Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND
FOUNDATIONS1
FOREWORD
The material in this chapter is written with regard to typical North American Railroad Concrete Structures and Foundations
and other structures mentioned herein with
This chapter is presented as a consensus document by a committee composed of railroad industry professionals having
substantial and broad-based experience designing, evaluating, and investigating Concrete Structures and Foundations used by
railroads. The recommendations contained herein are based upon past successful usage, advances in the state of knowledge,
and current design and maintenance practices. These recommendations are intended for routine use and might not provide
sufficient criteria for infrequently encountered conditions. Professional judgement must be exercised when applying the
recommendations of this chapter as part of an overall solution to any particular issue.
This chapter is published annually, incorporating revisions made in the previous year. The latest published edition of the
chapter should be used, regardless of the age of an existing structure. For purposes of determining historical recommendations
under which an existing structure may have been built and maintained, it can prove useful to examine previous editions of the
chapter. However, when historical recommendations differ from the recommendations contained in the latest published
edition of the chapter, the recommendations of the latest published edition of the chapter should be used.
Part 8, Rigid Frame Concrete Bridges was deleted from the manual in 1975. Part 9, Reinforced Concrete Trestles was deleted
from the manual in 1971. Part 15 is reserved for future use. Part 18, Elastomeric Bridge Bearings was moved to Chapter 15 in
2001.
1
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to railroads and others
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications), and allied services and facilities.
For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice
recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs
of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
railways. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
8-i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section
Description
Page
8-1-1
8-1-6
8-1-8
8-1-10
8-1-11
8-1-16
8-1-16
8-1-19
8-1-20
8-1-21
8-1-24
8-1-27
8-1-31
8-1-37
8-1-39
8-1-43
8-1-46
8-1-47
8-1-48
8-1-51
8-1-52
8-1-53
8-1-53
8-1-55
8-1-56
8-1-57
8-1-62
8-1-64
8-2-1
8-2-5
8-2-8
8-2-20
8-2-21
8-2-22
8-2-22
8-2-23
8-2-23
8-2-24
8-2-24
8-2-25
8-2-27
8-2-27
8-2-29
8-2-30
8-2-30
8-2-31
8-2-32
8-2-32
8-ii
Description
Page
8-2-33
8-2-33
8-2-35
8-2-37
8-2-42
8-2-42
8-2-42
8-2-44
8-2-44
8-2-45
8-2-52
8-2-53
8-2-53
8-2-56
8-2-58
8-2-60
8-2-68
8-2-68
8-2-68
8-2-69
8-2-69
8-2-70
8-3-1
8-3-2
8-3-3
8-3-6
8-3-7
8-3-12
8-3-14
8-3-14
8-3-15
Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Pile Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5
Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6
Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-4-1
8-4-2
8-4-4
8-4-7
8-4-10
8-4-15
8-4-18
8-4-18
8-5-1
8-5-2
8-5-4
8-5-5
8-5-7
8-5-8
8-5-9
8-iii
Description
Page
8-5-11
8-5-12
Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2
Design of Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4
Requirements for Metal Crib Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5
Requirements for Timber Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-6-1
8-6-2
8-6-2
8-6-3
8-6-5
8-6-6
8-7-1
8-7-2
8-7-2
8-7-3
8-10-1
8-10-2
8-10-3
8-10-4
8-10-12
8-11-1
8-11-2
8-11-2
8-11-7
8-11-8
12 Cantilever Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-12-1
8-12-2
8-12-2
8-12-2
8-12-3
8-14-1
8-14-3
8-14-3
8-14-4
8-14-5
8-14-7
8-14-22
8-14-24
8-16-1
8-16-2
8-16-4
8-16-6
8-16-6
8-16-13
8-16-15
8-iv
Description
Page
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-16-17
17 Prestressed Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1 General Requirements and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Notations (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 Terms (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.6 General Analysis (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.7 Expansion and Contraction (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.8 Span Length (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.10 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.12 Diaphragms (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.13 Deflections (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.14 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.15 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.16 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.17 Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.18 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.19 Ductility Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.20 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.21 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.22 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.23 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.24 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.25 General Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.26 General Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.27 Mortar and Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.28 Application of Loads (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commentary (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-1
8-17-4
8-17-5
8-17-7
8-17-9
8-17-11
8-17-13
8-17-13
8-17-13
8-17-14
8-17-15
8-17-15
8-17-16
8-17-16
8-17-17
8-17-18
8-17-18
8-17-20
8-17-26
8-17-28
8-17-29
8-17-30
8-17-34
8-17-44
8-17-45
8-17-45
8-17-48
8-17-52
8-17-52
8-17-53
8-17-54
8-17-57
8-19-1
8-19-2
8-19-2
8-19-4
8-19-5
8-19-8
8-19-10
8-19-11
8-20-1
8-20-2
8-20-3
8-20-5
8-20-9
8-v
Description
Page
8-20-10
8-20-14
8-20-15
8-20-16
8-21-1
8-21-1
8-21-2
8-21-2
8-21-19
8-22-1
8-22-2
8-22-2
8-22-2
8-22-3
8-22-4
8-22-6
8-22-6
8-22-7
8-22-9
8-22-9
8-22-9
8-22-10
8-22-10
8-23-1
8-23-2
8-23-3
8-23-4
8-23-20
8-23-24
8-24-1
8-24-2
8-24-5
8-24-5
8-24-8
8-24-9
8-24-12
8-24-12
8-25-1
8-25-2
8-25-3
8-25-7
8-25-9
8-25-13
8-vi
Description
Page
8-26-1
8-26-4
8-26-8
8-26-12
8-26-16
8-26-21
8-26-22
8-26-23
8-26-23
8-26-32
8-26-32
8-26-35
8-26-36
8-26-38
8-26-38
8-26-40
8-26-40
8-26-40
8-26-41
8-27-1
8-27-3
8-27-3
8-27-6
8-27-7
8-27-8
8-27-10
8-27-14
8-27-16
8-27-24
8-28-1
8-28-2
8-28-4
8-28-5
8-28-5
8-28-5
8-28-13
8-28-18
29 Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.1 General Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2 Waterproofing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.5 Terms (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.8 Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-29-1
8-29-4
8-29-4
8-29-5
8-29-5
8-29-7
8-29-8
8-29-12
8-29-13
8-vii
Description
Page
29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.10 Membrane Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.15 Introduction to Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.16 Materials for Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.17 Application of Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C - Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-29-13
8-29-17
8-29-20
8-29-20
8-29-20
8-29-20
8-29-27
8-29-27
8-29-29
8-29-29
Chapter 8 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-G-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-R-1
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,
recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered headings set in capital letters and
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers In the page numbering of the Manual (8-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the Chapter
number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the page number in the Part.
Thus, 8-2-1 means Chapter 8, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a G for Glossary or R for References.
Document Dates The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the document
as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document, unless an attached footnote
indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
Revision Marks All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the document are
identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified information.
Proceedings Footnote The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all Association
action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
8-viii
Part 1
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements1
2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
1.1
Description
Page
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Purpose (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Scope (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Terms (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Acceptability (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
ASTM - International (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.6
Selection of Materials (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7
Test of Materials (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8
Defective Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.9
Equipment (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-6
8-1-6
8-1-6
8-1-6
8-1-7
8-1-7
8-1-7
8-1-7
8-1-8
8-1-8
1.2
Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Quality, Sampling and Testing (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-8
8-1-8
8-1-8
8-1-9
1.3
8-1-10
8-1-10
8-1-10
8-1-10
8-1-10
8-1-11
1.4
Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1
General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2
Fine Aggregates (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3
Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-11
8-1-11
8-1-12
8-1-14
References, Vol. 3, 1902, p. 311; Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 336,397; Vol. 5, 1904, pp. 605,610; Vol. 6, 1905, pp. 704,726; Vol. 11, 1910, p. 956; Vol. 13, 1912, pp.
333, 1564; Vol. 24, 1923, pp. 478, 1324; Vol. 28, 1927, pp. 1056, 1436; Vol. 29, 1928, pp. 607, 1399; Vol. 30, 1929, pp. 783, 1461; Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148,
1737; Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 330, 796; Vol. 33, 1932, pp. 622, 732; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 578, 868; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 953, 1130; Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 843, 1018; Vol.
37, 1936, pp. 632, 1040; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 136, 332; Vol. 45, pp. 227, 642; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 793, 1341; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 436, 1084; Vol. 58, 1957, pp.
650, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 637, 1970, p. 230; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 465; Vol. 78, 1977, p. 108; Vol. 83, 1982, p.
285; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 62; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 78; Vol. 96, p. 55; Vol. 97, p. 57.
8-1-1
Description
Page
8-1-15
1.5
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1
General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-16
8-1-16
1.6
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1
General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2
Welding (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3
Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.4
Bending and Straightening Reinforcing Bars (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-16
8-1-16
8-1-16
8-1-16
8-1-19
1.7
Concrete Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.1
General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2
Types of Admixtures and Standard Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-19
8-1-19
8-1-19
1.8
Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.1
Cementitious Materials and Concrete Admixtures (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.2
Aggregates (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.3
Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-20
8-1-20
8-1-20
8-1-21
1.9
Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.1
General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.2
Safety (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.3
Design (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.4
Construction (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.5
Moldings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.6
Form Coating and Release (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.7
Temporary Openings (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.8
Removal (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-21
8-1-21
8-1-21
8-1-21
8-1-22
8-1-22
8-1-23
8-1-23
8-1-23
8-1-24
8-1-24
8-1-24
8-1-24
8-1-24
8-1-26
8-1-26
8-1-26
8-1-27
8-1-27
8-1-27
8-1-27
8-1-28
8-1-28
8-1-29
8-1-29
1.12 Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.12.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-31
8-1-31
2014,
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
American
2015, American
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-1-2
Description
Page
1.12.2
1.12.3
1.12.4
1.12.5
1.12.6
1.12.7
1.12.8
1.12.9
1.12.10
8-1-31
8-1-31
8-1-32
8-1-33
8-1-34
8-1-35
8-1-35
8-1-35
8-1-35
1.13 Mixing
1.13.1
1.13.2
1.13.3
1.13.4
1.13.5
................................................................................
General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Site-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ready-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Delivery (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-37
8-1-37
8-1-38
8-1-38
8-1-38
8-1-39
8-1-39
8-1-39
8-1-39
8-1-40
8-1-40
8-1-40
8-1-41
8-1-41
8-1-42
8-1-42
8-1-42
8-1-42
8-1-42
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-43
8-1-44
8-1-44
8-1-44
8-1-44
8-1-44
8-1-46
8-1-46
8-1-46
8-1-46
2015,American
RailwayRailway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
2014, American
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-1-3
Description
Page
Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depositing in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Joints (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protecting Concrete in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-46
8-1-46
8-1-46
8-1-47
8-1-47
8-1-47
8-1-47
8-1-47
8-1-48
8-1-48
8-1-48
8-1-48
8-1-48
8-1-48
1.18 Curing
1.18.1
1.18.2
1.18.3
1.18.4
1.18.5
1.18.6
1.18.7
1.18.8
...............................................................................
General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Weather Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wet Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Membrane Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steam Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-48
8-1-48
8-1-49
8-1-49
8-1-50
8-1-50
8-1-50
8-1-51
8-1-51
8-1-51
8-1-51
8-1-52
8-1-52
8-1-52
8-1-52
8-1-52
8-1-52
8-1-52
8-1-53
8-1-53
8-1-53
8-1-53
8-1-53
8-1-53
8-1-54
8-1-55
8-1-55
8-1-55
2014,
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
American
2015, American
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-1-4
Description
Page
General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Preparation (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-55
8-1-56
8-1-56
8-1-56
8-1-56
8-1-56
8-1-57
8-1-57
8-1-57
8-1-57
8-1-58
8-1-59
8-1-61
8-1-61
8-1-62
8-1-62
8-1-63
8-1-63
8-1-64
8-1-64
8-1-64
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-64
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
8-1-1
8-1-2
8-1-3
Description
Full-Depth Expansion Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
8-1-28
8-1-30
8-1-30
LIST OF TABLES
Table
8-1-1
8-1-2
8-1-3
8-1-4
8-1-5
8-1-6
8-1-7
8-1-8
Description
Portland Cement ASTM C150. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aggregate Soundness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fine Aggregate Grading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
8-1-9
8-1-9
8-1-12
8-1-12
8-1-13
8-1-14
8-1-17
8-1-18
2015,American
RailwayRailway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
2014, American
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-1-5
Description
Page
Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight) for Different Types of Structures and
Degrees of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-32
Air-Entrained Concrete Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-33
Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-33
Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-36
Concrete Temperature Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-42
Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1-47
ASTM - International
Blast-Furnace Slag
Blast-Furnace Slag, Ground Granulated
Bleeding
Cement, Blended
Cement, Hydraulic
Cement, Slag
Cementitious
Centering
Company
Compound, Curing
Concrete
Concrete, Cyclopean
Concrete, Polymer
Concrete, Polymer Cement
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Reinforcement, Deformed
Reinforcement, Plain
Resistance, Chemical
Shore / Shoring
Sieve
Sieve Analysis
Sieve Number
Silica Fume
Slump
Soundness
Strength, Compressive
Superplasticizer
USDOT
Water Absorption
Water-Cementitious Material Ratio
Concrete shall be proportioned, mixed, transported, placed and cured by the methods herein recommended.
b. All materials used in the work shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer who shall be the sole judge of their
quality, suitability, and acceptability as to type. The Engineer shall be notified in advance whenever any phase of the
work is to begin.
The Engineer shall have the right to order testing of any materials used in concrete construction to determine if they are
of the quality specified.
b.
Tests of materials and concrete shall be made in accordance with appropriate standards of the ASTM - International as
specified.
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Pre-construction tests shall be carried out on cementitious materials, other than portland cement, as indicated in this
recommended practice.
Cement shall conform to one of the following Standard Specifications except as modified in this Chapter.
(1) ASTM C150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement as shown in Table 8-1-1
(2) ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements as shown in Table 8-1-2
b.
The use of slag cement Types S and S(A) as defined in ASTM C595 are not included in this recommended practice.
c.
See C - Commentary
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Description
Type I
For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required.
Type IA
Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type II
For general use, especially when moderate sulfate resistance, or moderate heat of hydration is
desired.
Type IIA
Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type III
Type IIIA
Air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type IV
Type V
Description
Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement
Type IS
Type IS( )
Modified sulfate resistant (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Portland-Pozzolan Cement
Type IP
Type IP( )
Moderate sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Type P
Portland-pozzolan cement for use in concrete construction where high early strengths are not required.
Type P( )
Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or low heat of hydration (LH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Type I(PM)( )
Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Type I(SM)( )
Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
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Silica Fume - ASTM C1240 Standard Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar,
and Grout, of the following types:
(1) As-produced silica fume -- in its original form of an extremely fine powder
(2) Slurried silica fume -- in a water base, containing 40 to 60% silica fume by mass
(3) Densified silica fume -- a compacted form of as-produced silica fume
b.
Fly Ash - ASTM C618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Concrete, of the following Classes:
(1) Class F -- Normally produced from high energy coals such as bituminous and anthracite coals, but sometimes
produced with sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(2) Class C -- Normally produced from sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(3) Class N Natural materials such as highly reactive volcanic ash, metakaolin (and other calcined clays),
diatomaceous earths, calcined shales, and other reactive materials
1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag - ASTM C989 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated
Iron Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars.
Pelletized silica fume -- consisting of hard pellets, not presently being used as an additive for concrete.
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c.
Types S and S(A) blended hydraulic cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, as defined in ASTM
C595.
d.
Blended cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag blended with hydrated lime.
Each shipment of fly ash or silica fume or ground granulated blast-furnace slag used on a project shall have a
certificate of compliance which includes the following:
(1) Name of supplier
(2) Consignee and destination of the shipment
(3) Vehicle identification number
(4) A unique unrepeated order number or other identification number for each shipment
(5) Source
b.
Each shipment of fly ash shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating the Class (either Class C or Class F),
with certified test numbers demonstrating that the material meets ASTM C618.
c.
Each shipment of silica fume shall also include a certificate of compliance demonstrating that it meets the requirements
of ASTM C1240.
d.
Each shipment of ground granulated blast-furnace slag shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating its
grade (either Grade 80, 100 or 120), with certified test numbers demonstrating that it meets the requirements of ASTM
C989.
Representative samples shall be selected and sent to the testing laboratory at frequent intervals as directed by the
Engineer. Aggregates may not be used until the samples have been tested by the laboratory and approved by the
Engineer.
b.
Sampling and testing shall be in accordance with ASTM C33 and the Standard Specifications and Methods of Test of
ASTM - International found in Table 8-1-3.
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Table 8-1-3. Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33
ASTM
Designation
Type
Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate
C70
C127
C128
Standard Sand
C778
c.
The required tests shall be made on test samples that comply with requirements of the designated test methods and are
representative of the grading that will be used in the concrete. The same test sample may be used for sieve analysis and
for determination of material finer than the No. 200 (75 Pm) sieve. Separated sizes from the sieve analysis may be used
in preparation of samples for soundness or abrasion tests. For determination of all other tests and for evaluation of
potential alkali reactivity where required, independent test samples shall be used.
d.
The fineness modulus of an aggregate is the sum of the percentages of a sample retained on each of a specified series of
sieves divided by 100, using the following standard sieve sizes: No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, No. 4, 3/8 inch,
3/4 inch, 1-1/2 inches (150 Pm, 300 Pm, 600 Pm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 9.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 37.5 mm) and
larger, increasing in the ratio of 2 to 1. Sieving shall be done in accordance with ASTM Method C136.
1.4.1.3 Soundness
a.
Except as provided in Paragraph 1.4.1.3(b), aggregate subjected to five cycles of ASTM C88 Soundness of Aggregates
by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate shall show a loss weighed in accordance with the grading procedures,
not greater than the percentages found in Table 8-1-4.
Table 8-1-4. Aggregate Soundness
b.
Aggregate
Sodium Sulfate
Magnesium Sulfate
Fine
10
15
Coarse
12
18
Aggregate failing to meet the requirements of Paragraph 1.4.1.3(a) may be accepted provided that concrete of
comparable properties, made with similar aggregate from the same source, has given satisfactory service when exposed
to weathering similar to that to be encountered.
Sieve AnalysisFine aggregate, except as provided in ASTM C33, shall be graded within the limits found in Table 8-15.
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Sieve Size
b.
Total Passing
Percentage by
Weight
100
95-100
80-100
50-85
25-60
10-30
2-10
zero
The minimum percentages shown above for material passing the No. 50 (300 Pm) and No. 100 (150 Pm) sieves may be
reduced to 5 and 0, respectively, if the aggregate is to be used in air-entrained concrete containing more than 420 lb of
cement per cubic yard (250 kg per cubic meter), or in non-air-entrained concrete containing more than 520 lb of
cement per cubic yard (310 kg per cubic meter). Air-entrained concrete is here considered to be concrete containing
air-entraining cement or an air-entraining admixture and having an air content of more than 3%.
c.
The fine aggregate shall have not more than 45% retained between any two consecutive sieves of those shown in
Table 8-1-5 and its fineness modulus shall be not less than 2.3 nor more than 3.1.
d.
For walls and other locations where smooth surfaces are desired, the fine aggregate shall be graded within the limits
shown in Table 8-1-5, except that not less than 15% shall pass the No. 50 (300 Pm) sieve and not less than 3% shall
pass the No. 100 (150 Pm) sieve.
e.
To provide the uniform grading of fine aggregate, a preliminary sample representative of the material to be furnished
shall be submitted at least 10 days prior to actual deliveries. Any shipment made during progress of the work which
varies by more than 0.2 from the fineness modulus of the preliminary sample shall be rejected or, at the option of the
Engineer, may be accepted provided that suitable adjustments are made in concrete proportions to compensate for the
difference in grading.
f.
The percentages listed above do not apply when using pozzolans or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Such
percentages shall be determined by tests as outlined in this recommended practice.
The amount of deleterious substances in fine aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in Table 8-1-6.
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Maximum Limit
Percentage by Weight
Clay Lumps
1.0
0.5 (Note 1)
3.0 (Note 2)
5.0 (Note 2)
Note 1: Does not apply to manufactured sand produced from blast-furnace slag.
Note 2: For manufactured sand, if the material finer than the No. 200 (75 Pm) sieve consists of the
dust of fracture, essentially free from clay or shale, these limits do not apply.
b. A fine aggregate failing the test for organic impurities may be used provided that, when tested for mortar-making
properties, the mortar develops a compressive strength at 7 and 28 days of not less than 95% of that developed in a
similar mortar made from another portion of the same sample which has been washed in a 3% solution of sodium
hydroxide followed by thorough rinsing in water. The treatment shall be sufficient so that the test of the washed
material made in accordance with ASTM C40 will have a color lighter than the standard color solution.
c.
