Austenitic Stainless Steel

David N. French, Sc.D.

President of David N. French, Inc., Metallurgists, Northborough, MA.
Winter 1992
Category: Design/Fabrication
Summary: The following article is a part of National Board Classic Series and it was
published in the National Board BULLETIN. (4 printed pages)

Austenitic stainless steels are a class of alloys with a face-centered-cubic lattice structure of
austenite over the whole temperature range from room temperature (and below) to the
melting point. In ferritic steels there is a transformation from the body-centered-cubic lattice
structure of ferrite to the face-centered-cubic lattice structure of austenite. The temperature of
this transformation depends upon the composition but is about 1340 o F for a plain-carbon
steel similar to the SA178 or SA210 grades. When 18% chromium and 8% nickel are added,
the crystal structure of austenite remains stable over all temperatures. The nickel-based
alloys with 35-70% nickel and 20-30% chromium, while not strictly steels (a steel must have
at least 50% iron), do have the face-centered-cubic lattice arrangement and are also called
austenitic materials.
Our discussion will be limited to austenitic stainless steels. This class of alloys has excellent
corrosion resistance and excellent high-temperature tensile and creep strength. They have
been used in superheaters and reheaters for 35 years or so and have provided excellent
performance.
For high-temperature boiler applications, three general grades, 304, 321, and 347, are the
most widely used. Within these classifications are other grades, designated by a following
capital letter, L or H. The differences are only in the carbon content. Table I lists these
differences.
TABLE I
ELEMENT
Carbon, %

304L
0.035 Max

304

304H
0.08 Max

0.04-0.10

For use at temperatures above 1000oF, the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code requires a
minimum of 0.04% carbon for adequate creep strength. For superheater and reheater
applications, the H grade is preferred as this assures the proper carbon content for use at
temperatures where creep strength is the important design consideration.
There are two other grades, 304N and 304LN. The "N" indicates a nitrogen content of 0.100.16% ( for improved strength) and the "L" again signifies a maximum carbon content of
0.035%.
The 304,321, and 347 grades are all in the classification of 18% chromium, 8% nickel with
some slight variations in the range of these alloying elements. Table II lists the chromium and
nickel composition requirements for the three grades.

TABLE II
ELEMENT

304

321

347

% Chromium

18.0-20.0

17.0-20.0

17.0-20.0

% Nickel

8.00-11.0

9.00-13.0

9.00-13.0

There are different ASME specifications, depending upon the form which the material is used.
Tubes are covered in SA213, pipes are covered in SA376, plates are covered in SA240, and
each product form has a slightly different composition range.
Other differences among these three grades are the additions of titanium in 321, and
columbium and tantalum in grade 347. For 321, the titanium is 0.60% maximum; and for 347,
the columbium plus tantalum shall not exceed 1.0%. There are other requirements on the
minimum amount of these alloying elements, based upon the carbon content. There are also
some other minor differences in the nickel range, depending upon the product form. However,
except for these, relatively speaking, minor differences, they all fall within the broad
classification of the 18-8 austenitic stainless steels.
The material specification requires all of these materials to be provided in the solutionannealed condition. That is, the final heat treatment is performed at a temperature of 19002000oF, depending upon the particular grade. For the 321H grade, there is a further
requirement: a grain size of ASTM No.7 or coarser is specified to insure adequate creep
strength. A solution anneal at 2,000o F minimum is usually sufficient to meet this specification
requirement.
After the high-temperature solution anneal, the microstructure will be equiaxed austenite. The
word "equiaxed" means that the dimensions of an individual austenite grain will be essentially
the same, regardless of orientation or direction. The material is in the fully annealed condition
and will be a single-phased material with only some non-metallic inclusions inherent to steel
making, apparent within the microstructure.
Unlike the ferritic steels that have dramatic microstructural changes depending upon the peak
operational or failure temperature, there are no abrupt microstructural changes in the
austenitic stainless steels. What microstructural changes do occur, occur over a range of
temperatures. All of these grades will sensitize, that is, form chromium carbides along the
austenite grain boundaries. The formation of these carbides reduces the chromium content of
the austenite grains at the boundary, and, therefore, reduces the local corrosion resistance
along the grain boundaries.
To prevent sensitization, additions of titanium to make the alloy 321 and columbium and
tantalum to form 347 were invented. If these alloys are given a second heat treatment, called
a stabilization anneal, at 1600-1650o F after the solution anneal, titanium carbide or
columbium-tantalum carbide will form preferentially to chromium carbide. With all of the
carbon removed as innocuous carbides, no chromium carbide can form. There is no loss of
chromium at the grain boundaries, and no loss of corrosion resistance, and thus no
sensitization. However, since in boiler applications 321 and 347 are not given a stabilization
anneal, 321 and 347 will sensitize just the same as 304.
One other microstructural constituent will form at elevated temperatures, and that is a
chromium-iron intermetallic called "sigma phase."
Both the sensitization and the formation of sigma phase occur over long periods at ill-defined
temperatures. Both will occur at temperatures beginning at about l,000 oF and will form more
rapidly at slightly higher temperatures. Since the formation of chromium carbide and sigma
phase are governed by the ability of individual atoms to move or diffuse through the lattice,
these atomic movements will occur more rapidly at higher temperatures. As the temperature

is increased above 1200oF, however, chromium carbide begins to redissolve in the austenite;
thus the rate of carbide formation and growth decreases. By about 1600 oF, chromium carbide
is completely gone from the microstructure. Sigma phase is unstable and redissolves above a
temperature of about 1600o F; the exact temperature depends on the composition.
One other change in the microstructure that will occur over long periods of time is grain
growth. Depending upon the time and temperature, grain growth can begin at temperatures
as low as 1150oF-1200o F if the time is long enough.
Unfortunately, from an estimation of operating-temperature perspective, all of these changes
within the microstructure of austenitic stainless steel occur over a range of temperatures and
over a range of times. There are no discrete temperatures that indicate with any degree of
precision the peak failure or operating temperature. Thus there are only estimates of
operating temperature and not an accurate "calling card" within the microstructure as there
are in the ferritic steels.
In summary, the 18 chromium-8 nickel austenitic stainless steels have been used for several
decades in high-temperature applications within a steam generator. They have excellent hightemperature tensile and creep strengths and excellent corrosion resistance. The
microstructural changes during long-term operation are more subtle than in the ferritic steels.

Editor's note: Some ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requirements may have
changed because of advances in material technology and/or actual experience. The reader is
cautioned to refer to the latest edition and addenda of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code for current requirements.