
b. At least one wall switch controlled lighting outlet shall be installed in every
habitable room.
c. Lighting controls shall be located to be able to light the path ahead and
turn off lights without retracing steps.
d. Provide one 20 A circuit for each 46 m 2 (500 ft2) or one 15 A circuit for each
35 m2 (375 ft2) floor area.
e. Allow 8 to 10 outlets for each 15 A circuit and 10 to 12 for each 20 A
circuit.
f. A factor of 32 watts/m2 (3 watts/ft2) is used for all floor area excluding open
porches, garages, basements or unused or unfinished spaces not
adaptable for future use.
Example 21. A residence is determined to need 70 lighting and convenience
outlets, not including those to be supplied by small appliance circuits. What
type and how many branch circuits are needed?
Alt. 1 (All 15-A circuits): 70 outlets/10 outlets per circuit = 7 circuits minimum
Alt. 2 (All 20-A circuits): 70 outlets/12 outlets per circuit = 5.8 (6) circuits
minimum
Alt. 3 (Combination of 15- and 20-A circuits): Five 20 A circuits
60 outlets
One 15 A circuits 10 outlets
Total
70 outlets
g. A load of 1,500 watts is assumed for each small appliance circuit in
residence.
General light and small appliance demand system for residence
Portion of load to which demand factor
Demand factor (%)
applies (watts)
First 3,000 or less
100
Next 3,001 to 120,000
35
Remainder over 120,000
25
I-28
Example 22. A two-storey house with a full basement has an outside

dimension of 7.3 m(24 f) by 9.1 m (30 ft). Assuming three appliance circuits,
determine the total load and the total demand load.
General lighting load = 7.3 m 9.1 m 3 floors 32 W/m2 = 6,377 W
Three small appliance circuits 1,500 W/circuit =
4,500 W
Total
10,877 W
Total demand load = (3,000 W 100%) + (10,877-3,000) W 35% =
5,757 W
h. If 4 or more fixed appliances are included, a demand factor of 75% can be
used on the total of the fixed appliances.
i. Electric ranges up to 12 kW have a demand load of 8 kW. For each one kW
over 12 kW, 0.2 kW is added to 8 kW to get the demand load.
j. Service entrance must have ampacity rating equal to or greater than the
calculated value. Common sizes are 60 A, 100 A, 150 A, and 200 A. A 60-A
service is minimum.
Example 23. Select service entrance sizes for total demand loads of (a) 22,000
W, (b) 30,000 W, and (c) 13,000 W.
(a) 22,000 W/240 V = 91.8 A
(b) 30,000 W/240 V = 125 A
(c) 13,000 W/240 V = 54.2 A
Select 100 A service.

C. Conductors
Wires are those electrical conductors which are 8

mm2 (AWG No. 8) or smaller in size.
Cables are those which are larger than the wires.
Wires and cables are either stranded or solid.
Prior to the adoption of the metric system, all sizes
are given in terms of AWG (American Wire Gauge).
Circular mil is a unit area equal to that of a circle
whose diameter is 1 mil (0.001 in). A circular mil is
not the true cross sectional area of a wire, and
therefore is useless for many actual calculations
involving true area.
1 circular mil (1 cmil) =
mm2
2.0
3.5
5.5
8.8
square mils =
4,000,000
square inches
Wire sizes, areas and allowable ampacity.

Size
Temperature ratings / types
AWG number
60oC (140oF)
75oC (167oF)
90OC (194OF)
(Area in
T, TW
RHW, THW,
SA, RHH,
circular mils)
THWN, XHHW
THHN, XHHW
14(4,110)
15
15
25
12(6,530)
20
20
30
10(10,380)
30
30
40
8(16,510)
40
45
50
I-29
Characteristics of selected insulated conductors for general writing