Fine aggregate for use in concrete that will be subject to wetting, extended exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact
with moist ground shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously reactive with the alkalies in the cement in an
amount sufficient to cause excessive expansion of mortar or concrete, except that if such materials are present in
injurious amounts, the fine aggregate may be used with a cement containing less than 0.6% alkalies as measured by
percentage of sodium oxide plus 0.658 times percentage of potassium oxide, or with the addition of a material that has
been shown to prevent harmful expansion due to the alkali-aggregate reaction.
Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, crushed slag, or a combination thereof or, subject to the
approval of the Engineer, other inert materials with similar characteristics, having hard, strong durable pieces, free
from adherent coatings, and shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33 except as required by this Part.
b.
Crushed slag shall be rough cubical fragments of air-cooled blast-furnace slag, which when graded as it is to be used in
the concrete, shall have a compact weight of not less than 70 lb per cubic foot (1100 kg per cubic meter). It shall be
obtained only from sources approved by the Engineer.
1.4.3.2 Grading
a.
Coarse aggregate shall be graded between the limits specified by ASTM C33.
b.
The maximum size of aggregate shall be not larger than one-fifth of the narrowest dimension between forms of the
member for which concrete is used, nor larger than one-half of the minimum clear space between reinforcing bars,
except as provided for precast concrete in Section 2.5.
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The amount of deleterious substances in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in
ASTM C33.
For concrete subject to severe abrasion such as concrete in water, precast concrete piles, paving for sidewalks,
platforms or roadways, floor wearing surfaces, and concrete cross or bridge ties, the loss of weight shall not exceed
40%.
b.
For concrete subject to medium abrasion such as concrete exposed to the weather, the loss of weight shall not exceed
50%.
c.
For concrete not subject to abrasion, the loss in weight shall not exceed 60%.
1.4.4.1 Scope
a.
This recommended practice covers lightweight coarse aggregates intended for use in lightweight concrete in which
prime considerations are durability, compressive strength, and light weight. Structural lightweight concrete shall only
be used where shown on the plans or specified.
b. Aggregates for use in non-structural concrete such as fireproofing and fill, and for concrete construction where
capacity is based on load tests rather than conventional design procedures, are not included in this recommended
practice.
1.4.4.2 General Characteristics
The aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C330 Standard Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete, except as otherwise specified herein.
1.4.4.3 Unit Weight (Mass Density)
a.
The dry weight (mass density) of lightweight aggregates shall not exceed 55 lb per cubic foot (880 kg per cubic meter),
measured loose by accepted ASTM practice.
b.
Uniformity of weight (density). The unit weight (mass density) of successive shipments of lightweight aggregate shall
not differ by more than 6% from that of the sample submitted for acceptance tests.
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Welding of reinforcing bars shall conform to Structural Welding CodeReinforcing Steel (AWS D1.4/D1.4M) of the
American Welding Society. Type and location of welded splices and other required welding of reinforcing bars shall be
indicated on the plans or in the project specifications. The ASTM specifications for reinforcing bars, except for ASTM
A706/A706M, shall be supplemented to require a report of the chemical composition necessary to conform to welding
procedures specified in AWS D1.4/D1.4M.
b.
If welding of wire to wire, and of wire or welded wire reinforcement to reinforcing bars or structural steel is to be
required on a project, the Engineer shall specify procedures or performance criteria for the welding.
c.
Welders of reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the American Welding Society.
1
2
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Specifications
Bars, Wire and Welded Wire
A615/A615M
A706/A706M
A996/A996M
A955/A955M
A970/A970M
A1035/A1035M
A1064/A1064M
A1064/A1064M
A1064/A1064M
A1064/A1064M
A1022/A1022M
Prestressing Tendons
Uncoated Seven-Wire Steel Strand
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire
Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar
A416/A416M
A421/A421M
A722/A722M
Structural Steel, Steel Pipe and Tubing
Structural-Steel
A36/A36M, A242/A242M,
A529/A529M, A572/A572M,
A588/A588M or A709/A709M (Grade
36, 50 or 50W)
A53/A53M (Grade B)
A500/A500M, A501/A501M or
A618/A618M
Steel Pipe
Steel Tubing
Coated reinforcement, when specified or shown on the plans as a corrosion-protection system, shall conform to one of
the ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-8.
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Specification
A775/A775M
A934/A934M
A884/A884M
A882/A882M
A767/A767M
A1055/A1055M
A1060/A1060M
b.
Repair all damaged epoxy coating on reinforcing bars with patching material conforming to ASTM A775/A775M,
A934/A934M or A1055/A1055M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturers
recommendations.
c.
Repair all damaged epoxy coating on wire or welded wire reinforcement with patching material conforming to ASTM
A884/A844M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturers recommendations.
d.
Repair all damaged zinc coating on reinforcing bars in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M. The maximum amount
of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged
areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar, the bar shall be replaced.
e.
Equipment for handling epoxy-coated reinforcing bars shall have protected contact areas. Bundles of coated bars shall
be lifted at multiple pickup points to prevent bar-to-bar abrasion from sags in the bundles. Coated bars or bundles of
coated bars shall not be dropped or dragged. Coated bars shall be stored on protective cribbing. All damaged coating
shall be repaired. The maximum amount of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the surface area of each linear foot
(300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar,
the bar shall be replaced.
f.
After installation of mechanical splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), or zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All parts of mechanical splices used on coated bars, including
steel splice sleeves, bolts, and nuts shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating on the
spliced material. Remove coating for 2 inches (50 mm) back from the mechanical splice to bright metal before repair.
g. After completion of welding for welded splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All welds, and steel splice members when used to splice bars,
shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating. Remove coating for 6 inches (150 mm)
back from the welded splice to bright metal before repair.
h.
Repair all damaged zinc coating on welded wire reinforcement in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M.
i.
Plants applying fusion-bonded epoxy coatings to reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute.
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Reinforceing bars shall be fabricated in accordance with Article 1.10.2 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.4.2. Field bending and/or straightening of bars that are partially embedded in concrete shall be done in
accordance with the Plans or as permitted by the Engineer.
b.
When epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, or zinc-coated (galvanized)
reinforcing bars are field bent and/or straightened, damaged coating shall be repaired in accordance with Articles
1.6.3.2b or 1.6.3.2d. Field bending and/or straightening of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM
A934/A934M shall be prohibited.
The selection of admixtures to be used in concrete, if any, shall be subject to the prior approval of the Engineer.
b. An admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining essentially the same composition and performance throughout the
work as the product used in establishing concrete proportions in accordance with Section 1.12 Proportioning.
c.
Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used unless approved by the Engineer.
d.
Special purpose admixtures may be used if approved in writing by the Engineer. However, before an admixture can be
approved for use, it must be shown that its use will not adversely affect the placement, strength and/or durability of the
concrete. Admixtures used in combination may be incompatible and their performance should be verified by prior
testing from a certified third party agency.
b.
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Immediately upon delivery, all cement shall be stored in watertight ventilated structures to prevent absorption of water.
b.
Sacked cement shall be stacked on pallets or similar platforms to permit circulation of air and access for inspection.
The cement sacks shall not be stacked against outside walls.
c.
Cement sacks shall not be stacked more than 14 layers high for periods of up to 60 days, nor more than 7 layers high
for periods over 60 days. Older cement shall be used first.
d.
Storage facilities for bulk cement shall include separate compartments for each type of cement used. The bins shall be
so constructed as to prevent dead storage in corners.
e.
All cement shall be subject at any time to retest. If under retest it fails to meet any of the requirements of the
specifications, it will be rejected and shall be promptly removed from the site of the work by the Contractor.
f.
Where the Company furnishes the cement and the failure of the cement to pass the retest is due to negligence on the
part of the Contractor to store it properly, the cost of such cement shall be charged to the Contractor.
g.
The above provisions also apply to other cementitious materials and blended cementitious materials, except that fly ash
shall be stored in a separate structure or bin without common walls to avoid leakage of the fly ash into the other
cementitious materials.
h.
Liquid admixtures shall be protected from freezing. If freezing occurs then the material shall not be used in concrete
unless the manufacturer approves a method of ensuring the effectiveness of the thawed material, such as agitation.
The storage of coarse aggregates shall be minimized, as to avoid the natural tendency of such stockpiles to segregate.
b.
Fine and coarse aggregates shall be stored separately and in such a manner as to avoid the inclusion of foreign
materials in the concrete. Aggregates shall be unloaded and piled in such a manner as to maintain the uniform grading
of the sizes. Stockpiles of coarse aggregates shall be built in horizontal layers, not by end dumping, to avoid
segregation. Equipment such as dozers and loaders shall not be operated on the stockpile, so as to avoid contamination,
segregation and breakage.
c.
A hard base shall be provided to prevent contamination from underlying material. Overlap of the different sizes shall
be prevented by suitable walls or ample spacing between stockpiles. Stockpiles shall not be contaminated by swinging
aggregate-filled buckets or clams over the various stockpiled aggregate sizes. Crushed slag shall be wetted down when
necessary to ensure a minimum 3% moisture content.
d.
Special measures shall be taken to maintain a uniform moisture content in the aggregates as batched. Control and
testing procedures shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
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Reinforcement shall be stored in such a manner as to avoid contact with the ground. If reinforcement remains in
storage at the site for more than a month, it shall be covered to protect it from the weather. If reinforcement
accumulates rust, dirt, mud, loose scale, paint, oil, or any foreign substance during storage, it shall be cleaned before
being used. Deterioration may be a basis for rejection. Coated reinforcement shall be handled in accordance with
Section 1.6.
b.
Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire reinforcement, and zinc and/or epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars shall be covered by opaque polyethylene sheeting or other suitable opaque protective material as
approved by the Engineer. For stacked bundles, the protective covering shall be draped around the perimeter of the
stack. The covering shall be secured in a manner that allows for air circulation around the coated reinforcement to
minimize condensation under the covering. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire
reinforcement, and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be handled and repaired in accordance with
Section 1.6.
The Contractor shall be responsible for the design of all forms required to complete the work.
b.
Structural design of forms shall be performed in conformance with ACI 347R, Guide to Formwork for Concrete, or
other generally accepted standards, subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c.
d.
Drawings and structural design calculations shall be provided to the Engineer for review and acceptance prior to
undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
e.
Documentation demonstrating the adequacy of forms supports to safely resist the design loads shall be provided for
review and acceptance prior to undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
f.
Shoring and falsework shall be in accordance with Part 28 except as provided herein.
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Special provision for load transfer and movements shall be taken into account in the design of forms for prestressed
concrete.
h.
Special provision for forms supporting concrete that is required to act compositely with other materials in the finished
work shall be made.
i.
The review and acceptance of Contractors submittals shall not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for the safe and
functional design of the forms and their supports.
The supervisor responsible for construction of forms should be certified by the American Concrete Institute Inspector
Certification Program as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector. The Contractor may appoint a similarly
qualified and experienced individual with the approval of the Engineer.
b.
Forms shall be constructed mortar-tight, and shall be made sufficiently rigid by the use of ties and bracing to prevent
displacement or sagging and to withstand the pressure and vibration without deflection and/or objectionable distortion
from the prescribed lines during and after placement of the concrete.
c.
Joints in forms shall be horizontal or vertical, and suitable devices shall be used to hold adjacent edges together in
accurate alignment.
d. All forms shall be constructed and maintained so as to prevent warping and the opening of joints.
e.
All forms shall be constructed so that they may be readily removed without damaging the concrete.
f.
Bolts and/or rods shall be used for internal form ties. They shall be so arranged that, when the forms are removed, no
corrodible metal shall be within 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) of any surface.
g.
When wire form ties are used, where permitted, spacer blocks shall be removed as the concrete is placed. Wire form
ties shall be cut back 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) from the face of the concrete upon removal of the forms.
h. All fittings for ties shall be of such a design that upon their removal the remaining cavities will be the smallest
practicable size. The cavities shall be filled with cement mortar and the surfaces left in a sound condition, even and
uniform in color with respect to the original surface.
i.
j.
Any material once used in forms shall be thoroughly cleaned and form release agent shall be applied before erection in
a new location. All rough surfaces shall be smoothed and repairs made to the satisfaction of the Engineer. Forms which
have been used repeatedly and are not acceptable to the Engineer for further use shall be removed from the site.
k.
In the case of long spans where no intermediate supports are possible, deflection in the forms due to the weight of the
fresh concrete shall be compensated for by using camber strips, wedges or other devices so that the finished members
conform accurately to the desired line and grade.
l.
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Forms shall be removed in such a manner as to ensure the complete safety of the structure. Care shall be taken to
preserve formed surfaces and not to damage the corners or surfaces of the concrete. Hammering on or prying between
forms and concrete shall not be permitted.
b.
Form and falsework shall not be removed until the following are achieved:
(1) The concrete has adequately cured and has acquired sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated
loads.
The time of removal of forms will depend on the type of the concrete, the location of the form, and the temperature and
moisture conditions which affect the strength of the concrete.
d.
The age-strength relationship of the concrete used in determining the time for form and falsework removal shall be
determined from tests conducted on representative samples of the same concrete as used in the structure and cured
under job conditions, in accordance with ASTM C 39.
e.
If not otherwise specified on the Plans or by the Engineer, formwork and supports shall not be released until the
concrete has attained sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated loads upon it, but not less than 70%
of its specified compressive strength. In continuous structures, support shall not be released in any span until the first
and second adjoining spans on each side have reached the specified strength.
f.
Bulkheads at construction joints shall not be removed for a period of 15 hours after casting adjacent concrete.
g.
Forms for ornamental work, railings, parapets, and vertical surfaces which require a surface finishing operation shall
be removed not less than 12 hours, nor more than 48 hours after casting the concrete, depending upon weather
conditions.
h.
Support for pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members shall not be removed until sufficient prestress has been
applied to enable the member to support its weight and anticipated loads.
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Reinforcement at the time concrete is placed shall be free from mud, oil, or other coatings that adversely affect bond
strength. Epoxy coating on bars, wire, and welded wire reinforcement conforming to standards referenced in Table 8-18 is permitted.
b.
Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons with rust, mill scale, or a combination of both, shall be considered as
satisfactory, provided the minimum dimensions, including height of deformations, and weight of a hand wire-brushed
test specimen are not less than the applicable ASTM designation requirements.
c.
Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil, excessive soaps, dirt, scale, pitting and excessive rust. A light
coating of rust without pitting shall be permitted.
Reinforcement shall be prefabricated to the dimensions shown on the plans. Reinforcement shall be bent cold, and
shall not be bent or straightened in a manner that will damage the material. Bars with kinks or bends not shown on the
plans shall be rejected. Hot bending of reinforcement will be permitted only when approved by the Engineer.
b.
Diameter of bends measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown on the plans. When diameter of bend is not
shown, minimum bend diameter shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
c.
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, the tolerance in fabricated lengths of bars from that shown on the placing
drawings shall be 1 inch (25 mm) for bar sizes #11 (36 mm) and under and 2 inches (51 mm) for bar sizes #14 and
#18 (43 mm and 57 mm); the tolerance in out-to-out dimensions of hooks shall be 1/2 inch (13 mm); the tolerance in
out-to-out dimensions of stirrups and ties shall be 1 inch (25 mm) and the maximum angular deviation on 90 degree
hooks or bends shall be 0.5 inches per foot (1 in 24).
Reinforcement, prestressing tendons and ducts shall be accurately placed and adequately supported before concrete is
placed, and shall be secured against displacement within permitted tolerances. Tie wire shall be 16-1/2 gage (1.4 mm)
or heavier. Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for the assembly of reinforcement unless authorized by the
Engineer.
b.
Reinforcing bars shall not be cut in the field except when authorized by the Engineer. Flame-cutting of epoxy-coated
reinforcing bars and zinc-coated and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall not be permitted.
c.
When epoxy-coated, zinc and epoxy dual-coated, or zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars are cut in the field, the
ends of the bars shall be coated with the same material that is used for the repair of damaged coating and shall be
repaired in accordance with Articles 1.6.3.2b and 1.6.3.2d. The limit on the amount of repaired damaged coating does
not apply to cut ends that are coated with patching material.
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The supervisor responsible for placing reinforcing bars, tendons, and ducts shall maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.10.4.2 Tolerances
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and prestressing ducts shall be placed in
flexural members, walls and compression members within the following tolerances:
a.
(2) When member size is over 12 inches (300 mm) but not over 2 feet (600 mm). . .
(4) Reduction in concrete cover shall not exceed one-third specified concrete cover.
(5) Reduction in concrete cover to formed soffits shall not exceed 1/4 inch (6 mm).
Tolerances shall not permit a reduction in concrete cover except as shown above, and shall not permit reduction
in concrete cover below values specified as minimums as defined in Article 1.10.6.
b.
Tolerance on minimum distance between bars shall be minus 1/4 inch (6 mm).
c.
Tolerance in uniform spacing of reinforcement from theoretical location shall be 2 inches (50 mm).
d.
Tolerance in uniform spacing of stirrups and ties from theoretical location shall be 1 inch (25 mm).
e.
Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of bars shall be 2 inches (50 mm), except at discontinuous ends
of members where the tolerance shall be 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
f.
Tolerance in length of bar laps shall be minus 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
g.
Tolerance in embedded length shall be minus 1 inch (25 mm) for #3 to #11 bars (10 mm to 36 mm) and minus 2 inches
(50 mm) for #14 and #18 bars (43 mm and 57 mm).
h.
When it is necessary to move bars to avoid interference with other reinforcement, conduits, or embedded items by an
amount exceeding the specified placing tolerances, the resulting arrangement of bars shall be approved by the
Engineer.
i.
Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of prestressing strand shall be 1/4 inches (6 mm) except in precast
slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in precast slabs shall be 1/4 inches (6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal
location of prestressing strand in precast slabs shall be 1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
j.
Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of unbonded post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded posttensioning shall be 1/4 inches (6 mm) except in slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in slabs shall be 1/4 inches
(6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal location of post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-tensioning in slabs
shall be 1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
k.
In precast concrete members the bearing plates shall be concentric with the tendons and tolerance for the
perpendicularity with tendons in concrete shall be 1 degree.
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement supported from the ground shall rest on precast concrete
blocks not less than 4 inches (100 mm) square, and having a compressive strength equal to or greater than the specified
compressive strength of the concrete being placed. Reinforcement supported by formwork shall rest on bar supports
and spacers made of concrete, metal, plastic, or other materials approved by the Engineer.
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Where noted on the plans and at all formed surfaces that will be exposed to the weather in the finished structure, bar
supports and side-form spacers spaced no further than 4 feet (1200 mm) on center shall be provided. Bar supports and
spacers and all other accessories within 1/2 inch (13 mm) of the concrete surface shall be noncorrosive or protected
against corrosion.
c.
Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on coated wire bar
supports, or on bar supports made of dielectric material and other acceptable materials. Wire bar supports shall be
coated with dielectric material for a minimum distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from the point of contact with the epoxycoated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars. Reinforcing bars used as support bars shall be epoxy-coated. In
walls reinforced with epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, spreader bars shall be epoxycoated where specified. Proprietary combination bar clips and spreaders used in walls with epoxy-coated or zinc and
epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be made of corrosion-resistant material or coated with dielectric material.
d.
Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on galvanized wire bar supports coated
with dielectric material, or on bar supports made of dielectric material or other acceptable materials. All other
reinforcement and embedded steel items in contact with galvanized reinforcing bars, or within a minimum clear
distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from galvanized reinforcing bars unless otherwise required or permitted, shall be
galvanized.
e.
Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with plastic-coated or epoxycoated tie wire; or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
f.
Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with zinc-coated tie wire, or non-metallic-coated tie
wire, or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
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Expansion joints are filled separations between adjoining parts of the concrete structure which are provided to allow
for relative movement such as those caused by thermal changes.
b.
Contraction joints are sawed, tooled, or constructed in a concrete surface to create a weakened plane to control the
location of cracking resulting from dimensional changes caused by shrinkage.
c.
Construction joints occur where two successive placements of concrete meet, across which it is desired to maintain
bond between two concrete placements, and through which any reinforcement which may be present is not interrupted.
Expansion joints allow for differential movement of the concrete mass on either side of the joint. These may also be
referred to as isolation joints.
b.
The Engineer may require that the joint be designed to resist movements in other directions, such as those resulting
from shear.
c.
Expansion joints shall be installed as shown on the Plans or as specified by the Engineer. Waterstops may also be
required.
d.
Jointing materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D994 or ASTM D1751. There shall be no connection across the
joint except as shown on the Plans or as required by the Engineer.
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These recommended practices do not include full contraction joints, where all reinforcement is terminated at the joint
and where joint details may include waterstops, bond breakers, joint sealant or shear connectors.
b.
Contraction joints allow for differential movement across the joint only in one direction, usually in the plane of the
finished surface. They are provided to allow for dimensional changes such as those caused by drying shrinkage of the
concrete.
c.
Contraction joints in slabs-on-grade shall be located and detailed as shown on the plans. Unless otherwise shown or
noted, joints shall be placed at 15 to 25 foot (5 8 m) intervals in each direction.
d.
Contraction joints for slabs-on-grade shall be made by one of the methods shown in Figure 8-1-2 or as shown on the
plans.
e.
Sawing of contraction joints shall be done as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent aggregates being
dislocated by the saw and shall be completed within twelve hours after placement unless otherwise approved by the
Engineer. Sawing shall not be done when the concrete temperature is falling, unless approved by the Engineer.
f.
Contraction joints may also be constructed by means or methods specifically designed to create a plane of weakness in
freshly placed concrete. This may include a reduction in the amount of reinforcement passing through the joint if
approved by the Engineer.
g.
Contraction joints may also be made by other methods if approved by the Engineer. Sawed or tooled contraction joints
shall be cleaned and filled with polymeric sealant conforming to ASTM D1190 or ASTM D3405 or as specified by the
Engineer.
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Prior to the application of a polymeric sealing material, a heat resistant backer rod shall be inserted to a minimum depth
of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface. The remaining reservoir shall then be filled flush with the slab surface (see
Figure 8-1-2).
Construction joints allow for no differential movement across the plane of the joint. They are provided only at
locations where casting is temporarily suspended or interrupted.
b.
The procedures specified in Article 1.14.9 for bonding fresh concrete to hardened concrete shall be followed in the
formation of all construction joints.
c.
Reinforcement shall continue through the joint. Additional reinforcement such as dowels and other features such as
keys and waterstops may also be included. Special measures such as attention to vibration shall be taken in the casting
of concrete to either side of the joint in the vicinity of keys.
d.
Structures or portions of the structures shall be continuously cast except as specified herein. When necessary to provide
construction joints not indicated or specified by the Plans, such construction joints shall be located as approved by the
Engineer and formed so as not to impair the strength, appearance, or durability of the structure.
Contraction joints shall not be used in watertight construction unless shown on the plans approved by the Engineer.
See Figure 8-1-1.
b.
Where a construction joint is used in watertight construction, special care shall be taken in finishing the concrete to
which the succeeding concrete is to be bonded. The consistency of the concrete shall be carefully controlled and the
surface shall be protected from loss of moisture as described in Article 1.18.4.
c.
Where construction joints are required to be watertight, a continuous keyway shall be constructed in the interface of the
first section of the concrete placed with an approved waterstop embedded in this first placement. One half of the
waterstop shall be embedded in the first placement and the remaining material shall be embedded in the adjacent
placement. See Figure 8-1-3 for details. The concrete shall be thoroughly vibrated to ensure uniform contact over the
entire surface of the waterstop and the key on either side of the construction joint. The waterstop shall be in accordance
with Corps of Engineers Specification CRD C 572 (PVC) or CRD C 513 (Rubber).
d.
Keyed joints shall not be used in slabs less than 6 inches (150 mm) thick.
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Figure 8-1-2. Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade
Figure 8-1-3. Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint
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In the measurement of cement, 94 lb per bag = 1/4 barrel = 1 cubic foot (1.5 kg of cement shall be assumed to be as one
liter). Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as otherwise specified or where other methods are specifically
authorized by the Engineer. The apparatus provided for weighing the aggregates and cement shall be suitably designed
and constructed for this purpose. The aggregates and cement shall be weighed separately. The accuracy of all weighing
devices shall be such that successive quantities can be measured to within 1% of the desired amount. Cement in
standard packages (bags) need not be weighed, but bulk cement and fractional packages shall be weighed. The mixing
water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The water-measuring device shall be accurate to within 1/2%. All
measuring devices shall be subject to approval of the Engineer.
b.
Where volumetric measurements are authorized by the Engineer, the weight proportions shall be converted to
equivalent volumetric proportions. In making this conversion, suitable allowance shall be made for variations in the
moisture condition of the aggregates, including the bulking effect in the fine aggregate.
b.
The proportioning of materials shall be based on the requirements for a plastic and workable mix suited to the
conditions of placement containing not more than the specified amount of water, including the free water contained in
the aggregates. The maximum specified amount of water shall not exceed the quantities shown in Table 8-1-9 for the
type of structure and the condition of exposure to which it will be subjected. Moisture in the aggregates shall be
measured by methods satisfactory to the Engineer.
Free water content of aggregates included in the quantities specified must be deducted from the amounts given in the
Table to determine the amount to be added at the mixer. Allowance may be made for absorption when aggregates are
not saturated.
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Description
In Air
In Sea
Water or In
In Fresh Contact
Water
With
Sulfates
(Note 2)
In Sea
Water or In
In
Contact
Fresh
With
Water
Sulfates
(Note 2)
0.49
0.44
0.40
(Note 3)
0.53
0.49
0.40
(Note 3)
0.53
0.49
0.44
(Note 3)
(Note 4)
0.53
0.44
(Note 3)
0.58
0.49
0.44
(Note 3)
(Note 4)
0.53
0.44
(Note 3)
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.53
(Note 4)
(Note 4)
(Note 4)
0.53
(Note 4)
Note 1: Air-entrained concrete shall be used under all conditions involving severe exposure and may be used under mild
exposure conditions to improve workability of the mixture.
Note 2: Soil or ground water containing sulfate concentrations of more than 0.2%.
Note 3: When sulfate resisting cement is used, maximum water-cementitious material ratio may be increased by 0.05.
Note 4: Water-cementitious material ratio should be selected on basis of strength requirements.
Note 5: The water-cementitious materials ratio may require adjustment as outlined in Article 1.12.10.
The volume of entrained air in concrete shall be within the limits shown in Table 8-1-10.
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Air Content %
by Volume
7-1/2
The provisions of this Section are not applicable when using cementitious materials other than Portland cement.
b.
When preliminary tests of the materials to be used are not available, the required water-cementitious materials ratio
shall be determined in accordance with Method 1 (Article 1.12.5.1). When strengths in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa) are
required, or where lightweight aggregates or admixtures (other than those exclusively for the purpose of entraining air)
are to be used, the required water-cementitious materials ratio shall be determined in accordance with Method 2
(Article 1.12.5.2). Method 3 (Article 1.12.5.3) may be used if statistical data conforming to Article 1.12.5.3 are
available.
Concrete proportions may be determined in accordance with this method if approved by the Engineer. Concrete
proportions shall then be based on the water-cementitious materials ratio limits found in Table 8-1-11. These limits are
only for concrete that is made with cements meeting Types I, IA, II, IIA, III, IIIA, or V of ASTM C150, or Types IS,
IS-(A), IS(MS), IS-(A)(MS), IP or IP-(A), of ASTM C595. Volume of entrained air shall be within limits of
Article 1.12.4. Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete ratio shall not be greater than that required by Article 1.12.4.
2,500 (17)
0.66
3,000 (21)
0.58
3,500 (24)
0.51
4,000 (28)
0.46
5,000 (34)
0.40
Note:
b.
Not applicable for concrete containing lightweight aggregates or admixtures other than for
entraining air.
The values in Table 8-1-11 are based on the use of cement and aggregates meeting the requirements of this Section and
the concrete being sufficiently protected from loss of moisture and from low temperatures to ensure that proper curing
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The strength of cylinders made with Types I, IA, II or IIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 7 days shall not fall
below 65% of the assumed compressive strength at the age of 28 days. The strength of cylinders made with Types III or
IIIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 3 days shall not fall below 65% of the assumed minimum compressive
strength at the age of 28 days shown for Types I, IA, II and IIA Portland cement. The strength of cylinders tested at the
age of 28 days shall be at least 1200 psi (8.3 MPa) greater than the strength specified on the plans when using this
method.
Where a concrete production facility has a record based upon at least 30 consecutive strength tests that represent
similar materials and conditions to those expected, required average compressive strength used as the basis for
selecting concrete proportions shall exceed required f c at designated test ages by at least:
(1) 1.34 standard deviations, where the standard deviation is less than or equal to 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
(2) 2.33 standard deviations less 500 psi (3.45 MPa), where the standard deviation is greater than 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
b.
Strength test data for determining standard deviation shall be considered to comply with the above if data represents
either a group of at least 30 consecutive tests or a statistical average for two groups totaling 30 or more tests.
c.
Strength tests used to establish standard deviation shall represent concrete produced to meet a specified strength within
1000 psi (6.90 MPa) of that specified for the proposed work.
d.
Changes in materials and proportions within the population of background tests used to establish standard deviation
shall not have been more closely restricted than for the proposed work.
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During the progress of construction, the Engineer will have tests made to determine whether the concrete produced
compares to the quality specified by the Plans. The Contractor shall cooperate in the making of such tests and allow
free access to the work for selection of samples and storage of specimens and in affording protection to the specimens
against injury or loss through construction operations.
b.
Four cylinders will generally be made for each class of concrete used in any one days operation. In special cases, this
normal number of control specimens may be exceeded when in the opinion of the Engineer such additional tests are
required. The Contractor, however, shall not be required to furnish for such additional tests more than 2 cubic feet (75
liters) of concrete for each 100 cubic yard (76 cubic meter) of concrete being placed.
c.
Samples of concrete for test specimens shall be taken at the mixer, or in the case of ready-mix concrete, from the
transportation vehicle during discharge. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, it is desirable to take samples elsewhere,
they shall be taken as directed. Specimens shall be made and stored in accordance with Article 1.12.8.
d.
The air content of freshly mixed air-entrained concrete shall be checked at least twice daily for each class of concrete,
or each time cylinders are cast. Changes in air content above or below the amount specified shall be corrected by
adjustment in the mix design or quantities of air-entraining material being used.
e.
If the strengths shown by the test specimens fall below the values given in Article 1.12.5 or as specified by the Plans,
then the Engineer shall have the right to require changes in proportions to apply on the remainder of the work.
f.
Technicians performing field tests of concrete materials shall maintain Level I certification by the American Concrete
Institute as a Concrete Field Testing Technician. The person in responsible charge of field test operations shall maintain
Level 3 certification by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association as a Concrete Technologist.
See C - Commentary
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25
50
10
50
35
Notes: Total cementitious material also includes ASTM C150, ASTM C595, ASTM C845
and ASTM C1157 cements (ASTM C845 is the Standard Specification for Expansive
Hydraulic Cement and is not included in this recommended practice).
The maximum percentages include:
a. Fly ash and other pozzolans and ground granulated blast-furnace slag included in
Types IP or I(PM) or IS or I(SM) blended cements, ASTM C595
b. Silica fume, ASTM C1240, present in blended cements
1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
1.12.10.2.1 General
The ability of the concrete mixture to exhibit special properties should be determined by tests for each source of silica fume.
1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
High-range water reducing admixtures should be used in concrete containing silica fume in order to achieve the desired
workability.
1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air
The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
1.12.10.3.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportions of fly ash, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.3.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures and High Range Water-Reducing Admixtures
Water reducing admixtures and high-range water reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing fly ash.
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Water-reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, in order to increase the
rate of strength gain.
1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
An accelerating admixture may be used when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag in a concrete mix.
The concrete shall be mixed only in the quantity required for immediate use. Concrete that has developed an initial set
shall not be used.
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The first batch of concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a sufficient excess of cement, sand, and water to
coat the inside of the drum without reducing the required mortar content of the mix. The mixer shall be thoroughly
cleaned if mixing is interrupted for a period that would permit initial set to take place.
c.
Concrete may be mixed at the site of construction, at a central point, and/or in truck mixers.
d.
Unless authorized by the Engineer, the concrete shall be mixed in a batch mixer of approved type and size which will
ensure a uniform distribution of the material throughout the mass. The equipment at the mixing plant shall be so
constructed that all materials (including the water) entering the drum can be accurately measured and weighed. The
batch shall be fully discharged from the mixer before recharging. The volume of the mixed material per batch shall not
exceed the manufacturers rated capacity of the mixer. Mixing of each batch shall continue for the periods noted below,
during which time the drum shall rotate at a peripheral speed as recommended by the manufacturer. The mixing time
shall be measured from the time when all of the solid materials are in the mixer drum, provided that all of the mixer
water has been introduced before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed. The mixer shall have a timing device with
a bell or other suitable warning device adjusted to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock is released. In case of
failure of the timing device, the contractor shall be permitted to operate while it is being repaired, provided an
approved timepiece equipped with minute and second readings is furnished. If the timing device is not placed in good
working order within 24 hours, further use of the mixer will be prohibited until repairs are made.
b.
c.
The production of concrete shall meet the applicable requirements of ASTM C94.
The organization supplying concrete shall have sufficient plant capacity and transporting equipment to ensure
continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate of delivery of concrete during concrete operations shall be such as to
provide for the proper handling, placing, and finishing of the concrete. The methods of delivering and handling
concrete shall facilitate placing with minimum rehandling and without damage to the structure or concrete.
b.
The Contractor shall submit records to the Engineer showing the time and date of each batch produced and the mix
proportions and the approximate location within the structure of each batch.
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a.
Concrete shall be handled from the mixer, or in case of ready-mixed concrete, from the transporting vehicle, to the
place of final deposit as rapidly as practicable by methods which will prevent the separation or loss of the ingredients.
Special care shall be taken to fill each part of the forms by depositing concrete as near final position as possible, to
work the coarser aggregates back from the face and to force the concrete under and around the reinforcement without
displacing it. Concrete shall not have a free fall of more than 4 feet unless permitted by the Engineer. Depositing a large
quantity at any point and working it to final position, shall not be permitted.
b.
Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers and each layer shall be placed and compacted before the preceding layer
has taken initial set so as to prevent formation of a joint. It shall be so deposited as to maintain, until the completion of
the unit, a plastic surface approximately horizontal, except in arch rings. Temporary struts or braces within the form
shall be removed when concrete has reached an elevation rendering their further service unnecessary. These temporary
members shall be entirely removed from the forms and not buried in the concrete. After the concrete has taken its
initial set, care shall be exercised to avoid jarring the forms or placing any strain on the ends of the projecting
reinforcement. Under no circumstances shall concrete that has partially hardened be deposited in the work.
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In placing concrete for an arch ring, the work shall be carried on symmetrically with respect to the center line, and the
working faces of the completed courses shall be on approximately radial planes. This requirement applies whether or
not the arch is placed in voussoir sections with allowance for key sections for final placement.
d.
In order to allow for shrinkage or settlement, at least 2 hours shall elapse after placing concrete in walls, columns or
stems of deep T-beams before depositing concrete in girders, beams or slabs supported thereon, unless otherwise
specified or shown on the plans. If the columns are structural steel encased in concrete, the lapse of time to allow for
shrinkage or settlement need not be observed.
e.
Concrete in girders, slabs and shallow T-beam construction shall be placed in one continuous operation for each span,
unless otherwise provided. Concrete shall be deposited uniformly for the full length of the span and brought up evenly
in horizontal layers.
f.
No concrete shall be placed in the superstructure until the pier forms have been stripped sufficiently to determine the
character of the concrete in the piers, and the load of the superstructure shall not be allowed to come upon abutments,
piers and column bents until they have been in place at least 7 days, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer.
The pump and all appurtenances shall be so designed and arranged that the specified concrete can be transported and
placed in the forms without segregation. The pump shall be capable of developing a working pressure of at least 300
psi and the pipeline and fittings shall be designed to withstand twice the working pressure.
b.
Where it is necessary to lay the pipe on a down grade, a reducer shall be placed at the discharge end of the pipe to
provide a choke and thus produce a continuous flow of concrete. When the type of pump is such that it discharges the
concrete in small batches, or belching, a baffle box shall be provided into which the concrete shall be discharged.
This box should preferably be of metal, about 2 feet square, with open sides so as to permit the concrete to flow into the
forms at right angles to line of discharge. The pipe shall be not less than 6 inches nor more than 8 inches outside
diameter, and the line shall be laid with as few bends as possible. When changes in direction are necessary they shall be
made with bends of 45 degrees or less, unless greater bends are specifically permitted. If greater bends are permitted in
special cases, they shall be long-radius bends. The maximum distance of delivery of concrete by pumping shall be
1000 feet horizontally and 100 feet vertically, unless otherwise specifically permitted by the Engineer. (A 90-degree
bend is figured as equivalent to 40 feet of horizontal piping. A 45-degree bend is equivalent to 20 feet. A 22.5-degree
bend is equivalent to 10 feet.) When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in the pipeline if it is to be used,
shall be ejected in such a manner that there will be no contamination of the concrete or separation of the ingredients.
The pipeline and equipment must then be thoroughly cleaned. The pipeline can be cleaned by either water or air. If
water is used, a pump shall be provided with a capacity of at least 80 gpm and capable of developing a pressure of 400
psi. Cleaning of the pipe can also be accomplished by the use of a go-devil which is propelled through the line by
water or air pressure. (The go-devil is a dumbbell shaped piece with a rubber cup on each end. The cups are turned
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Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted during and immediately after depositing by vibrating the concrete internally
by means of mechanical vibrating equipment, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
b.
Internal mechanical vibrators shall be of a type approved by the Engineer. They shall be of sturdy construction,
adequately powered, capable of transmitting vibration to the concrete in frequencies of not less than 3500 impulses per
minute and shall produce a vibration of sufficient intensity to consolidate the concrete into place without a separation
of the ingredients.
c.
The vibratory elements shall be inserted into the concrete at the point of deposit and in the areas of freshly placed
concrete. The time of vibration shall be of sufficient duration to accomplish thorough consolidation, complete
embedment of the reinforcement, the production of smooth surfaces free from honeycomb and air bubbles, and to work
the concrete into all angles and corners of the forms. However, over-vibration shall be avoided, and vibration shall
continue in a spot only until the concrete has become uniformly plastic and shall not continue to the extent that pools of
grout are formed. The length of time of vibration depends upon the frequency of the vibration (impulses per minute),
size of vibrators and the slump of the concrete. This length of time must be determined in the field.
d.
The internal vibrators shall be applied at points uniformly spaced, not farther apart than the radius over which the
vibration is visibly effective, and shall be applied close enough to the forms effectively to vibrate the surface concrete.
The vibration shall not be dissipated in lateral motion but shall be concentrated in vertical settlement in consolidation
of the concrete.
e.
The vibrator shall not be used to push or distribute the concrete laterally. The vibrating element shall be inserted in the
concrete mass a sufficient depth to vibrate the bottom of each layer effectively, in as nearly a vertical position as
practicable. It shall be withdrawn completely from the concrete before being advanced to the next point of application.
f.
To secure even and dense surfaces, free from aggregate pockets or honeycomb, vibration shall be supplemented by
working or spading by hand in the corners and angles of forms and along form surfaces while the concrete is plastic
under the vibratory action.
g. A sufficient number of vibrators shall be employed so that, at the required rate of placement, thorough consolidation is
secured throughout the entire volume of each layer of concrete. Extra vibrators shall be on hand for emergency use and
for use when other vibrators are being serviced.
h.
The use of surface vibrators to supplement internal vibration will be permitted when satisfactory surfaces cannot be
obtained by the internal vibrations alone and when the contractor has obtained the approval of the Engineer of the
equipment to be used. Surface vibrators shall be applied only long enough to embed the coarse aggregate and to bring
enough mortar to the surface for satisfactory finishing.
i.
The use of approved form vibrators will be permitted by the Engineer only when it is impossible to use internal
vibrators. They shall be attached to or held on the forms in such a manner as to effectively transmit the vibration to the
concrete and so that the principal path of motion of the vibration is in a horizontal plane.
Concrete when deposited shall have temperatures within the limits shown in Table 8-1-13.
b.
The method of controlling the temperature of the concrete shall be approved by the Engineer.
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Temperature of Concrete
When PlacedDegrees F
Minimum
Maximum
Below 30
70
90
Between 30 and 45
60
90
Above 45
50
90
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b.
The methods specified in Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete shall be used except when the space to be filled with
concrete contains water which cannot be removed in some practical way. In such cases, and when authorized by the
Engineer, concrete shall be deposited under water in accordance with the following.