Trade name
Operating
Application
Type code
temperature,
provisions
o
C
Moisture and heat resistant
Dry and wet
RHW
75
rubber
location
Thermoplastic
T
60
Dry location
Moisture resistant
Dry and wet
TW
60
thermoplastic
location
Thermoplastic heat resistant
THHN
90
Dry location
Dry and wet
THW
75
thermoplastic
location
Dry and wet
THWN
75
thermoplastic
location
XHHW
90
Dry location
cross linked thermosetting
Polyetheylene
75
Wet location
Silicon asbestos
SA
90
Dry location
Asbestos and varnish cambric
AVA
110
Dry location
D. Grounding
The purpose of grounding is for safety. Two categories:
1. System grounding is grounding of current-carrying portions of a
system. The principal reason is to limit the voltage between any conductor
and ground from rising above a safe level due to some fault outside a
building.
2. Equipment grounding is grounding of equipment not intended to be at
a voltage potential different from the earth. It is necessary to prevent
electric shock to persons coming into contact with metallic objects which,
either intentionally or accidentally, form part of the electric system.
Note: The resistance of the human body varies from about 500,000 when
dry to about 300 when wet (including the effects of perspiration). Therefore,
voltages as low as 30 V can cause sufficient current to be fatal (I = voltage /
wet resistance = 30 V/ 300 = 100 mA).
E. Polarity and switching
Polarizing the use of colors of conductor covers in the wiring connections
a.
b.
c.
d.
White wire is always the neutral wire.

Red or black wires are hot conductors.
Green wire is the grounding wire.
White wires are to be connected to silver-colored terminals, and red or
black wires, to brass-colored terminals.
e. All switches are in the hot conductors.
Grounded neutral is never to be interrupted by a fuse, circuit breaker,

switch or any other device.
F. Short circuit and overcurrent protection
Electrical systems need safeguards to assure that safe levels of current are
not exceeded.
When a short circuit occurs, damage can be prevented by cutting the flow
of extremely large amount of current.
Two basic classes of devices are fuses and circuit breakers.
I-30
Fuses are overcurrent devices of which a portion is destroyed when

interrupting the circuit. They are made with a low melting point metal link
which is calibrated to melt when a specific current rating is reached. All
fuses have an inverse time characteristic.
A circuit breaker is a device designed to open a circuit automatically on a

predetermined overload current without damage to itself. Most circuit
breakers have a bimetallic strip connected in series with the contacts.
VI. FARMSTEAD ELECTRICAL PLANNING

The electric load of a particular building refers to the number of watts
required by the electrical equipment in use in the building.
A. Electrical Load Design Values
Building
1. Farm shop
2. Poultry
brooding
3. Poultry laying
4. Dairy barn
5. Milking room
(parlor)
6. Milk house
Electrical Load Design Values

Minimum
Design values
value,
watts
4,600
3 watts/ft2 floor area + 3,000 watts if no welder
3 watts/ft2 floor area + 7,000 watts if having a
welder
1,150
4 watts/chick, small flock; 3 watts/chick, large
flock (1,000 or more); 4 watts/chick for any size
with infrared brooder
2,300
5 watts/bird + 1,320 watts/hp of automatic
feeder
3,450
200 watts/cow for 1st 20 cows; 60 watts/cow for
those in excess of 20 + 1,320 watts/hp of gutter
cleaner
2,300
900 watts/stall
7. General
purpose barn
8. Pig farrowing
3,450
250 watts/cow for 1st 20 cows; 100 watts/cow for

those in excess of 20
3 watts/ft2 + 1,320 watts/hp motor
2,300
500 watts/pen
4,600
Example 24. A proposed brooder house is planned for 1,200 baby chicks.
Electric underheat brooders will be used. What will be the value of the
electrical load of this building?
3 watts/chick 1,200 = 3,600 watts
B. Distribution center
If two or more buildings are to receive energy, each will have an entrance
switch, and it then becomes necessary to select a main distribution center, or
main point of supply.
Types of distribution centers: (a) Indoors
(b) Outdoor
(c) Pole
C. Electrical-load center
The best location for indoor type distribution center is the position closest to
the equipment having the largest wattage rating. The outdoor type should be
nearest to the electrical load center. The pole type should be located at the
electrical load center of the farmstead.
I-31
Example 25. Calculate the location of load

center:
Residence------12,000 W
Poultry------------6,000 W
Pump house------2,000 W
Unit
Residen
ce
Load
12
kW
Left axis
12 kW 10 m =
120 kW-m
Poultry
6
kW
6 kW 30 m = 180
kW-m
Pump
house
2
kW
2 kW 40 m = 80
kw-m
Total
20
kW
380 kW-m
Lower axis
12 kW10
m = 120
kW-m
6 kW40
m = 240
kW-m
2 kW20
m = 40 kWm
400 kW-m
Distance from left axis = 380 kW-m/20 kW = 19 meters