The methods, equipment and materials proposed to be used, shall be submitted first to the Engineer for review before
the work is started. The methods used shall prevent the washing out of the cement from the concrete mixture, minimize
the segregation of materials and the formation of laitance, and prevent the flow of water through or over the new
concrete until it has fully hardened. Concrete shall not be placed in water having a temperature below 35 degrees F (2
degrees C).
The materials, preparations and methods to be used in making concrete to be deposited under water shall conform to the
requirements of these guidelines except as modified or supplemented by the following Articles.
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Before starting to deposit concrete under water, the condition of the bottom surface receiving concrete shall be
examined by an approved method and reported to the Engineer for review.
b.
The bottom surface receiving concrete, whether of clay, rock, or other material, shall be leveled as directed by the
Engineer, before depositing concrete.
c.
Where the bottom surface on which concrete is to be deposited under water is likely to be covered with silt or
unwanted material, such material shall be removed down to solid surface before any concrete is placed. The method to
be used to clean the bottom of silt or unwanted material shall be subject to the review of the Engineer.
Tremie. When concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a tremie, the top section of the tremie shall be a
hopper large enough to hold one entire batch of the mix or the entire contents of the transporting bucket, when one is
used.
(1) The tremie pipe shall be not less than 8 inches (203 mm) in diameter and shall be large enough to allow a free flow
of concrete and strong enough to withstand the external pressure of the water in which it is suspended, even if a
partial vacuum develops inside the pipe.
(2) Unless the lower end of the pipe is equipped with an approved automatic check valve, the upper end of the pipe
shall be plugged with an approved material, before delivering the concrete to the tremie pipe through the hopper,
which plug will be forced out of the bottom end of the pipe by filling the pipe with concrete.
(3) It will be necessary to slowly raise the tremie in order to allow a uniform flow of the concrete, but the tremie pipe
shall not be emptied so that water enters above the concrete in the pipe.
(4) After the start of placing the concrete and until all concrete is placed, the lower end of the tremie pipe shall be
below the top surface of the plastic concrete in order to avoid formation of laitance layers.
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Pumping. When concrete is to be deposited by pump, the methods, equipment and properties of coarse and fine
aggregates suitable for pumping shall be submitted to the Engineer for review. Maximum coarse aggregate size shall be
limited to one-third the smallest inside diameter of the pump or pipe. Fineness modulus of sand meeting the
requirements of ASTM C33/C33M shall fall between 2.40 and 3.00 with the median being 2.70.
c.
Bottom Dump Bucket. Where concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a bottom dump bucket, the bucket
shall be of the type that cannot be dumped until after it has rested, with its load, on the surface upon which the concrete
is to be deposited.
(1) The bottom doors shall be so equipped as to be automatically unlatched by the release of tension on the supporting
line or cable of the bucket, and the bottom doors shall then open downward and outward as the bucket is raised.
(2) The top of the bucket shall be fitted with double, overlapping canvas flaps, or other approved covers, to cover the
contained concrete and to protect it from wash when it enters the water and as the bucket descends to the bottom.
(3) The bucket shall be submerged slowly until it is completely under water. The normal line speed after that shall not
exceed 200 feet (61 m) per minute. After the bucket has reached the surface on which the concrete is to be
deposited, it shall be raised slowly for the first 6 feet (1.83 m) or 8 feet (2.44 m) while the concrete is being
deposited.
d.
Placing Sacks of Concrete. Where a relatively small amount of concrete is to be placed that does not warrant the
equipment required for other tremie or open-bottom bucket methods, concrete may be placed under water in sacks or
bags. In such case the space shall be filled with sacks of concrete carefully placed by hand in header and stretcher
formation, so that the whole mass becomes interlocked. Sacks used for this purpose shall be made of jute or other
coarse fabric free from deleterious materials, and shall be filled about two-thirds full of concrete with the sack
openings securely tied.
e.
Grouted Aggregate. Coarse aggregate shall be installed by placing in the forms followed by injecting cement grout
through pipes that extend to the bottom of the forms. The pipes shall be withdrawn as grouting proceeds. The grout
shall force the water up in the forms and fill interstices in the aggregate.
(1) The grout injecton pipe system shall be designed and installed to deliver grout to the entire mass. Vent pipes shall
be required to relieve entrapped water or air. Sounding wells or an approved alternate method shall be provided to
determine the location of grout surface during the grout injection.
(2) The coarse aggregate shall be placed in horizontal layers of such maximum thickness that will provide a dense fill
without segregation and shall be well-compacted.
(3) The grout mixture shall be applied under such pressure and at such consistency that will ensure complete filling of
voids, and the grout injection pipes shall be properly spaced to be consistent with this requirement.
(4) Mineral fillers and admixtures may be added to the grout mixture if approved by the Engineer.
(5) The grout mixture required for this work shall necessitate the use of special mixers and agitators to deliver suitable
grout in place. This equipment and all grout lines shall be maintained in good operating condition and cleaned of
all grout after every shift or work stoppage.
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Unless otherwise specifically provided, concrete for structures in, or exposed to, sea water shall be air-entrained in
accordance with Article 1.12.4, and shall be made with Type II or IIA portland cement having a maximum tricalcium
aluminate content of 8%. Concrete in sea water or exposed directly along the sea coast shall contain a minimum of 560
lb of portland cement per cubic yard. The concrete shall be mixed for a period of not less than 2 minutes and the water
content of the mixture shall be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce concrete of maximum
impermeability. Porous or weak aggregates shall not be used.
b.
When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, the resistance to the harmful
effects of exposure to sea water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
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1
Table 8-1-14. Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures
Sulfate
Exposure
Normal Weight
Aggregate
Concrete
Lightweight
Aggregate
Concrete
Maximum
Tricalcium
Aluminate in Maximum WaterMinimum
Cement,
Percent Cementitious
In Soil, Percent
In Solution, PPM
Compression
(Note 1)
by Weight
Material Ratio,
Strength, fc c, psi
by Weight
Moderate
0.100.20
1501500
0.50
3750
Severe
0.202.00
150010,000
0.45
4000
Very Severe
over 2.00
over 10,000
5 plus pozzolan
(Note 2)
0.45
4000
Note 1: Maximum tricalcium aluminate content of cement for concrete in seawater shall be 8%.
Note 2: Use a pozzolan which has been determined by tests to improve sulfate resistance when used in concrete containing a
cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less.
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Type III may also be specified to meet either the 5% or 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. In certain
areas the tricalcium aluminate content of other types of cement may be less than 5% or 8%. Sulfate
resisting cement will not increase resistance to some chemically aggressive solutions, for example
ammonium nitrate. The special provisions of the project specifications shall cover all special cases.
In freezing weather, or when there is likelihood of freezing temperatures within the specified curing period, suitable
and sufficient means must be provided before concreting, for maintaining all concrete surfaces at a temperature of not
less than 50 degrees F (10 degrees C) for a period of not less than 7 days after the concrete is placed when Type I, IA,
II or IIA portland cement is used, and not less than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
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The temperature of concrete surfaces shall be determined by thermometers placed against the surface of the concrete.
Provision shall be made in form construction to permit the removal of small sections of forms to accommodate the
placing of thermometers against concrete surfaces at locations designated by the Engineer. After thermometers are
placed, the apertures in forms shall be covered in a way to simulate closely the protection afforded by the forms.
c.
In determining the temperatures at angles and corners of a structure, thermometers shall be placed not more than 8
inches (200 mm) from the angles and corners. In determining temperatures of horizontal surfaces, thermometers shall
rest upon the surface under the protection covering normal to section involved.
d.
Temperature readings shall be taken and recorded at intervals to be designated by the Engineer, over the entire curing
period specified, and the temperatures so recorded shall be interpreted as the temperature of the concrete surfaces when
the thermometers were placed.
e.
When protection from cold is needed to insure meeting these specification requirements, all necessary materials for
covering or housing must be delivered at the site of the work before concreting is started and must be effectively
applied or installed, and such added heat must be furnished as may be necessary without depending in any way upon
the heat of hydration during the first 24 hours after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is
used, or the first 18 hours when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used. The methods of heating and protecting the
concrete shall be approved by the Engineer. Chemicals or other foreign materials shall not be mixed with the concrete
for the purpose of preventing freezing, unless approved by the Engineer.
f.
When heat is supplied by steam or salamanders, covering or housing of the structure shall be so placed as to permit free
circulation of air above and around the concrete within the enclosure, but to the exclusion of air currents from without,
except that where salamanders are used, sufficient ventilation shall be provided to carry off gases. Special care shall be
exercised to maintain the specified temperature continuously and uniformly in all parts of the structure enclosures, and
to exclude cold drafts from angles and corners and from all projecting reinforcing steel. All exposed surfaces in the
heated enclosure shall be kept continuously wet during the heating period unless heat is supplied in the form of live
steam.
g.
The supervisor responsible for curing procedures shall maintain certification by the American Concrete Institute as a
Concrete Flatwork Finisher or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
The temperature of concrete at times of placement shall not exceed 90 degrees F (32 degrees C). When the temperature
of the concrete approaches 90 degrees F (32 degrees C), special efforts to prevent too rapid drying out must be made.
b.
Continuous wet curing is preferred and shall commence as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to resist
surface damage. Wet curing shall be carried out in accordance with the practice recommended under Article 1.18.3.
Curing water shall not be much cooler than the concrete to avoid temperature-change stresses resulting in cracking.
Exposed, unformed concrete surfaces shall be protected from wind and direct sun.
All concrete surfaces when not protected by forms, or membrane curing compounds, must be kept constantly wet for a
period of not less than 7 days after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is used, or not less
than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
b.
The wet curing period for all concrete which will be in contact with brine drip, sea water, salt spray, alkali or sulfatebearing soils or waters, or similar destructive agents, shall be increased to 50% more than the periods specified for
normal exposures. Salt water and corrosive waters and soils shall be kept from contact with the concrete during
placement and for the curing period.
c.
When wood forms are left in place during the curing period they shall be kept sufficiently damp at all times to prevent
openings at the joints and drying of the concrete.
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In lieu of wet curing, a concrete curing compound in full conformance to ASTM C309 may be used, with the approval
of the Engineer.
b.
Liquid Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds shall meet the requirements of ASTM C309:
(1) Type 1 (Clear).
(2) Type 1D (Clear with Fugitive Dye).
(3) Type 2 (White Pigmented).
(4) Class B (Solids Restricted to Resin Only).
c.
The compounds shall be applied to all exposed concrete surfaces except those areas where concrete or other materials
are to be bonded, such as construction joints or areas to be dampproofed or waterproofed.
d.
The compound shall be sprayed on finished surfaces as soon as the surface water has disappeared. Spraying equipment
shall be of the pressure-tank type with mist producing spray orifice. If forms are removed during the curing period,
concrete shall be sprayed lightly with water and the moistening continued until the surface will not readily absorb more
water. The curing compound shall then be sprayed on the concrete surface as soon as the moisture film has
disappeared.
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2
a.
Construct all face forms smooth and watertight. If constructed of wood, size the face boards to a uniform thickness and
dress all offsets or inequalities to a smooth surface. Fill and point flush all openings and cracks, as approved by the
Engineer, to prevent leakage and the formation of fins.
b.
Cast concrete in one continuous operation between prescribed construction limits, true to line with sharp, unbroken
edges beveled or rounded as specified. Make joints not shown on the plans only if approved by the Engineer.
c.
Mix, place and consolidate concrete so that the aggregate is uniformly distributed and a full surface of mortar, free
from air pockets and void spaces, is brought against the form.
d.
Remove the forms carefully. Remove any fins or projections neatly as approved by the Engineer. If any small pits or
openings appear in the exposed surface of the concrete, or if the removal of bolts used for securing the forms leave
small holes, thoroughly saturate the surface with water and neatly fill all such holes, pits, etc., with an approved mortar.
Smooth with a wooden float to achieve an even finish. Mix the pointing mortar in small quantities, and use while still
plastic.
e.
Perform all work in connection with the correction of damaged sections, voids or honeycomb as approved by the
Engineer.
f.
Do not apply mortar or cement to the surface except to fill pits or voids, tie bolt holes, etc., as provided above, and not
by plastering.
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Do not rub the surface unless called for on the plans or directed by the Engineer.
b.
Fill all voids. Then thoroughly wet the surface and rub with a carborundum brick, or similar abrasive, to a smooth,
even finish of uniform appearance without applying any cement or other coating.
After placing and consolidating concrete, strike off and finish with floats and trowels or finishing machines in a
manner approved by the Engineer. Finish edges with an edging tool satisfactory to the Engineer. Take care to avoid an
excess of water in the concrete and drain or otherwise promptly remove any water that accumulates on the surface. Do
not sprinkle dry cement, or a mixture of cement and sand, directly onto the surface.
b.
Slope all horizontal surfaces of bridge seats to drain, except those directly under bearing plates.
c.
Require the supervisor responsible for finishing unformed surfaces to have and maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Flatwork Finisher.
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Concrete surfaces shall be cleaned by light sand or shot blasting, followed by vacuum cleaning to remove all traces of
curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, grease, fluids or other foreign material that would prevent penetration or
adhesion of the sealer.
b.
Concrete surface shall be clean and dry or as recommended by manufacturer. If concrete is subjected to rain or
moisture the surface should be allowed to air dry for a minimum of forty-eight (48) hours before treatment.
c.
The cleaning process shall not alter the existing surface finish unless specified by the Engineer as an intentional part of
the design.
Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
b. Ambient and surface temperatures at time of application shall be as specified by the manufacturer but not less than 40
degrees F (5 degrees C) or greater than 100 degrees F (38 degrees C).
c.
No rain shall be predicted for a minimum of 12 hours after completion of water repellent treatment.
d.
e.
No wind shall be predicted of velocity, per the manufacturer, greater than that which will cause an improper application
rate to drift, etc.
f.
Adjoining surfaces of other materials shall be protected unless solvent carrier is certified as harmless to these materials
by water repellent manufacturer.
The penetrating water repellent treatment solution shall be applied in strict accordance with manufacturers
instructions and not diluted or altered unless specified by the manufacturer. Equipment for the application of the
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Surface treatment of new concrete prior to 28 days curing is not permitted, unless approved by the manufacturer and
the Engineer.
c.
d.
e.
A minimum of two (2) coats of water-repellent treatment is recommended to achieve uniform coverage. The second
and each additional coat shall be applied perpendicular to the previous coat. Care shall be taken when applying each
coat, such that running or puddling does not occur. Each coat shall be allowed to dry for a minimum of two (2) hours
before the next coat is applied. The final coat shall be allowed to dry according to the manufacturers instructions
before applying ballast and track.
The penetrating water repellent material shall consist of an isobutyltrialkoxy silane, n-octyltrialkoxy silane or isooctytrialkoxy silane dissolved in a suitable solvent that will produce a hydrophobic surface covalently bonded to the
concrete. Only one (1) brand and specific type of penetrating sealer shall be used on each individual concrete element
(i.e., each pier, deck, abutment, etc.). The penetrating sealer must be a one part liquid, with no field blending required.
b.
Qualities of the material to be furnished for the project shall be tested and results certified by an independent testing
laboratory with report provided to the owner. The following tests shall be performed on standardized laboratory
specimens:
(1) Water Penetration. ASTM C64250 Day Soak less 1% Absorption (untreated specimen 4%, 0.2% absorption).
(2) Water Penetration. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 24421 Day SoakEffective
Average Minimum 80% (Series II).
(3) Vapor Transmission. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244Minimum 100%.
(4) Surface Appearance. No change in surface appearance or texture.
(5) Penetration. Oklahoma DOT OHD L-34 Visible Average 0.15 inches
(6) Drying Time. Dry and ready for use 1 hour after application.
(7) Accelerated Weathering. ASTM G232000 hours are weatherometerMaximum 3% loss of effectiveness.
(8) Water Penetration. Alberta DOT Type 1 Class B minimum.
(9) Salt Water Ponding. AASHTO T-259Maximum 1.50 lb per cubic yard at 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch; 0.75 lb per cubic
yard at 1/2 inch to 1 inch.
(10) Traction ASTM E303. No change when treated surface is compared to control surface. Measured in British
Pendulum Numbers.
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The manufacturer shall provide written certification of the quality of the product being offered and issue a warranty as
to its effectiveness when it is applied in accordance with the manufacturers specifications.
b.
Manufacturer shall have an established Quality Assurance Program with the Program available to the owner or buyer.
c.
Pre-Test. An eight square feet (0.75 square meter) test panel on the job shall be treated and evaluated in accordance
with the primary water repellent manufacturers recommendations and written test procedures which would allow the
water repellent to cure for a minimum of 5 days. Two test cores (minimum 3 inches (75 mm) diameter and 3 inches (75
mm) deep) should be taken at locations determined by the Engineer. In the presence of the manufacturer, or one of its
representatives, the cores should be split by chisel. One core should be retained by the Engineer. The water repellent
material shall have penetrated the core at least 1/8 inch (3 mm) (avg) and shall appear as a band of non-wettable
concrete.
d.
Test Data. All test data submitted by the water repellent manufacturer must be data generated by an independent testing
laboratory. Product tests must be totally controlled by the testing laboratory. Specimens cannot be pre-treated by the
manufacturer.
Materials shall be delivered to job site in manufacturers original undamaged containers with labels and seals intact.
b.
Materials shall be stored in accordance with manufacturers requirements and in a dry area with a temperature range of
not less than 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) and not more than 120 degrees F (49 degrees C). Adequate ventilation shall be
provided, away from sources of ignition.
c.
Manufacturers application instructions and Material Safety Data Sheet shall be consulted for additional safety
instructions.
3
SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS1
1.23.1 GENERAL (2003)
a.
This recommended practice covers reactive resin polymer materials (i.e. epoxy) used for concrete repairs and
installation of anchor bolts and other miscellaneous items in concrete.
b.
The material shall be a non-metallic, non-shrinking polymer resin supplied in prepackaged and/or pre-measured
containers. It shall contain no rust or corrosion promoting agents and shall be moisture insensitive.
c.
Packaged stability of each component in original unopened containers stored in temperatures between 40 degrees F (5
degrees C) and 90 degrees F (32 degrees C) shall be a minimum of six months. The mixing instructions, setting time
and expiration date of the material shall appear on each container.
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The surface of the concrete should be prepared per the manufacturers recommendations for the type of application
being conducted.
b.
The concrete surface shall be clean and dry, with no traces of curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, or grease.
The reactive resins should be chosen to provide the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strength, flexibility, adhesion etc.) of
the specific repair to be performed. The specific type, grade and class of material is to be selected by the Engineer in
accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
The following specifications shall apply to structures with a minimum specified concrete compressive strength of
6,000 psi (41 MPa) and made with portland cement concrete. These provisions do not apply to exotic materials and
techniques such as polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer concrete, or concrete with artificial aggregates.
b.
The compressive strength of production concrete shall be tested at 7 and 28 days and at other times as required by the
Engineer in accordance with ASTM C39.
b.
Cement mill test reports shall be submitted by cement suppliers for each shipment of cement. Silo test certificates shall
be submitted for the previous 6 to 12 months. Cement uniformity in accordance with ASTM C917 shall be reported.
Variations shall be limited to the following:
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4%
Ignition Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.5%
Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sulfate (SO3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.20% of optimum
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3
SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
1.25.1 GENERAL
This manual article describes and provides requirements for specialty concretes that may be used in railroad construction.
Before any specialty concrete is used, additional investigation of specific and detailed specifications shall be made.
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Mixture design for sulfur concrete is different from portland cement concrete.
Reinforcement may be with reinforcing steel, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel or with fibers.
1.25.2.3 Handling
The requirements for mixing/transporting equipment are defined by the unique thermoplastic characteristic of sulfur concrete.
Sulfur concrete must be maintained in a molten state and continuously monitored to maintain the temperature range of 270F
(133C) to 285F (147C). The concrete mixture must be thoroughly mixed so the molten sulfur cement adequately coats the fine
and coarse aggregate and mineral filler.
1.25.2.4 Placing
Sulfur concrete can be placed in either wooden or metal forms.
Heavyweight concrete shall be placed in layers and consolidated with vibrators or tampers. Heavyweight concrete
usually will not flow in a form and must be placed uniformly throughout the area and compacted in place with a
minimum of vibration. Under no circumstances shall an attempt be made to move heavyweight concrete during
consolidation with vibration equipment. Layers shall be limited to a maximum 12 inch (300 mm) thickness.
Consolidation shall be by internal vibrators to achieve uniform and optimum density. In heavyweight concrete
vibrators have a smaller effective area, or radius of action; therefore greater care shall be exercised to insure that the
concrete is properly consolidated. Vibrators shall be inserted at closely spaced intervals and only to a depth sufficient
to cause complete intermixing of adjacent layers. Counterweights containing punchings or scrap metal or iron ore
aggregates shall be enclosed in steel boxes.
b.
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b.
Contractor shall have a copy of all approved submittals at work site during construction.
c.
Manufacturer(s) Submittals:
(1) Material descriptions, brochures and technical data sheets including general chemical composition and physical
properties, pertinent test data, and specific recommendations for surface preparation, testing, mixing, application,
fillers (e.g. aggregates, sands) and curing.
(2) Manufacturers Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all materials to be used including instructions for storing
and handling.
d.
Contractors Submittals:
(1) Details of proposed storage methods.
(2) Form(s): drawings, prepared by a licensed engineer, including fabrication, assembly, and support of forms per
Section 1.9.
The substrate to which the polymer concrete is to be applied must be sound, clean, dry and properly prepared.
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Sufficient surface preparation shall be demonstrated, when specified, by use of a tensile adhesion test in accordance
with ASTM D4541.
c.
Defective areas and honeycombed areas shall not be patched until examined and approved by the Engineer. When
such approval is received by the Contractor, areas involved shall be repaired in accordance with the applicable
manufacturers written instructions.
1.25.4.5 Installation1
Installation shall be in accordance with the Manufacturers recommendations as approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance2
a.
Applicator:
Personnel using the product must have previous experience using similar products.
b.
Manufacturer(s):
(1) Submit a listing of representative projects installed in similar climates and for similar substrate conditions, in the
last 5 years.
(2) Manufacturer must employ trained technical representatives who will be available for consultation and project site
inspection.
c.
Contractor:
Contractor shall confirm in writing that substrates have been inspected, are adequately prepared and represent a
suitable substrate for the application of the materials.
d.
e.
Pre-installation Conference: Engineer may conduct conference at Project site with Contractor and/or Manufacturer.
Materials delivered to the project site shall be in sealed in, undamaged containers with labels intact and legible,
indicating the material name and lot number.
b.
Comply with manufacturers written instructions for minimum and maximum temperature requirements and other
conditions for storage. Store materials in a dry location, at temperatures not exceeding 90F (32C) or as otherwise
permitted by the manufacturer.
1
2
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(4) Cellulose fibers: Fibers manufactured from processed wood pulp or other plant-based material and intended for
use in fiber-reinforced concrete. Fibers shall meet the requirements of ASTM D7357.
b.
Concrete mix design and concrete mixing process shall be approved by the Engineer. Dosage of fibers shall be in
accordance with the fiber manufacturers recommendations. Mixing shall be sufficient to prevent formation of fiber
balls.
1.25.5.3 Placing
Use of a water-reducing agent is permitted to prevent slump loss during placement. Vibration may be needed to ensure
consolidation.
(2014)2
1.25.6.1 General
High-Performance Concrete (HPC) is concrete made from cementitious materials, water and aggregates to which chemical
admixtures and/or fibers are added to meet an array of performance requirements dictated by project needs. Specific mixing,
placing and curing techniques are needed to produce the desired results. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) defines HPC
as "concrete which meets special performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely by using
only conventional materials and normal mixing, placing, and curing practices."
Extensive testing is required to ensure that the concrete meets the specific project requirements. HPC is intended to be more
durable with enhanced properties compared to concrete without special additive.
1
2
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a.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a highly fluid yet stable concrete mix that can spread readily into place and fill the
forms without mechanical consolidation or undergoing significant segregation. Concrete is not made selfconsolidating by the addition of extra water, which would increase segregation and have other undesired effects.
b.
Self-consolidating concrete shall be designed, mixed, formed, and cured in accordance with the other provisions of
Part 1 except as stipulated herein.
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Among the tests specifically designed for ensuring the desired flow and stability characteristics of fresh SCC are the
following:
(1) ASTM C1610 Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique,
(2) ASTM C1611 Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete, and
(3) ASTM C1621 Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring.
b.
c.
Other tests can also be used in addition to or in place of the tests listed above. The Engineer will direct which tests
shall be employed and the frequency of testing. See Articles 1.12.8 and 1.12.9 of this Part for testing requirements for
the hardened concrete. The tests shall be performed by qualified personnel.
Quality control personnel must understand the engineering properties, placement techniques, element characteristics,
and raw materials considerations that were used to determine mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties.
1
2
a.
The structural design of forms shall take into account the fluid nature of self-consolidating concrete as well as the rate
of placement. Forms shall be designed to support lateral concrete pressures in accordance with the full fluid pressure
provisions of ACI 347R. If the design of the forms is in accordance with ACI 347R, but to a loading less than the full
fluid pressure, form pressure measuring devices shall be used to prevent rapid concrete placements from exceeding the
rated capacity of the forms.
b.
Forms should be sufficiently watertight to prevent leakage of fluid from the SCC. Form release agents with a high
solids content should be used.
c.
Reinforcement ties and other attachments shall be designed to account for the fluid nature of the concrete.
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C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various Articles in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. In the numbering of Articles of this section, the numbers after the C- correspond to the Section/Article being
explained.
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In addition to limiting the amount of solids in mixing water, maximum concentrations of other materials that impact the
quality of concrete must be limited. These include levels of chloride ions, sulfates, and alkalies. ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1 is the
requirement that water used to mix concrete must comply with ASTM C1602. As indicated in ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1, ASTM
C1602 permits the use of potable water without testing.
The chief concern over high chloride content is the possible effect of chloride ions on the corrosion of embedded reinforcing
steel, prestressing tendons, aluminum embedments or stay-in-place galvanized metal forms. Limitations placed on the
maximum concentration of chloride ions that are contributed by the ingredients including water, aggregates, cement, and
admixtures are given in ACI 318-08, Chapter 4, Table 4.3.1. ASTM C1602 limits the chloride ions in ppm (parts per million)
and only applies to that contributed by the mixing water.
Test results for non-potable water shall be furnished to the Engineer and approved prior to use.
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Field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars is discouraged, but when this operation is
required it should be closely controlled. Construction conditions that make field bending or straightening necessary
also make it difficult to control the conditions under which it is done thus making field inspection even more critical.
b.
Numerous technical papers published on this subject contain varying opinions on the best procedures to use. Current
known factors that affect field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars in concrete include:
(1) Application of heat appears to be necessary to bend or straighten larger sized bars, but either overheating (above
1800 degrees F (980 degrees C)) or under heating between 450 degrees F (230 degrees C) and 650 degrees F (340
degrees C) can result in reduced strength or even cause failure of the bars.
(2) Repeated bending and straightening weakens the steel and could result in failure even under the best controlled
conditions.
(3) Tight bending diameters decreases the strength of the steel.
c.
The reworking of reinforcing bars that are partially embedded in concrete involves some level of risk and is not
encouraged. Risks may be minimized by using reinforcing bars of a more ductile steel such as low-alloy steel bars
(ASTM A706/A706M) rather than carbon-steel bars (ASTM A615/A615M) in locations where field bending and/or
straightening will be required.
d.
When field bending and straightening of partially embedded bars is permitted by the Engineer, the following example
procedural guideline should be used:
(1) Bars of size #3 (10 mm) through #7 (22 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars cold (bars should be above freezing temperature).
(b) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(c) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6. Bends should not
exceed 90 degrees.
(d) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(e) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset against the bar at 45 degrees for #4 (13 mm) and smaller bars and at 30
degrees and 60 degrees for #5 to #7 (16 mm to 22 mm) bars.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.
(2) Bars of size #8 through #11 (25 mm through 36 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars after preheating to 1100 degrees F to 1500 degrees F (590 degrees to 810 degrees C)
as measured with temperature-indicating crayons.
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The cohesive nature of concrete containing silica fume makes it susceptable to excessive entrapment of air, even with higher
slumps. Proper placing techniques are essential to achieving any special properties for which silica fume is specified.
Tremie. Preferably, flanged steel pipe of adequate strength should be used, to sustain the greatest length and weight
required for the job. A separate lifting device shall be provided for each tremie pipe with its hopper at the upper end.
Experience has shown that temie concrete can be placed as specified, so that it will flow as much as 50 feet (15.24 m)
horizontally from the discharge end of the tremie with a slope of less than 3 feet (1 m) in 50 feet (15.24 m).
b.
Pumping. Refer to guidelines from American Concrete Pumping Association for detailed information on pumping
concrete.
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Bottom Dump Bucket. The bucket should preferably be designed for hinged bottom doors to operate inside of a steel
skirt. The skirt should surround the bucket while the bottom doors are shut and extend below the bucket as the bottom
doors open, minimizing turbulence and motion while concrete is deposited.
With the emergence of legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission, it is
incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
b.
Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
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Penetrating sealers are primarily intended for use in sealing the surface of concrete structures against intrusion of water
and chlorides, while having a minimum effect on the concretes ability to breathe (transfer water vapor). Of the 21
materials tested and addressed in National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244, only the silane
exhibited a measurable penetration effect.
NCHRP Report 244:
This silane material produces a non-wettable concrete surface to a depth of 0.10 inch (2.5 mm). The other materials
tested in this project, including boiled linseed oil, generally do not produce a measurable penetration or a measurable
thickness of non-wettable concrete. Most of these other materials are coatings and should not be referred to in
specifications as penetrating sealers.
b.
With the emergence of new legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission,
it is incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
Good surface preparation, prior to applying the sealer, is essential to achieve the desired maximum penetration into the
concrete. When the sealers penetrate below the surface of the concrete, they chemically bond to the concrete and
prevent water and chlorides from entering the concrete. Contaminants must be totally removed and the surface
allowed to dry. Properly applied sealers shall provide protection from the ingress of water and chlorides for a period of
five (5) years.
b.
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When high pressure water is employed, all surfaces shall be free of standing water or moisture at the time of the
treatment which could restrict surface penetration. Care must be taken when using high-pressure water steam to avoid
excessive exposure of coarse aggregate.
The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer shall be satisfied that the manufacturer can furnish the
quality assurance claimed. This can be done by comparing test results of the product against test results obtained by
independent test studies, several of which are listed in the References found at the end of this Chapter. The buyer or
owner should also be satisfied that an agent or distributor who makes such claims or offers such a warranty has the full
authority to do so by the manufacturer.
b.
The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer should seek out an applicator (either owners own
employee or outside contractor) approved by the manufacturer in order to validate its warranty.
Reactive resins may be selected for inclusion with fine and/or coarse aggregate in polymer concrete or included with a
clean, dry, fine aggregate in a polymer mortar. Reactive resins can be used in chemical bonding systems as an adhesive
for concrete or as a binder for mortars or concrete.
e.
Reactive resins may also be used neat (without the addition of aggregate) as a bonding agent, as a bonding coat for
adhesion, as well as anchoring between metallic inserts and concrete when the spacing between the metallic insert and
the interior wall of the bored hole in the concrete is 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) minimum. While the general rule for anchor bolt
embedment is ten (10) to fifteen (15) times the bolt diameter, the embedment shall be designed based upon loads to be
carried.
With the advances in concrete technology during the last few decades, the commonly achievable limits of concrete
strength have steadily increased. The use of high-strength concrete in construction has also increased. Concrete
compressive strengths approaching 20,000 psi (138 MPa) have been used in cast-in-place concrete buildings. Highstrength concrete has also been used in bridge structures. Research has been conducted on the performance of highstrength prestressed concrete in bridges.
b.
Because of the continuing advances in technology, the definition of the minimum concrete compressive strength for
high-strength concrete is changing with time. Different geographic locations may also have varying limits for what
they consider as high-strength concrete. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete (ACI 363R-92)
defines high-strength as having compressive strengths of 6,000 psi (41 MPa) or greater.
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The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete provides detailed information on material and structural
aspects of high-strength concrete.
To achieve adequate consistency and quality of high-strength concrete, stringent control of constituent materials is
necessary. Variations in type, brand and source of supply of the components can have major influences on the
properties of high-strength concrete. Therefore, emphasis is placed on the preparation of trial batches and maintenance
of the same component materials throughout the project.
b.
Testing and comparison of laboratory and production-sized trial batches are needed to establish the required strength of
laboratory trial batches. This is because the laboratory trial batches have often exhibited significantly higher strength
than production batches.
C - 1.24.2.1 Cement
The quality and consistency of cement used in high-strength concrete need verification through mill test reports, and mortar
cube tests. The most suitable types of cement for high-strength concrete are Type I or Type III with minimum 7-day cube
compressive strength of 4500 psi (31 MPa). In addition, cement should not show signs of false set.
C - 1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
a.
Chemical admixtures are commonly used in high-strength concrete to increase compressive strength through reduction
of water, control rate of hardening, accelerate strength gain, and improve workability and durability. Performance of all
materials in high-strength concrete as a whole should be considered when selecting the type, brand and dosage of any
admixtures.
b. Air-entraining admixtures (ASTM C260) are used to improve durability and freeze-thaw resistance. However, air voids
have the effect of reducing compressive strength and their use is therefore recommended only when durability is a
concern. Incorporation of entrained air may reduce strength at a rate of 5% to 7% for each percent of air in the mix.
c.
Retarders (ASTM C494, Types B and D) are used to control early hydration and hardening of concrete. Factors such as
an increase in strength and temperature effects should be considered.
d.
Normal-setting water reducers (ASTM C494, Type A) are used to increase strength without affecting the rate of
hardening. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are used to increase strength (decrease water
demand) especially high early strength (24 hours) or increase slump. Matching the admixture to the cement used (both
in type and dosage rate) is an important consideration.
e.
High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are often used in high-strength concrete mixtures and are
essential with the very high-strength concretes to ensure adequate workability with low water-cementitious ratios.
Further information is available in ACI SP-68.
f.
Accelerators (ASTM C494, Types C and E) are not normally used in high strength concrete except when early form
removal is critical. Accelerators will normally be counterproductive in long-term strength development.
Mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have been widely used in
high-strength concrete. Variations in physical and chemical properties of mineral admixtures (even when within
tolerance of specifications) can have a major influence on properties of high-strength concrete.
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Fly ash generally reduces early strength gain and improves late age strength of concrete. There are two (2) classes of
fly ash available (ASTM C618). Class F fly ash is generally available in eastern U.S. and Canada and has pozzolanic
properties, but little or no cementitious properties. Class C fly ash is generally available in western U.S. and Canada
and has pozzolanic and some autogenous cementitious properties. An ignition loss of 3% or less is desirable, although
ASTM C618 permits a higher value. ASTM C311 provides standard test methods for sampling and testing of fly ash or
natural pozzolans.
c.
Silica fume consists of very fine spherical particles, approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle,
and is a highly effective pozzolanic material. It is used in concrete in applications where abrasion resistance and low
permeability are desired. Normally, silica fume content ranges from 5% to 15% of portland cement content. The
availability of high-range water reducers has facilitated the use of silica fume in high-strength concrete. However,
concrete with silica fume has an increased tendency to develop plastic shrinkage cracks. Therefore steps should be
taken to prevent rapid water evaporation.
d.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (ASTM C989) is used as a partial replacement for portland cement in various
proportions to enhance different properties of concrete. Research has shown promise for its use in high-strength
concrete.
C - 1.24.2.4 Aggregates
a.
The optimum gradation of fine aggregates for high-strength concrete is mainly determined by its effect on water
requirement rather than physical packing. High-strength concrete has high contents of fine cementitious materials and
therefore the grading of fine aggregates is relatively unimportant compared to conventional concrete. Fine aggregates
with rounded particle shapes and smooth texture require less mixing water and are therefore preferred in high-strength
concrete.
b.
The desirable maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 1/2 inch (13 mm) or 3/8 inch (10 mm). Mix designs with
maximum size aggregate of 3/4 inch (19 mm) and 1 inch (25 mm) have also been successfully used. Many studies have
shown that crushed stone produces higher strengths than rounded gravel because of improved mechanical bond in
angular particles. However, accentuated angularity can result in higher water requirement and reduced workability and
therefore should be avoided. The ideal aggregate should be clean, cubical, angular, 100% crushed aggregate with a
minimum of flat and elongated particles. It would also be beneficial if the aggregate has moderate absorption capability
to provide added curing water for high-strength concrete.
c.
High-strength concrete requires high-strength aggregates. However, this trend holds only true until the limit of the
bonding potential of the cement-aggregate combination is reached.
High-strength concrete mix proportioning is a more critical process than the design of normal-strength concrete
mixtures. Generally, chemical admixtures and pozzolanic materials are added and the attainment of low watercementitious ratio is essential. Trial batches are often required to optimize constituent materials and mixture
proportions. Additional information can be found in ACI 211.1, ACI 211.4, and ACI Publication SP-46.
b.
The relationship between water-cementitious ratio and compressive strength in high-strength concrete is similar to that
identified for normal-strength concrete. The use of high-range water reducers has provided lower water-cementitious
ratios and higher slumps. Water-cementitious ratios by weight for high-strength concrete typically have ranged from
approximately 0.27 to 0.50. The compressive strength of concrete at a given water-cementitious ratio varies widely
depending on the cement, aggregates and admixtures used. The quantity of liquid admixtures, particularly high-range
water reducers, has sometimes been included in the calculation of water-cementitious ratio. When silica fume as a
slurry is used, its water content must be included in the water-cementitious ratio.
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Typical cement contents in high-strength concrete range from 660 lb/cy (390 kg/m3) to 940 lb/cy (560 kg/m3). For any
given set of materials in a concrete mixture, there may be an optimum cement content that produces maximum
concrete strength. The strength of concrete may decrease if cement is added in excess of the optimum level. The
strength for any given cement content will vary with the water demand of the mixture and the strength-producing
characteristics of that particular cement. Loss of workability (stickiness) will be increased as higher cement amounts
are used.
d.
The maximum temperature desired in the concrete element may limit the quantity or type of cement. Addition of ice,
set retarders or pozzolans may be considered.
In high-strength concrete, pozzolanic admixtures have been used to supplement the portland cement from 10% to 40%
by weight of the cement content. The use of fly ash has often reduced the water demand of the mixture. Silica fume, on
the other hand, dramatically increases the water demand of the mixture which has made the use of retarding and highrange water-reducing admixture (superplasticizing) admixtures a requirement.
b.
The amount of conventional water reducers and retarders in high-strength concrete varies depending on the particular
admixture and application. In general, the tendency has been to use maximum quantities of these admixtures.
Typically, water reductions of 5% to 8% may be increased to 10%. Corresponding increases in fine aggregate content
have been made to compensate for the loss of volume due to the reduction of water.
c.
Most high-strength concretes contain both mineral admixtures and chemical admixtures. It is common for these
mixtures to contain combinations of chemical admixtures. High-range water reducers have performed better in highstrength concretes when used in combination with conventional water reducers or retarders.
C - 1.24.3.3 Workability
a.
High-strength concrete mixtures tend to lose slump more rapidly than lower-strength concrete. If slump is to be used as
a field control, testing should be done at a prescribed time after mixing. Concrete should be discharged before the
mixture becomes unworkable.
b.
High-strength concrete, often placed with 1/2 inch (13 mm) maximum size aggregate and with a high cementitious
content, is inherently placeable provided attention is given to optimizing the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate. Local
material characteristics have a marked effect on proportions. Cement fineness and particle size distribution influence
the character of the mixture. Appropriate admixtures improve the placeability of the mixture.
c.
Mixtures that were proportioned properly but appear to change in character and become more sticky should be
considered suspect and checked for proportions, possible false setting of cement, undesirable air-entrainment, or other
changes. A change in the character of a high-strength mixture could be a warning sign for quality control.
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Sulfur concrete is generally not resistant to alkalis or oxidizers. However sulfur concrete exhibits excellent
characteristics of:
(1) High strength [in excess of 62 MPa (9,000 psi)] and fatigue resistance;
(2) Excellent corrosion resistance against salts and most acids;
(3) Extremely rapid set and strength gains and achieves a minimum of 70% to 80% of ultimate compressive strength
within 24 hours;
(4) Placement year round, above and below freezing temperatures;
(5) Very low water permeability.
C - 1.25.2.2 Handling
Extreme care should be used when handling sulfur concrete to avoid burns.
C - 1.25.2.3 Placing
Wall construction should be given special consideration to preclude poor consolidation. Preheating the reinforcing steel and
forms using infrared or suitable heaters, plus using insulation on the outside of wall forms should be utilized to retain heat
during placement.
Polymer concretes are composite materials that combine synthetic resins with blended aggregates and graded fillers to
produce low permeability concretes, mortars and grouts with high resistance to water, chlorides, and freeze-thaw
cycles.
b.