Distance from lower axis = 400 kW-m/20 kW = 20 meters
D. Selection of wires for feeder lines
Three criteria to consider: (a) size to carry current; (b) size of wire to prevent
excessive voltage drop (Allowable voltage drop = 2%); (c) type and location
adapted to surroundings
AWG number
(Area, cir. mils)
16(2,580)
14(4,109)
12(6,530)
10(10,380)
8(16,510)
Properties of annealed copper wire

Diameter
Resistance, /1000ft
Resistance, /1000m
at 25oC (77oF)
at 25oC (77oF)
mils
cm
50.8
0.129
4.020
13.18
64.1
0.163
2.525
8.28
80.8
0.205
1.588
5.21
101.9
0.259
1.000
3.28
128.5
0.326
0.628
2.06
Example 26. A conductor carries 4.8 A at 240 V. If the allowable voltage drop is
2% and the load is 80 m from the source, what size copper wire will be
needed?
Resistance = (0.02 240 V)/4.8 A = 1.0
Resistance1000 m = [1.0 ohm / (2 80 m)] 1000 m= 6.25 /1000m
Select no. 12 wire with 5.21 ohms/1000 m to maintain less than 2%
voltage drop.
VII.
Lighting
Light is defined as visually evaluated radiant energy. It constitutes only a
small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
A. Common types of light sources

1. Incandescent lamps.
Cheap; instant start and re-start; simple inexpensive dimming; simple
and compact installation; high power factor; focusable; life is
independent of number of start; good color.
I-32
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Low efficacy; short life; sensitive and critical on voltage changes; high
maintenance cost; more heat is produced than light.
Fluorescent lamps
Efficacy is higher than incandescent lamp. 20% of input energy is
converted to light, 80% to heat.
Long life but life span is affected by number of times lamp is switched
on and off.
Mercury lamp
Metal halide lamp
High pressure sodium lamp
Low pressure sodium lamp
Tungsten-halogen lamp
Intensity of light is measured in footcandles (fc) in English system, and lux
(lx) in the SI system.
B. Lighting calculations for interior areas.

The zonal cavity method involves the procedure of dividing the room into
zones.
Maintained illumination = ( Lamp lumens per luminaire CU LLF ) / Area per
luminaire
where: CU = coefficient of illumination
LLF = light loss factor
Coefficient of utilization
Fixture description
Efficient fixture, large unit colored room
Average fixture, medium size room
Inefficient fixture, small or dark room
CU
0.45
0.35
0.25
Light loss or maintenance factor

Room and fixture description
Enclosed fixture, clean room
Average conditions
Open fixture or dirty room
LLF
0.80
0.70
0.60
Example 27. An 8 m 20 m poultry handling area is to be lighted at an

average maintained footcandle of 50 fc (See table below). How many 3-lamp
fixtures of 120 cm long F 40 T12 WW start fluorescent lamps are required
assuming the CU is 0.38 and the LLF is 0.75?
Lamp lumens = ( maintained fc area ) / ( CU LLF )
= [ 50 fc ( 8 m 20 m ) ] / ( 0.38 0.75 ) = 28,070
lumens
Each 40 watt fluorescent lamp has an output of 3200 lumen. Therefore,

the number of lamps will be:
Number of lamps = 28,070 / 3,200 = 8.77 lamps
Since there are 3 lamps for each fixture, 3 fixtures (8.77/3 = 2.93) are
necessary.
Watts
Typical data of incandescent lamp

Ave. rated life, Initial
Lumens/wat

hrs
60
75
100
150
1,100
750
750
750
lumens
855
1180
1750
2760
t
14.2
15.7
17.5
18.4
I-33
Lamp code
Fluorescent lamp data

Watt Lamp
s
life,
hrs
Preheat lamp
F15 T8 CW
F20 T12 CW
Rapid start-preheat
lamps
F40 T12 CW
F40 T12 WW
F40 T12 CWX
F40 T12 D
Initial
output,
lumens
15
20
7,500
9,000
870
1,300
40
40
40
40
1,800
1,800
1,800
1,800
3,150
3,200
2,200
2,600
Some recommended illumination (IES Lighting Handbook,