The resins comprise of monomers, or monomers and polymers which polymerize when mixed with cure initiators or
catalysts. Graded fillers, sands and, where applicable, aggregates are then added into the polymerizing solution. The
resin binds the materials tightly together to form a hard impermeable composite.
c.
The resins are formulated to provide a range of characteristics, including varying degrees of flexibility, rigidity and
strength.
d.
The resins used in these products are from a wide range of generic chemical groups, most commonly epoxies, methyl
methacrylates, polyesters and polyurethanes.
e.
Polymer concretes typically cure more rapidly than cement-based equivalents, while exhibiting greater flexural and
tensile strengths. The rate of curing depends on the polymer resin base.
f.
As a result, polymer concretes can be used to provide effective solutions to construction conditions, particularly where
rapid cure and high strength gain may be required.
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Common uses are keyway joint grouting, joint headers, bedding of bridge bearings, and structural repairs.
h.
The repair areas and volume of polymer concrete placements are generally small.
i.
Polymer concretes are also used as an alternative to cement-based material in locations exposed to high chloride and
water ingress.
j.
The materials can generally be placed without specialized equipment and do not require a sensitive curing procedure.
Some products are susceptible to outgassing when installed in humidity levels above 85%, which may lead to
pinholing and/or foaming, causing a reduced impermeability to liquid water and reduced ultimate strength.
b.
Some resins have strict allowable timeframes for overcoating their primers, without which their removal or other
treatment may be required.
c.
Some products, such as some epoxy-based systems, exhibit a slower rate of curing or even no curing at lower
temperatures.
d.
e.
Filler aggregate - For applications greater than 1 inch of thickness, add aggregate in accordance with the
Manufacturers recommendations.
b.
A suitably level area on the prepared substrate should be identified and primed. Using the proposed polymer concrete
material as the adhesive, the primed area should be tensile tested per ASTM D4541. After sufficient curing of the
polymer concrete the adhesion should be tested, and the mode of failure must be in the concrete substrate. Failure at the
bond line indicates insufficient surface preparation, and further removal of additional weak or unsound material is
required.
The surface should be prepared by shotblasting or other mechanical means to remove all laitance, weak, damaged,
contaminated and friable material. Saw cut repair boundaries along straight edge and chip edge down a minimum of 1
inch (25 mm) to sound concrete by means of cold chisels or pneumatic chipping hammers. Where honeycombing
exists around reinforcing, chip concrete to provide a minimum space of inch (19 mm) around the reinforcing to
afford sufficient bond.
C - 1.25.4.5 Installation
Installation should be in accordance with the Manufacturers recommendations, however, but the minimum guidelines below
should be followed:
a.
b.
Do not apply materials if rain is anticipated within three hours of application without approved protective measures in
place.
c.
Ensure that the products maximum humidity limit and over-coating window are adhered to.
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Mix and place polymer concrete used for structural concrete slabs and full depth overlays in accordance with
manufacturer's printed instructions.
e.
f.
g. Allow surfaces of lifts that are to remain exposed to become firm and then finish to a smooth surface with a trowel.
h.
Floated finish: Provide where concrete flatwork is to receive waterproofing membranes or setting beds for finished
materials.
i.
Contractor, at his own expense, shall level depressed spots and grind high spots in concrete surfaces which are in
excess of specified tolerances. Leveling materials proposed for providing proper surface shall be approved by
Engineer.
j.
Some Manufacturers recommend using lifts no greater than 2 inch (50 mm) in thickness for polymer concrete, but
some specific products are designed for lifts greater than 2 inch (50 mm) thickness.
Applicator
Documentation of experience shall be provided in a listing of representative projects completed by personnel using the
proposed materials in the last 5 years. Provide Owner contact information for each representative project.
d.
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SCC may be used to reduce labor during placement, to more completely fill around and between congested
reinforcement, and to reduce or eliminate honeycombing and bug holes. It may also be used in such structural
elements as drilled shafts, where the difficulty of inspecting the placement for air pockets is a concern.
b.
SCC normally contains a greater percentage of fine materials making up the paste and of fine aggregates, and a lesser
percentage of coarse aggregates than conventional concrete.
The supplier should have a full range of test results for the mix that is proposed. The purpose of the plant testing is to
ensure that the concrete can flow into and completely fill forms under its own weight, that it will flow around and bond
to reinforcing steel under its own weight, and that it will have a high resistance to segregation.
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Rapid placement into the forms is desirable in order to achieve the economies that can result from the use of selfconsolidating concrete. Maintaining the flowability of a concrete pour even after it is placed in order to improve the
bond to subsequent pours also implies rapid placement. Rapid placement can reduce the thixotrophic properties of the
concrete mass to act as a semi-solid or gel and this has the potential to increase form pressures beyond those which
would normally be expected. Stronger form systems allow faster placement since the labor involved with normal
consolidation techniques is not required when using SCC.
b.
Form release agents with a high-solids content will better resist abrasion from the movement of the concrete. Light
application of form release agents, or wiping off after application is also recommended to avoid staining of
architectural finishes.
SCC is commonly placed by discharging the material into the forms at a single location, depending on the fluidity of
the SCC to fill the forms within a distance of about 33 feet (10 m). Considerations with respect to placement that
determine the required slump flow include the intricacy of the form, depth, length and size of form, surface finish, and
amount of reinforcement. A high rate of placement can be desirable to achieve flow momentum, which is also helpful
in filling the forms. Overfilling of forms should be avoided due to the difficulty of screeding the fluid material.
b.
Specific placement techniques may be required for various types of structural elements, such as beams, double-tees,
slabs, modules and walls, columns and drilled shafts. Free falling placement should be avoided.
c.
The field inspector should expect to see a sheen but no sign of free water on the top of the concrete as it is being placed.
The coarse aggregates should also remain prominent on top of the concrete as a sign that segregation is not taking
place. Concrete should not be allowed to set up before subsequent lifts are placed, and production rates and delivery
schedules should be arranged accordingly. The previous lift should be able to flow under the weight of the subsequent
lift. If the previous lift has begun to gel but has not hardened significantly, it may be rodded to restore its flowability.
d.
Dropping concrete during placement will increase turbulence and could result in entrapped air and segregation. Any
anomaly on the surface of the forms, such as that resulting from splashed concrete is also likely to be visible on the face
of the completed work. A tremie tube may be used to avoid dropping the concrete. SCC should not splatter.
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Part 2
Reinforced Concrete Design1
2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
2.1
2.2
2.3
Description
Page
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Design Methods (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Highway Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4
Buildings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5
Pier Protection (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.6
SuperStructure Protection (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.7
Skewed Concrete Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Concrete (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2
Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-2-20
8-2-20
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Details of Reinforcement
2.4
8-2-21
8-2-21
8-2-21
2.5
8-2-22
2.6
8-2-22
8-2-22
8-2-22
References, Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148, 1787; Vol. 48, 1947, p. 418; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 291, 757; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 794, 1341; Vol. 57, 1956, p. 996; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 278, 688; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 313; Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 230, 242; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 205; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 91; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53;
Vol. 91, 1990, p 63; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 92; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 98.
8-2-1
Description
Page
8-2-23
8-2-23
2.7
8-2-23
2.8
8-2-23
2.9
8-2-24
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8-2-25
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8-2-27
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2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Description
Page
8-2-35
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2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.1 Shear Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.29.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8-2-49
8-2-50
8-2-51
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Description
Page
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2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.32.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.32.2 Rectangular Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.32.3 I- and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.32.4 Rectangular Sections With Compression Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.32.5 Other Cross Sections (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.35 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.1 Shear Strength (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.35.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-2-70
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
8-2-1
8-2-2
8-2-3
8-2-4
C-8-2-1
C-8-2-2
Description
Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Hook Bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#6, #7, or #8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, #22, or #25) (fy > 280 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Impact Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
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8-2-30
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8-2-72
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
8-2-1
8-2-2
8-2-3
8-2-4
8-2-5
8-2-6
8-2-7
8-2-8
8-2-9
8-2-10
Description
Coefficient for Nose Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Group Loading Combinations Service Load Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Group Loading Combinations Load Factor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Diameter of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Concrete Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development Length for Deformed Bars and Wire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tension Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
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8-2-41
The design of reinforced concrete members shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service
load stresses as provided in the Service Load Design Section or, alternately, with reference to load factors and strength
as provided in the Load Factor Design section. The design method to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD
FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the Engineer.
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8-2-5
To limit damage by the redirection and deflection of railroad equipment, piers supporting bridges over railways and
with a clear distance of 25 feet (7600 mm) or less from the centerline of a railroad track shall be of heavy construction
(defined below) or shall be protected by a reinforced concrete crash wall. Crash walls for piers from 12 to 25 feet (3600
to 7600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum height of 6 feet (1800 mm) above the top of rail.
Piers less than 12 feet (3600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum crash wall height of 12 feet
(3600 mm) above the top of rail.
b.
The crash wall shall be at least 2c-6s (760 mm) thick and at least 12 feet (3600 mm) long. When two or more columns
compose a pier, the crash wall shall connect the columns and extend at least 1 foot (300 mm) beyond the outermost
columns parallel to the track. The crash wall shall be anchored to the footings and columns, if applicable, with
adequate reinforcing steel and shall extend to at least 4 feet (1200 mm) below the lowest surrounding grade.
c.
Piers shall be considered of heavy construction if they have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that required
for the crash wall and the larger of its dimensions is parallel to the track.
d.
Consideration may be given to providing protection for bridge piers over 25 feet (7600 mm) from the centerline of
track as conditions warrant. In making this determination, account shall be taken of such factors as horizontal and
vertical alignment of the track, embankment height, and an assessment of the consequences of serious damage in the
case of a collision.
An evaluation of a railroad bridge over a roadway should be performed when the risk potential and consequence from
a vehicular collision with a railroad superstructure is deemed necessary by the Engineer. Factors to be considered in
the evaluation should include but not limited to railroad safety and operational requirements, vertical clearance over
roadway surface, roadway functional classification, roadway design speed, roadway sight distance, traffic data, and
other reasonable data for the specific location. Reasonable protection of the superstructure should be determined based
upon results from the evaluation and approval by the Engineer.
b. A re-evaluation of the grade separation requirements should be performed when changes in conditions at the location
or other factors warrant.
1
2
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The skew angle, on most concrete bridges, is the smallest angle measured between a line perpendicular to the
centerline of bridge and the centerline of the abutments or piers. Skewed concrete bridges should be avoided when
possible. When skewed bridges are unavoidable, cast-in-place concrete bridges are preferable. The following table
illustrates the maximum recommended skew for different types of concrete bridges.
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
SKEW IN DEGREES
15
30
60
b.
When interior diaphragms are used on concrete girder bridges, they should be placed perpendicular to the web of the
girder.
c.
Abutments may be skewed, provided there is either a haunch in the backwall of the abutment, or an approach slab is
provided for each track. The end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment and the end of the approach slab shall
be set perpendicular to the center of the track.
d.
Concrete bridges with a curved superstructure should not be skewed. Piers and abutments for these bridges should be
placed radial to the centerline of the bridge.
e.
The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flange widths 5-0 (1525 mm) and wider may be skewed.
Skews on the ends of concrete I-girders, concrete T-girders and concrete box girders with flange widths less than 5-0
(1525 mm) should be avoided.
f.
All concrete bridges that differ from these guidelines should be evaluated on a case by case basis.
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Ab
Ac
Af
Ag
Ah
An
As
Acs
Asf
Ask
Ast
Av
Avf
Aw
b
bo
bv
bw
c
Cm
d
dc
ds
db
= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1f
= depth of equivalent rectangular stress block for balanced strain conditions, inches (mm). See Article 2.33.2
= shear span, distance between concentrated load and face of support, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
= effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same centroid as that
reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main reinforcement consists of
several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area divided by the area of the largest bar
used. See Section 2.39
= area of an individual bar, square inches (mm2). See Section 2.14
= area of the core of a spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, square
inches (mm2). See Article 2.11.2
= area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting moment, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
= gross area of section, square inches (mm2).
= area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
= area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting tensile force, Nc(Nuc), square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7
and Article 2.35.7
= area of tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
= area of compression reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
= area of reinforcement to develop compression strength of overhanging flanges of I- and T-sections, square inches
(mm2). See Article 2.32.3
= area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face, square inches/foot (mm2/m). See Section 2.8
= total area of longitudinal reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.33.1 and 2.33.2
= area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inches (mm2)
= area of shear-friction reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
= area of individual wire to be developed or spliced, square inches (mm2)
= width of compression face of member, inches (mm)
= perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
= width of cross section being investigated for horizontal shear, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.5
= web width, or diameter of circular section. For tapered webs, the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width,
whichever is smaller, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.1 and Article 2.35.1
= distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1
= a factor relating the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform moment diagram. See Article 2.34.2
= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches (mm)
= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement, inches (mm)
= distance from centroid of gross section neglecting the reinforcement, to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches
(mm)
= diameter of bar or wire, inches (mm)
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dc
= thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto, inches
(mm). See Section 2.39
dp = diameter of round pile or cross sectional depth of H-pile at footing base, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and
Article 2.35.6
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
EI = flexural stiffness of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
fb
= average bearing stress in concrete on loaded area, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1 and Section 2.36
fc
= extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
f cc = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
fc c = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, psi (MPa). See Section 2.38
fr
= modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
= stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa). See Section 2.38 and Article 2.26.2
ff
fs
= tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.2
f csb = stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions, psi (MPa). See Article 2.32.4 and Article 2.33.2
ft
= extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
fy
= specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h
= overall thickness of member, inches (mm)
hf
= compression flange thickness of I- and T-sections, inches (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete. See Article 2.23.7
Ie
= effective moment of inertia for computation of deflection. See Article 2.23.7
Ig
= moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement
Io
= moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member cross section
k
= effective length factor for compression member. See Article 2.34.2
la
= additional embedment length at support or at point of inflection, inches (mm). See Article 2.13.2
ld
= development length, inches (mm). See Section 2.13 through Section 2.22
ldh = development length of standard hook in tension, measured from critical section to outside end of hook (straight
embedment length between critical section and start of hook [point of tangency] plus radius of bend and one bar
diameter), inches (mm).
lhb x applicable modification factors
lhb = basic development length of standard hook in tension, inches (mm).
lu
= unsupported length of compression member. See Section 2.34
M = computed moment capacity as defined in Article 2.13.2
Ma = maximum moment in member at section for which deflection is being computed. See Article 2.23.7
Mb = nominal moment strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Mc = moment to be used for design of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Mcr = cracking moment. See Article 2.23.7
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section
Mnx = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the x axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mny = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the y axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mu = factored moment at section d)Mn
Mux = factored moment component in direction of x axis. See Article 2.33.3
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Eb
Ec
Ed
E1
Gb
Gs
O
P
U
Uc
Ub
Us
Uv
Uw
)
= ratio of area of bars cut off to total area of bars at the section. See Article 2.13.1
= ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
= ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maximum total factored axial load, where the load is due to gravity
effects only in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43, or ratio of the maximum factored sustained lateral load to the
maximum total factored lateral load in that level in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43. See Article 2.34.2
= a factor defined in Article 2.31.1
= Moment magnification factor for members braced against sidesway to reflect effects of member curvature between
ends of compression member.
= Moment magnification factor for members not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting from lateral
and gravity loads.
= correction factor related to unit weight of concrete. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
= coefficient of friction. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
= tension reinforcement ratio = As/bd
= compression reinforcement ratio = Acs/bd
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.32.1
= ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of a spirally reinforced
compression member. See Article 2.11.2
= ratio of tie reinforcement area to area of contact surface
= reinforcement ratio (As/bwd) used in EQ 2-15 and EQ 2-46. See Article 2.29.2 and Article 2.35.2
= strength reduction factor. See Article 2.30.2
3
Compressive Strength of Concrete (f cc)
Nominal Strength
Deformed Reinforcement
Plain Reinforcement
Design Load
Required Strength
Design Strength
Service Load
Development Length
Spiral
Embedment Length
Stirrups or Ties
End Anchorage
Factored Load
General.
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= Dead Load
= Live Load
= Impact
CF
= Centrifugal Force
EQ
= Earthquake (Seismic)
= Earth Pressure
SF
= Buoyancy
ICE
= Ice Pressure
OF
WL
LF
(2) Each member of the structure shall be designed for that combination of such loads and forces that can occur
simultaneously to produce the most critical design condition as specified in Article 2.2.4.
b.
Dead Load.
(1) The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member, plus that of the track, ballast, fill, and
other portions of the structure supported thereby.
(2) The unit weight of materials comprising the dead load, except in special cases involving unusual conditions or
materials, shall be assumed as follows:
Track rails, inside guardrails and fastenings 200 lb per linear foot of track. (3kN/m)
Ballast, including track ties 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
Reinforced concrete 150 lb per cubic foot. (2400 kg/m3)
Earthfilling materials 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
Waterproofing and protective covering estimated weight.
c.
Live Load.
(1) The recommended live load for each track of main line structure is Cooper E 80 (EM 360) loading with axle loads
and axle spacing as shown in Figure 8-2-1. On branch lines and in other locations where the loading is limited to
the use of light equipment, or cars only, the live load may be reduced, as directed by the engineer. For structures
wherein the material in the primary load-carrying members is not concrete, the E loading used for the concrete
design shall be that used for the primary members.
(2) The axle loads on structures may be assumed as uniformly distributed longitudinally over a length of 3 feet (900
mm), plus the depth of ballast under the tie, plus twice the effective depth of slab, limited, however, by the axle
spacing.
(3) Live load from a single track acting on the top surface of a structure with ballasted deck or under fills shall be
assumed to have uniform lateral distribution over a width equal to the length of track tie plus the depth of ballast
and fill below the bottom of tie, unless limited by the extent of the structure.
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Impact Load.1
(1) Impact forces, applied at the top of rail, shall be added to the axle loads specified. For rolling equipment without
hammer blow (diesels, electric locomotives, tenders alone, etc.), the impact shall be equal to the following
percentages of the live load:
(U.S. Customary)
For L d 14 feet
I = 60
I = 225 e L
I = 20
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I = 60
I = 125 e L
I = 20
Centrifugal Force.
(1) On curves, a centrifugal force corresponding to each axle load shall be applied horizontally through a point 8 feet
(2450 mm) above the top of rail measured along a line perpendicular to the line joining the tops of the rails and
equidistant from them. This force shall be the percentage of the live load computed from the formulas below.
(2) On curves, each axle load on each track shall be applied vertically through the point defined in the first paragraph
of this article.
(3) The greater of loads on high and low sides of a superelevated track shall be used for the design of supports under
both sides.
(4) The relationships between speed, degree of curve, centrifugal force and a superelevation which is 3 inches (75
mm) less than that required for zero resultant flange pressure between wheel and rail are expressed by the
formulas:
C = 0.00117 S2D
C = 0.000452 S2D
EQ 2-1
EQ 2-1M
E = 0.0007 S2D 3
E = 0.0068 S2D 75
EQ 2-2
EQ 2-2M
S =
S =
E+3
--------------------0.0007D
EQ 2-3
EQ 2-3M
E + 75
--------------------0.0068D
where:
C = Centrifugal force in percentage of the live load
D = Degree of curve (Degrees based on 100 foot (30 m) chord)
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Earth Pressure. Earth pressure forces to be applied to the structure shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of Part 5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers.
g.
Buoyancy. Buoyancy shall be considered as it affects the design of either substructure, including piling, or the
superstructure.
h.
Wind Load on Structure. The base wind load acting on the structure is assumed to be 45 lb per square foot (2160 Pa) on
the vertical projection of the structure applied at the center of gravity of the vertical projection in any horizontal
direction. A base wind velocity of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) was used to determine the base wind load. If an
increase in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind velocity and design wind load shall be shown on the
plans.
For Group II and Group V loadings, when a design wind velocity greater than 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) is
advisable the base wind load may be increased by the ratio of the square of the design wind velocity to the square of the
base wind velocity. This increase shall not apply to Group III and Group VI Loadings.
i.
Wind Load on Live Load. A wind load of 300 lb per linear foot (4.4 kN/m) on the train shall be applied 8 feet (2450
mm) above the top of rail in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the centerline of the track.
j.
Longitudinal Force.1
(1) The longitudinal force for E-80 (EM-360) loading shall be taken as the larger of:
Force due to braking, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 8 feet (2450 mm) above top of rail.
Longitudinal braking force (kips) = 45 + 1.2L
For design of superstructure elements, L shall be taken as the length in feet (meters) of the span under consideration.
For design of substructure elements, L shall be as follows:
Where rail is continuous across the bridge, or where load transfer devices that are approved by the Engineer
are employed at discontinuities in the rail, L shall be the total bridge length in feet (meters). Longitudinal
force shall be distributed to individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
Where rail is not continuous across the bridge, and approved load transfer devices are not employed, L shall
be taken as the length in feet (meters) of each bridge segment with rail continuity. The substructure units for
each segment shall be evaluated and the longitudinal force computed for that segment shall be distributed to
individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
1
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Longitudinal Force Due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings. Provisions shall be made to
accommodate forces due to friction or shear resistance due to expansion bearings.
l.
Earthquake. In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated, structures may be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dynamic
response characteristics of the total structure. Refer to Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures for additional
guidance.
m. Stream Flow Pressure. All piers and other portions of structures which are subject to the force of flowing water or drift
shall be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced thereby.
(1) Stream Pressure
The effect of flowing water on piers and drift build up, assuming a second-degree parabolic velocity distribution
and thus a triangular pressure distribution, shall be calculated by the formula:
Pavg = K(Vavg)2
EQ 2-4
where:
Pavg = average stream pressure, in pounds per square foot, (Pa)
Vavg = average velocity of water in feet per second, (m/s) computed by dividing the flow rate by the
flow area,
K = a constant, being 1.4 (or 725 for metric) for all piers subjected to drift build up and square-ended
piers, 0.7 (or 360 for metric) for circular piers, and 0.5 (or 260 for metric) for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, Pmax, shall be equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavg,
computed by EQ 2-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a triangular distribution with Pmax located at the top of water
elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
(2) The stream flow forces shall be computed by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into account the
pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area. In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is above
the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flow pressure
acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pmax with a uniform distribution.
(3) Pressure Components
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Ice Pressure. The effects of ice pressure, both static and dynamic, shall be accounted for in the design of piers and
other portions of the structure where, in the judgment of the Engineer, conditions so warrant.
(1) General. Ice forces on piers shall be selected having regard to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be
expected. Consideration shall be given to the following modes:
(a) dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice sheets and floes carried by streamflow, wind or currents;
(b) static ice pressure due to thermal movements of continuous stationary ice sheets onlarge bodies of water;
(c) static pressure resulting from ice jams;
(d) static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adhering ice in waters of fluctuating level.
The expected thickness of ice, the direction of its movement, and the height at which it acts shall be determined by
field investigations, published records, aerial photography and other means. Consideration shall be given to the
worst expected combination of height, thickness and pressure, to the possibility of unusual thicknesses resulting
from special circumstances or operations, and to the natural variability of ice conditions from year to year.
(2) Dynamic Ice Pressure. Horizontal forces resulting from the pressure of moving ice are to be calculated by the
formula:
EQ 2-5
F = Cnptw
where:
4
F = horizontal ice force on pier; pounds (N)
Cn = coefficient for nose inclination from Table 8-2-1;
p = ice pressure as indicated below; psi (MPa)
t = thickness of ice in contact withpier; inches (mm)
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action; inches (mm)
Table 8-2-1. Coefficient for Nose Inclination
Inclination of Nose to Vertical
Cn
0 degrees to 15 degrees
1.00
15 degrees to 30 degrees
0.75
30 degrees to 45 degrees
0.50
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The following values of ice pressure appropriate to various situations may be used as a
guide:
(a) In the order of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
small cakes and is substantially disintegrated in its structure;
(b) In the order of 200 psi (1.4 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large
pieces and is internally sound;
(c) In the order of 300 psi (2.1 MPa) where at break-up there is an initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or
where large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers;
(d) In the order of 400 psi (2.8 MPa) where break-up or major ice movement may occur with ice temperature
significantly below the melting point.
(4) The ice pressure values listed above apply to piers of substantal mass and dimensions. The values shall be
modified as necessary for variations inpier width or pile diameter, and design ice thickness by multiplying by the
appropriate coefficient obtained from Table 8-2-2.
Table 8-2-2. Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness
b/t
Coefficient
0.5
1.8
1.0
1.3
1.5
1.1
2.0
1.0
3.0
0.9
4.0 or greater
0.8
where:
b = width of pier or diameter of pile;
t = design ice thickness.
(5) Piers should be placed with their longitudinal axes parallel to the principal direction of ice action. The force
calculated by the formula shall then be taken to act along the direction of the long axis. A force transverse to the
longitudinal axis and amounting to not less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered to act
simultaneously.
(6) Where the longitudinal axis of a pier cannot be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice action, or where the
direction of ice action may shift, the total force on the pier shall be figured by the formula and resolved into vector
components. In such conditions, forces transverse to the longitudinal axis of the pier shall in no case be taken as
less than 20% of the total force.
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Temperature Rise
Temperature Fall
Moderate
Cold
General. The following groups represent various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned for the group of
loads that produce the most critical design condition.
b.
(1) The group loading combinations for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-4.
Item
Allowable Percentage
of Basic Unit Stress
D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF
100
II
D + E + B + SF + W
125
III
Group I + 0.5W + WL + LF + F
125
IV
Group I + OF
125
Group II + OF
140
VI
Group III + OF
140
VII
Group I + ICE
140
VIII
Group II + ICE
150
(2) No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind load only. If
predictability of service load conditions is different from the specifications, this difference should be accounted for
in the appropriate service load analyses or in the unit stress increase percentages.
c.
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Item
I
IA
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
1.2 (D + E + B + SF + W + ICE)
(2) The load factors given are only intended for designing structural members by the load factor concept. The actual
loads should not be increased by these factors when designing for foundations (soil pressure, pile loads, etc.). The
load factors are not intended to be used when checking for foundation stability (safety factors against overturning,
sliding, etc.) of a structure. The load factors given above represent usual conditions and should be increased if, in
the Engineers judgment, the predictability of loads is different than anticipated by the specifications.
Compressive strength of concrete f cc for which each part of the structure is designed, shall be shown on the plans.
b.
Specified compressive strength of concrete f cc shall be the basis for acceptance. Requirements for f cc shall be based on
tests of cylinders made and tested in accordance with the methods as prescribed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and
Construction Requirements.
Yield strength or grade of reinforcement used in design shall be shown on the plans.
b.
Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be specified.
ASTM steel specifications, except for ASTM A706, shall be supplemented to require a report of material properties
(chemical analysis) necessary to conform to welding procedures specified in Structural Welding CodeReinforcing
Steel (AWS D 1.4) of the American Welding Society. If coated bars are to be welded, the Engineer should specify any
additional requirements to those contained in AWS D 1.4, such as removal of zinc or epoxy coating for welding and
field application of new coatings in the weld region if protection is required.
c.
Designs shall not be based on a yield strength fy in excess of 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
d.
Only deformed reinforcement shall be used except that plain bars or smooth wire may be used as spirals.
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Reinforcement shall conform to the specifications listed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
except that, for reinforcing bars, the yield strength shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-size bars.
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
180-degree bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm) at free end of bar.
b.
c.
(2) #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, #25) bar, 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar, or
(3) #8 (#25) bar and smaller, 135-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar.
Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in sizes #3 (#10) through #5 (#16),
shall not be less than the values in Table 8-2-6.
Minimum Diameter
6 bar diameters
8 bar diameters
10 bar diameters
b.
Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall not be less than 4db for #5 (#16) bar and smaller. For bars larger than
#5 (#16), diameter of bend shall be in accordance with Table 8-2-6.
c.
Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric, smooth or deformed, for stirrups and ties shall not be less than four wire
diameters for deformed wire larger than D6 and two wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside diameter of
less than eight wire diameters shall not be less than four wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection.
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For cast-in-place concrete the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than one and one-half
times the diameter of the bars, two times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
b.
For precast concrete (manufactured under plant control conditions) the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer
shall be not less than the diameter of the bars, one and one-third times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1
inch (25 mm).
c.
Where positive or negative reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer with the clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch (25 mm).
d.
Clear distance limitation between bars shall also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent
splices or bars.
e.
Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. Bars
larger than #11 (#36) shall not be bundled in beams. Bundled bars shall be located within stirrups or ties. Individual
bars in a bundle cut off within the span of a member shall terminate at different points with at least 40 bar diameters
stagger. Where spacing limitations are based on bar size, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a
diameter derived from the equivalent total area.
f.
In walls and slabs the principal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than one and one-half times the wall or
slab thickness, nor more than 18 inches (450 mm).
Minimum Cover
(Inches)
Minimum Cover
(mm)
75
2
1-1/2
50
40
2
1-1/2
50
40
1-1/2
1
40
25
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At any section of a flexural member where tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the reinforcement provided
shall be adequate to develop a design moment strength )Mn at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on the
basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a.
b.
The requirements of Section 2.7a may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided at the section under
consideration is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis based on the load factors specified in
Article 2.2.4c.
1
SECTION 2.8 DISTRIBUTION OF REINFORCEMENT IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a.
Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension.
(1) For T-girder and box-girder flanges, tension reinforcement shall be distributed over an effective tension flange
width equal to 1/10 the girder span length, or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b, whichever is smaller. If the
actual slab width, center-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension flange width, and for excess
portions of deck slab overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement having a total area at least equal to 0.4% of
excess slab area shall be provided in the outer portions of the slab.
(2) For integral bent caps of T-girder and box girder construction, tension reinforcement shall not be placed outside
the bent cap web farther than an overhanging slab width on each side of the bent cap equal to 1/4 the average
spacing of intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b for integral bent caps, whichever is
smaller.
b.
If the depth of web exceeds 3 feet (900 mm), longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both
side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement
Ask per foot (m) of height on each side face shall be t0.012(d-30) (or Ask td-750) in metric). The maximum
spacing of the skin reinforcement shall be the smaller of d/6 or 12 inches (300 mm). Such reinforcement may be
included in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual bars
or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the required
flexural tensile reinforcement.
c.
For LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, the distribution of flexural reinforcement requirements of Article 2.39 shall also apply.
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Compression reinforcement used to increase the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed by ties or stirrups, at
least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36,
#43, #57) and bundled longitudinal bars, or by welded wire fabric of equivalent area. Spacing of the ties shall not
exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties shall be provided throughout the distance where the
compression reinforcement is required.
b.
Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals, combined with
longitudinal bars.
c.
Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in one piece by overlapping standard stirrup or tie end hooks around a
longitudinal bar, or formed in one or two pieces lap spliced with a Class C splice (lap of 1.7ld).
d.
In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs, footings, and shallow
beams, where the design shear stress is greater than one-half the permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete. Beams
where total depth does not exceed either 10 inches (250 mm), 2-1/2 times the thickness of the flange, or one-half the
width of the web shall be considered shallow beams.
b.
Where shear reinforcement is required by Article 2.10.1a, or by analysis, the area provided shall not be less than
EQ 2-6
EQ 2-6M
Av = 60 bws/fy
Av = 0.42 bws/fy
where:
bw = inches (mm)
s = inches (mm)
c.
Minimum shear reinforcement requirements may be waived if it is shown by test that the required ultimate flexural and
shear strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is omitted.
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Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends in accordance with requirements of Section 2.21.
Longitudinal reinforcement for compression members shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08 times the gross
area of Ag of the section. The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be six for bars in a circular
arrangement and four for bars in a rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bar shall be #5 (#16).
b.
When the cross section is larger than that required by consideration of loading, a reduced effective area may be used.
The reduced effective concrete area shall not be less than that which would require 1% of longitudinal reinforcement to
carry the loading.
Spirals. Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of 3/8 inch (10 mm).
(2) Ratio of spiral reinforcement Us shall not be less than the value given by:
A
fc
U s = 0.45 ------g 1 -----cA
f
c
y
EQ 2-7
where:
fy = the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement but not more than 60,000 psi (420 MPa)
(3) Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 3 inches (75 mm) nor be less than 1-1/2 inches (40 mm) or 2 times
the maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
(4) Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1-1/2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a
spiral unit.
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Ties. Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at
least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36, #43, #57), and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded
wire fabric of equivalent area may be used.
(2) Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed the least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches (300 mm).
When two or more bars larger than #10 (#32) are bundled, tie spacing shall be one-half that specified above.
(3) Ties shall be located vertically not more than half a tie spacing above the footing or other support and shall be
spaced as provided herein to not more than half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in
members supported above.
(4) At each tie location, the lateral ties shall be so arranged that no longitudinal bar is farther than 2 feet (600mm) on
either side along the tie from a bar with lateral support provided by the corner of a tie having an included angle of
not more than 135 degrees. Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete
circular tie may be used.
c.
In a compression member which has a larger cross section than required by conditions of loading, the lateral
reinforcement requirements may be waived where structural analysis or tests show adequate strength feasibility of
construction.
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In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate
strength and ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
The calculated tension or compression in the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on each side of that
section by embedment length or end anchorage or a combination thereof. For bars in tension, hooks may be used in
developing the bars.
b.
Tension reinforcement may be anchored by bending it across the web and making it continuous with the reinforcement
on the opposite face of the member, or anchoring it there.
c.
Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at points of maximum stress and at points
within the span where adjacent reinforcement terminates, or is bent. The provisions of Article 2.13.2c must also be
satisfied.
d.
Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance equal to
the effective depth of the member, 15 bar diameters, or 1/20 of the clear span, whichever is greater, except at supports
of simple spans and at the free end of cantilevers.
e.
Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment length not less than the development length 8d beyond the point
where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
f.
Flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength shall not be
terminated in a tension zone unless one of the following conditions is satisfied.
(1) Shear at the cutoff point does not exceed one-half of the design shear strength, )Vn, including the shear strength
of furnished shear reinforcement.
(2) Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear is provided along each terminated bar over a distance from the
termination point equal to three-fourths the effective depth of the member. The excess stirrups shall be
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At least one-half the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face of the member into the support. In beams, such
reinforcement shall extend into the support a distance of 12 or more bar diameters, or shall be extended as far as
possible into the support and terminated in standard hooks or other adequate anchorage.
b.
When a flexural member is part of the lateral load resisting system, the positive reinforcement required to be extended
into the support by Article 2.13.2a shall be anchored to develop the full fy in tension at the face of the support.
c.
At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited to a diameter
such that ld computed for fy by Section 2.14 satisfies EQ 2-8; except EQ 2-8 need not be satisfied for reinforcement
terminating beyond centerline of simple supports by a standard hook, or a mechanical anchorage at least equivalent to
a standard hook.
M
ldd ----- la
V
EQ 2-8
where:
M = the computed moment capacity assuming all positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
fully stressed
V = the maximum applied design shear at the section
la = the embedment length beyond center of support or point of inflection
la at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective depth of the member 12d b , whichever is greater. The value of
M/V in the development length limitation may be increased 30% when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction.
Tension reinforcement in a continuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid frame, shall be
anchored in or through the supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage.
b.
Negative moment reinforcement shall have an embedment length into the span as required by Article 2.13.1a and
Article 2.13.1d.
c.
At least one-third the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall have an embedment length
beyond the point of inflection not less than the effective depth of the member, 12 bar diameters, or one-sixteenth of the
clear span, whichever is greater.
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(Note 1)
0.085f y
------------------fc c
0.11f y
---------------fc c
0.03d b f y
---------------------fc c
(Note 3)
(Note 3)
b.
The basic development length shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.4 for top reinforcement.
NOTE:
c.
Top reinforcement is horizontal reinforcement so placed that more than 12 inches (300 mm) of concrete is
cast in the member below the bar.
When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the basic development lengths in Section 2.14a shall be multiplied by
1.18, or the basic development length may be multiplied by
6.7 fc c e f ct
less than 1.0, when fct is specified. The factors of Section 2.14b and Section 2.14d shall also be applied.
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The basic development length may be multiplied by the applicable factor or factors for:
Reinforcement being developed in length under consideration and spaced laterally at least 6 inches
(150 mm) on center with at least 3 inches (75 mm) clear from face of member to edge bar,
measured in the direction of the spacing (Figure 8-2-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
Bars enclosed within a spiral which is not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) diameter and not more than 4
inch (100 mm) pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75
e.
The basic development length for bars coated with epoxy with cover less than 3 bar diameters or clear spacing between
bars less than 6 bar diameters shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.5. The basic development length for all other epoxy
coated bars shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.15. The product obtained when combining the factor for top
reinforcement with the applicable factor for epoxy coated reinforcement need not be taken greater than 1.7.
f.
The development length ld shall be taken as not less than 12 inches (300 mm) except in the computation of lap splices
by Article 2.22.3 and anchorage of shear reinforcement by Section 2.21.
0.02f y d b e f cc
(or f y d b e 4 f cc in metric),
but shall not be less than 0.0003 fydb or 8 inches [or (0.04 dbfy) or 200 mm in metric]. Where excess bar area is provided the ld
length may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided. The development length may be reduced 25% when the
reinforcement is enclosed by spirals not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter and not more than 4 inch (100 mm) pitch.
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Development length ldh, in inches (mm), for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article 2.4.1)
shall be computed as the product of the basic development length lhb of Section 2.17b and the applicable modification
factor or factors of Section 2.17c but ldh shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches (150 mm), whichever is greater.
b.
Basic development length lhb for a hooked bar with fy equal to 60,000 psi (420 MPa) shall be
100d b e f cc in metric).
c.
Basic development length lhb shall be multiplied by applicable modification factor or factors for:
1200d b e f cc (or
For #11 (#36) bar and smaller, hook enclosed vertically or horizontally within ties or
stirrup-ties spaced along full development length ldh not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of
hooked bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
(4) Excess reinforcement
Where anchorage or development for fy is not specifically required,
reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A s required
-------------------------------- A s provided
For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top (or
bottom) cover over hook less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm), hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
along full development length ldh not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of hooked bar (Figure 8-2-3). For this case,
factor of Section 2.17c(3) shall not apply.
e.
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Development length ld, in inches (mm), of welded deformed wire fabric measured from point of critical section to end
of wire shall be computed as the product of the basic development length of Article 2.19.1b or Article 2.19.1c and
applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b, Section 2.14c and Section 2.14d; but ld shall not be less than
8 inches (200 mm) except in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.6 and development of shear reinforcement by
Section 2.21.
b.
Basic development length of welded deformed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the development length
not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section, shall be
0.03d b f y 20 000 e
0.36d b f y 140 e
f cc
f cc
EQ 2-9
EQ 2-9M
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0.20A w f y
------------------ ----------
s w fc
c
c.
EQ 2-10
Basic development length of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the development length, shall be
determined as for deformed wire.
EQ 2-11
3.3A w f y
--------------- ----------
s w fc
c
EQ 2-11M
modified by a factor of Section 2.14c for lightweight aggregate concrete, but ld shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm) except
in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.7.
Any mechanical device shown by tests to be capable of developing the strength of reinforcement without damage to
concrete may be used as anchorage.
b.
Development of reinforcement may consist of a combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional embedment
length of reinforcement between point of maximum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
4
SECTION 2.21 ANCHORAGE OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a.
Shear reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be carried as close to the
compression and tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement
permit. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength.
b.
The ends of single leg, single U-, or multiple U-stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means:
(1) For #5 (#16) bar and D31 wire, and smaller, and for #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) bars with fy of 40,000 psi
(280 MPa) or less, a standard hook around longitudinal reinforcement.
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0.014d b f y e
f cc ( 0.17d b f y e
f cc in metric).
(3) For each leg of welded plain wire fabric forming single U-stirrups, either:
(a) Two longitudinal wires spaced at 2 inch (50 mm) spacing along the beam at the top of the U.
(b) One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire closer to the
compression face and spaced at least 2 inches (50 mm) from the first wire. The second wire may be located
beyond a bend or on a bend which has an inside diameter of at least 8 wire diameters.
c.
Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the laps are 1.7
ld.
d.
Between the anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a transverse single U- or multiple U-stirrup shall
enclose a longitudinal bar.
e.
Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforcement shall, in a region of tension, be continuous with the longitudinal
reinforcement and in a compression zone shall be anchored, above or below the mid-depth d/2 as specified for
development length in Section 2.14 for that part of the stress in the reinforcement needed to satisfy EQ 2-21 or EQ 252.
Figure 8-2-4. #6, #7, or #8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, #22, or #25) (fy > 280 MPa)
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Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than #11 (#36).
b.
Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based on the lap splice length required for individual bars within a bundle,
increased 20% for a 3-bar bundle and 33% for a 4-bar bundle. Individual bar splices within a bundle shall not overlap.
c.
Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther apart than 1/5 the
required lap splice length, nor 6 inches (150 mm).
Welded splices and other mechanical connections may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding shall conform to
Structural Welding CodeReinforcing Steel (AWS D1.4).
b.