1972)
Footcandl
Lux
es
General lighting
Conversation,
relaxation,
10
110
entertainment
10
110
Passage areas for safety
30
320
Areas involving visual tasks, other
than
50
540
kitchen
Kitchen
Special visual tasks
Dining
15
160
Study
70
750
Some recommended illumination for dairy and poultry
farms (AE Handbook, 1977).
Footcandl
Lux
es
Dairy
Milking operation area
General lighting
20
220
Cows udder
50
540
Milk handling equipment and storage
General lighting
20
220
Washing area
100
1080
Feeding area
20
220
Feed processing area
10
110
Poultry
Feeding, inspection and cleaning
20
220
Hatcheries, general area and loading
20
220
platform
Egg handling, packing and shipping
50
540
General cleanliness
70
750
Egg processing, general lighting
Machine storage, garage and machine
5
50
shed
Farm shop
30
320
General shop
50
540
Rough bench machine work
100
1080
Medium bench machine
70
750
Farm office
30
320
Restroom
20
220
Pumphouse
I-34

VIII.
I-35
REFERENCES
1. AENG 70 (Farm Electrification) Lecture Notes.

2. Baumeister, Theodore, Eugene A. Avallone, and Theodore Baumeister III. 1978.
Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers. 8th Edition. McGraw-Hill
Book Company. New York, USA.
3. Brown, Robert H. 1956. Farm Electrification. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New
York, USA.
4. Gustafson, Robert J. 1988. Fundamentals of electricity for Agriculture. 2nd
Edition. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Michigan, USA.
5. Hambley, Allan R. 2005. Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications.
Prentice-Hall International, Ltd. New Jersey, USA.
6. IIEE. 2002. Philippine Electrical Code Part 1. 2000 Edition. Volume 1. Bookman
Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
7. Jones, Edwin R. and Richard L. Childers. 1990. Contemporary College Physics.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
8. Richey, C. B., Paul Jacobson, and Carl W. Hall. 1961. Agricultural Engineers
Handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, USA.
9. Weber, Robert L., Kenneth V. Manning, and Marsh W. White. 1959. College
Physics. 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, USA.

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PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Electrical units continued

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

B. Units for magnetic properties

Gaussian & cgs

weber (Wb), voltsecond (V-s)

tesla (T), Wb/m2

IV. BASIC CONCEPTS AND INFORMATION

The smallest portion into which an

Elementary charge unit (ECU) the amount of electrical charge on a single

The result of non-random movement of electrons

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Defined as the rate at which electrical

where: I = current in ampere, A

D. Electromotive force (emf) and potential difference

Not a force, despite its name

Measured in volts, volt (V)

May be generated by means of mechanical, magnetic, pressure, thermal,

The ability of a material to resist the flow of electrical charge when

Resistance of a piece of wire

where: R = resistance in ohm,

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

The lower the resistivity of the material, the better conductor it is

Example 2: What will be the resistance of the wire in example 1 at 75C?

Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance ( G

Conductivity is the ability of material to conduct electricity; reciprocal of

where: R = resistance in ohm,

Example 4. What is the current drawn by a 600- resistor when a potential

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

2. Kirchhoffs current law

3. Kirchhoffs voltage law

The net voltage around a close circuit is zero

G. Power Calculations (Joules Law)

The power dissipated by an electrical circuit is given by:

where: P = power in watt, W

watt ampere volt

Actual formula: P IE power factor

Example 5. A piece of wire has a resistance of 50 . How much power is

Energy is the power expended or used over a period of time

where: W = energy in watt, W

1 Wh 3600 watt - seconds 3600 joules

The common unit of electric energy consumption is watt-hour (Wh)

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Total energy use over a period is measured by a watt-hour meter or

Power usage (watthours)

K h no. of disk revolutions

Example 7. A 60 lamp is left connected to a 220-V source for 3 hours. How

2,420 Wh or 2.42 kWh or 8.712 MJ

Example 8. All electrical equipment is off except an electric motor. The

Energy (Wh) K h no. of disk revolutions 2 .5 20 50 Wh

Power input to the motor 500 W

Network Configurations and Transformations.

The equivalent resistance connected in series: RS R1 R2 R3 ... Rn

Capacitance is measured in farad (F):

The equivalent resistance connected in series:

The equivalent capacitance connected in parallel:

the concept is closely related to resistors connected in series

the concept is closely related to resistors in parallel

PSAE Region IV Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

it is always possible to view a very complicated circuit in terms of much

Two Categories of Electrical Systems