A full welded splice shall have bars butted and welded to develop in tension at least 125% of specified yield strength fy
of the bar.
c.
A full mechanical connection shall develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of specified yield
strength fy of the bar.
d.
Welded splices and mechanical connections not meeting requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c may be
used in accordance with Article 2.22.3d.
Minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice, but not less than 12
inches (300 mm),
where:
Class A splice = 1.0ld
Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall conform to Table 8-2-9.
c.
Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required
by analysis shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c.
d.
Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by
analysis shall meet the following:
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75
100
Class A
Class A
Class B
Less than 2
Class B
Class C
Class C
Note 1: Ratio of area of reinforcement provided to area of reinforcement required by analysis at splice location.
(1) Splices shall be staggered at least 24 inches (600 mm) and in such manner as to develop at every section at least
twice the calculated tensile force at that section but not less than 20,000 psi (140 MPa) for total area of
reinforcement provided.
(2) In computing tensile force developed at each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the specified splice
strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall be rated at that fraction of fy defined by the ratio of the shorter actual
development length to ld required to develop the specified yield strength fy.
e.
Splices in tension tie members shall be made with a full welded splice or full mechanical connection and splices in
adjacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches (750 mm).
Minimum length of lap for compression lap splices shall be 0.0005fydb, in inches (or 0.07fydb in millimeters), but not
less than 12 inches (300 mm). For f cc less than 3000 psi (20 MPa), length of lap shall be increased by 1/3.
b.
In tied reinforced compression members, where ties throughout the lap splice length have an effective area not less
than 0.0015hs, lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
Tie legs perpendicular to dimension h shall be used in determining effective area.
c.
In spirally reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars within a spiral may be multiplied by 0.75, but lap
length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
d.
Welded splices or mechanical connections used in compression shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or
Article 2.22.2c.
Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the end of each fabric sheet
shall not be less than 1.7ld nor 8 inches (200 mm), and the overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each
fabric sheet shall not be less than 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified yield strength
fy, in accordance with Article 2.19.1.
b.
Lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be determined as for
deformed wire.
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When area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than one spacing of cross wire plus 2
inches (50 mm), nor less than 1.5ld nor 6 inches (150 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified yield
strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
b.
When area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.5ld nor 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall
be the development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
1
SECTION 2.23 ANALYSIS METHODS
2.23.1 GENERAL (1992)
a.
All members of continuous and rigid frame structures shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads specified
in Article 2.2.3 as determined by the theory of elastic analysis.
b.
Consideration shall be given to the effects of forces due to shrinkage, temperature changes, creep, and unequal
settlement of supports.
a.
In general, provision for temperature changes shall be made in simple spans when the span length exceeds 40 feet (12
m).
b.
In continuous bridges, provision shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced or means shall be
provided for movement caused by temperature changes.
c.
Movements not otherwise provided for shall be provided by rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads or other means.
Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of continuous
and rigid frame members. The assumptions made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
b.
Effect of haunches shall be considered both in determining moments and in design of members.
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1.5
33 f cc , in psi (or w c
1.5
wc between 90 and 155 pcf (1500 and 2500 kg/m3). For normal weight concrete (wc = 145 pcf, wc = 2300 kg/m3), Ec
may be considered as
b.
Modulus of elasticity of nonprestressed steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi (200 GPa).
Thermal coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006 per degree F (or 0.0000105 per degree C).
b.
c.
Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for lightweight concrete shall be determined for the type of lightweight aggregate
used.
Span length of members not built integrally with supports shall be considered the clear span plus depth of member, but
need not exceed distance between centers of supports.
b.
In analysis of continuous and rigid frame members, center-to-center distances shall be used in the determination of
moments. Moments at faces of support may be used for member design. When fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or
more with the axis of a continuous or restrained member are built monolithic with the member and support, face of
support shall be considered at a section where the combined depth of the member and fillet is at least one and one-half
times the thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
c.
Where deflections are to be computed, they shall be based on the cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure
section except railings, curbs, sidewalks or any element not placed monolithically with the superstructure section
before falsework removal. Deflections of composite members shall take into account shoring during erection,
differential shrinkage of the elements and the magnitude and duration of load prior to the beginning of effective
composite action.
b.
Computation of live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure flexural members act
together and have equal deflection. The live loading shall consist of all tracks loaded as specified in Article 2.2.3c. The
live loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
c.
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EQ 2-12
where:
f r Ig
Mcr= -------yt
EQ 2-13
2 1.2 Ac
--------s t 0.6
A
s
Application. Composite flexural members consist of concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so
interconnected that the elements respond to loads as a unit.
General Considerations.
(1) The total depth of the composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting the shear and the bending
moment. The individual elements shall be investigated for all critical stages of loading.
(2) If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various components are different, the properties of
the individual components, or the most critical values, shall be used in design.
(3) In calculating the flexural strength of a composite member by load factor design, no distinction shall be made
between shored and unshored members.
(4) All elements shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior to the full development of the design strength
of the composite member.
(5) Reinforcement shall be provided as necessary to control cracking and to prevent separation of the components.
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Shoring. When used, shoring shall not be removed until the supported elements have developed the design properties
required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking at the time of shoring removal.
d.
Vertical Shear.
(1) When the total depth of the composite member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Section 2.29 or Section 2.35 as for a monolithically cast member of the same
cross-sectional shape.
(2) Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored in accordance with Section 2.21. Extended and anchored shear
reinforcement may be included as ties for horizontal shear.
e.
Horizontal Shear. In a composite member, full transfer of the shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the
separate components. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.29.5 or
Article 2.35.5.
In T-girder construction, the girder web and slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. Full
transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interface of web and slab. Where applicable, the design requirements of
Article 2.23.9 for composite concrete members shall apply.
b.
c.
Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer.
In box girder construction, the girder web and top and bottom slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively
bonded together. Full transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the girder web with the top and
bottom slab. Design shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.23.9. When required by design, changes
in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness.
b.
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Minimum Thickness
In Meters (Note 2)
S + 10
--------------20
but not less than 0.75
S
+ 3----------20
but not less than 0.23
T-Girders
S+9
-----------15
S + 2.75
-------------------15
Box Girders
S + 10
--------------17
Superstructure Type
Bridge slabs with main reinforcement
parallel or perpendicular to traffic
S+3
-----------17
Note 1: When variable depth members are used, table values may be adjusted to account for change in relative stiffness
of positive and negative moment sections.
Note 2: Recommended values for simple spans; continuous spans may be about 90% of thickness given. S = span
length as defined in Article 2.23.6, in feet (meters).
(2) The thickness of the bottom slab shall be not less than 1/16 of the clear span between girder webs or 6 inches (150
mm), whichever is greater, except that the thickness need not be greater than the top slab unless required by
design.
d.
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Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer. Diaphragm spacing for curved girders shall be given special consideration.
For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to service loads and allowable stresses, the service load
stresses shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26.
b.
Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required under Development and Splices of Reinforcement.
Flexure:
Extreme fiber stress in compression fc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 f cc
Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain concrete, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 fr
Modulus of rupture f r , from tests, or if data are not available:
Normal weight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 f cc
0.62 f cc (metric)
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6.3 f cc
Lightweight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.52 f cc (metric)
b.
Shear:
NOTE:
For more detailed analysis of permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete, and shear values for
lightweight aggregate concrete see Article 2.29.2.
0.95 f cc
0.079 f cc (metric)
v c + 4 f cc
v c + 0.33 f cc (metric)
2
0.8 + ---- f cc
0.066 + 0.17
---------- f cc (metric)
E
c
1.8 f cc
0.15 f cc (metric)
c.
Bearing on loaded area fb, but not to exceed 1050 psi (7.2 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.30 f cc
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).
b.
For service load design, tensile stress in reinforcement fs shall not exceed the following:
Grade 40 (Grade 280) reinforcement .
(metric)
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A section plane before bending remains plane after bending; strains vary as the distance from the neutral axis.
b.
Stress-strain relation of concrete is a straight line under service loads within the allowable service load stresses.
Stresses vary as the distance from the neutral axis except, for deep flexural members with overall depth-clear-span
ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of stress should be
considered.
c.
d.
Modular ratio n = Es/Ec may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for
deflections, the value of n for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for normal weight concrete of
the same strength.
e.
In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of 2Es/Ec shall be used to transform the compression
reinforcement for stress computations. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not be greater than the
allowable tensile stress.
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EQ 2-14
where:
bw = the width of web
d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement.
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter and d shall be taken as 0.8 times the diameter of the section.
b.
When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member,
sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear v as that
computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the
face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be designed for V at distance d plus the major
concentrated loads.
c.
Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.29.2. When v exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.29.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
d.
For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
The value of
f cc used in computing vc in this paragraph shall not be taken greater than 100 psi (0.69
MPa).
a.
Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 0.95 f cc (or 0.079 f cc in metric) unless a more detailed
analysis is made in accordance with Article 2.29.2b or Article 2.29.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall
not exceed the value given in Article 2.29.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.29.2f shall apply.
b.
Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
Vd
v c = 0.9 f cc + 1100U w ------M
Vd
v c = 0.075 f cc + 7.58U w ------M
EQ 2-15
EQ 2-15M
Vd
but vc shall not exceed 1.6 f cc (or 0.13 f cc in metric). The quantity ------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
M
M is the design moment occurring simultaneously with V at the section considered.
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Ag
EQ 2-16
0.0006N
v c = 10.8 0.0069 + --------------------- f cc
Ag
EQ 2-16M
N
The quantity ------ shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d.
For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using:
0.004N
v c = 0.9 1 + ------------------ fcc
Ag
EQ 2-17
0.004N
v c = 10.8 0.0069 + ------------------ fcc
Ag
EQ 2-17M
where:
N is negative for tension
e.
N
The quantity ------ shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
vc =
Vd
fc c + 2200U ------M
EQ 2-18
v c = 0.083 fc c + 15.2U Vd
------M
EQ 2-18M
but vc shall not exceed 1.8 fc c (or 0.15 fc c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less
than 1.4 fc c (or 0.12 fc c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 1.2 fc c (or 0.10 fc c in metric) for slabs
simply supported. The quantity of Vd
------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where M is moment occurring
M
simultaneously with V at section considered.
f.
The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) for
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) used shall not exceed
fc c but the
fc c .
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Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:
v v c b w s
A v = ---------------------------fs
b.
EQ 2-19
When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
v v c b w s
A v = ---------------------------------------f s sin D + cos D
EQ 2-20
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
v v c b w d
A v = ---------------------------f s sin D
in which (v vc) shall not exceed 1.5 fc c (or
EQ 2-21
0.12 fc c
in metric).
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed by Article 2.29.3b(1).
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
c.
d.
Where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
When (v vc) exceed 2 fc c (or 0.17 fc c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
one-half.
e.
f.
When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.
Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.
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EQ 2-22
where:
P = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.29.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shearfriction reinforcement, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
V
A vf = ------------------------------------------------f s P sin D f + cos D f
EQ 2-23
where:
Df = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane.
(3) Coefficient of friction P in EQ 2-22 and EQ 2-23 shall be
concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4O
concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened as
specified in Article 2.29.4g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0O
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6O
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing bars
(see Article 2.29.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7O
where:
O= 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for lightweight concrete.
d.
Shear stress v on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.09 f cc nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa).
e.
Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement Av f f s , when calculating required A vf .
f.
Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
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For the purpose of Article 2.29.4, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If P is assumed equal to 1.0O, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 0.25 inches (6 mm).
h.
When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.
In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b.
Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.29.5c or
Article 2.29.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c.
Design horizontal shear stress vdh at any cross section may be computed by:
Vv dh = --------bw d
EQ 2-24
where:
V = design shear force at section considered
d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi
(0.25 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi (0.25 MPa).
(3) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress vh shall not exceed
160 psi (1.1 MPa).
(4) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
Article 2.29.5e, permissible vh may be increased by 72fy /40,000 psi (or 72fy /280 MPa in metric).
d.
Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual
change in compressive or tensile force, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear between
interconnected elements. Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible horizontal shear stress vh in accordance
with Article 2.29.5c.
e.
8-2-49
Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of two conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.1 through Article 2.29.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.6b and
Article 2.29.6c.
(3) At footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b.
EQ 2-25
where:
V and bo are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2).
c.
Design shear v shall not exceed the smallest vc given by EQ 2-26 or EQ 2-27 unless shear reinforcement is provided in
accordance with Article 2.29.6d.
2
v c = 0.8 + ----- fc c ; fc in psi
EQ 2-26
v c = 0.066 + 0.17
---------- fc c ; fc in MPa
EQ 2-26M
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EQ 2-27
D s d fc c
v c = 0.8 + -------- ---------- ; fc in MPa
b 12
EQ 2-27M
but not greater than 1.8 fc (or 0.15 fc in metric). Ec is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or
c
c
reaction area. Ds is 20 for interior concentrated loads or reaction areas, 15 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas
and 10 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d.
If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.29.3, vc at any section shall
not exceed 0.9 fc c (or 0.075 fc c in metric) and v shall not exceed 3 fc c (or 0.25 fc c in metric). Shear stresses
shall be investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from
the support.
The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio av/d not greater than
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b.
Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c.
(1) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear V shall be in accordance with Article 2.29.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09f cc nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa). For sand-lightweight concrete,
shear stress v shall not exceed (0.09 0.03av/d)f cc nor (360 126av/d) psi (or 2.5 0.09av/d) MPa in metric).
(2) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vav + Nc(h-d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.26 and
Section 2.27.
(3) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc shall be computed by An = Nc /fs. Tensile force Nc shall not be taken
less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.
(4) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2Av f / 3 + An).
d.
Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area Ah not less than 0.5 (As An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e.
f.
At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;
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Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to load factors and strengths, the design strength provided by
a member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, and shear, shall be
taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with the requirements and assumptions of LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN, multiplied by a strength reduction factor I.
b.
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NOTE:
The value of I may be increased linearly from the value for compression
members to the value for flexure as the axial load strength Pn decreases
from Pb to zero.
Development and splices of reinforcement specified in Section 2.13 through Section 2.22 do not require a I
factor.
Strain in the reinforcing steel and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
b.
Maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
c.
Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength fy for the grade of steel used shall be taken as Es times the
steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy the stress in the reinforcement shall be considered
independent of strain and equal to fy.
d.
e.
The relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed to be a
rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with
the results of comprehensive tests.
f.
The requirements of Article 2.31.1e may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress
distribution defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85 fcc shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent
compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a
distance (a = E1c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. The distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to
the neutral axis is measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor E1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete
strength fcc up to and including 4000 psi (28 MPa). For strengths above 4000 psi (28 MPa) E1 shall be reduced
continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi (7 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa), but E1 shall not be
taken less than 0.65.
For flexural members, the reinforcement U provided shall not exceed 0.75 of that ratio Ub which would produce
balanced strain conditions for the section under flexure.
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Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength fy
just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
For rectangular sections, when U d 0.75 Ub the design moment strength )Mn may be computed by:
0.6Uf
)M n = ) A s f y d 1 ---------------y-
fc c
EQ 2-28
a
= ) A s f y d ---
EQ 2-29
where:
As f y
a = -------------------0.85fc c b
b.
The balanced reinforcement ratio Ub for rectangular sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
0.85E 1 fc c 87 000
U b = ---------------------- ---------------------------- 87 000 + f
fy
y
EQ 2-30
0.85E 1 fc c 600
U b = ---------------------- ------------------- 600 + f
fy
y
EQ 2-30M
When the compression flange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block a
and U d 0.75 Ub, the design moment strength )Mn may be computed by the equations given in Article 2.32.2.
b.
When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength )Mn may be computed by:
)M n = ) A s A sf f y d --a- + A sf f y d 0.5h f
EQ 2-31
where:
Asf =
h
0.85fc c b b w ----ffy
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A s A sf f y
a = ------------------------------0.85fc c b w
c.
The balanced reinforcement ratio Ub for I- and T-sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
b 0.85E 1 fc c 87 000
U b = -----w- ---------------------- ----------------------------- + U f
87 000 + f
b
fy
y
b 0.85E 1 fc c 600
U b = -----w- ---------------------- -------------------- + U f
600 + f
b
fy
y
EQ 2-32
EQ 2-32M
where:
A sf
U f = --------bw d
d.
When the compression flange thickness is greater than a, the design moment strength, )Mn, may be computed by
using the equations in Article 2.32.2.
e.
For T-girder and box-girder construction defined by Article 2.23.10 and Article 2.23.11, the width of the compression
face b shall be equal to the effective slab width.
For rectangular sections when U d 0.75 Ub, the design moment strength )Mn may be computed by:
)M n = ) A s Ac s f y d --a- + Ac s f y d dc
3
EQ 2-33
where:
A s Ac s f y
a = -----------------------------0.85fc c b
and the following condition shall be satisfied:
A s Ac s 0.85E 1 fc c d c 87 000
-------------------- t ---------------------------- ---------------------------- 87 000 f
bd
f yd
y
A s Ac s 0.85E 1 fc c d c 600
-------------------- t ---------------------------- ------------------- 600 f
bd
f yd
y
b.
EQ 2-34
EQ 2-34M
When the value of (As Acs)/bd is less than the value given by EQ 2-34, so that the stress in the compression
reinforcement is less than the yield strength fy or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the
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The balanced reinforcement ratio Ub for rectangular section with compression reinforcement is given by:
0.85E 1 fc c 87 000 Ucfc sb
U b = ---------------------- ----------------------------- + ------------- 87 000 + f
fy
fy
y
EQ 2-35
EQ 2-35M
where:
f csb is stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions
f csb =
f csb =
dc
87 000 ---- 87 000 + f y d f y
d
dc
600 ---- 600 + f y d f y
d
(metric)
Design of cross sections subject to axial load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. Slenderness effects shall be included in accordance with
Section 2.34.
b.
Members subject to compressive axial load shall be designed for the maximum moment that can accompany the axial
load. The factored axial load Pu at given eccentricity shall not exceed that given in Article 2.33.1c. The maximum
factored moment Mu shall be magnified for slenderness effects in accordance with Section 2.34.
c.
Design axial load strength )Pa of compression members shall not be taken greater than the following:
(1) For members with spiral reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2a:
)P a (max) = 0.85) > 0.85fc c A g A st + f y A st @
EQ 2-36
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EQ 2-37
Pure Compression.
(1) The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity )Po may be computed by:
)P o = ) > 0.85fc c A g A st + A st f y @
EQ 2-38
(2) For design, pure compression strength is a hypothetical loading condition since Article 2.33.1c limits the axial
load strength of compression members to 85% and 80% of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity.
b.
Pure Flexure. The assumptions given in Section 2.31, or the applicable equations for flexure given in Section 2.32 may
be used to compute the design moment strength )Mn in pure flexure.
c.
Balanced Strain Conditions. Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 2.32.1b. For a
rectangular section with reinforcement in one or two faces and located at approximately the same distance from the
axis of bending, the balanced load strength )Pb and balanced moment strength )Mb may be computed by:
)P b = ) > 0.85fc c ba b + Ac s fc sb A s f y @
EQ 2-39
and
a
)M b = ) 0.85fc c ba b d ds ----b- + Ac s fc sb d dc ds + A s f y ds
EQ 2-40
where:
87 000 - E d
ab = ---------------------------1
87 000 + f y
600
ab = -------------------- E 1 d
600 + f y
d.
f csb =
dc
87 000 ---- 87 000 + f y d f y
d
f csb =
600 dc
---- 600 + f y d f y
d
4
(metric)
(metric)
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EQ 2-41
EQ 2-42
Design of compression members shall be based on forces and moments determined from an analysis of the structure.
Such an analysis shall take into account the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on member stiffness
and fixed-end moments, the effect of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effects of the duration of the
loads.
b.
In lieu of the procedure described in Article 2.34.1a, the design of compression members may be based on the
approximate procedure given in Article 2.34.2.
Unsupported length lu of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between slabs, girders, or other
members capable of providing lateral support for the compression member. When haunches are present, the
unsupported length shall be measured to the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.
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Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction in which stability is being
considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circular compression members. For
other shapes, r may be computed from the gross concrete section.
c.
For compression members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor k shall be taken as 1.0, unless an
analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effective
length factor k shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness, and shall
be greater than 1.0.
d.
For compression members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected when klu/r is less than
34 12M1b/M2b. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
when klu/r is less than 22. For all compression members with klu/r greater than 100, an analysis as defined in
Article 2.34.1a shall be made. M1b = value of smaller end moment on compression member calculated from a
conventional elastic analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature, M2b =
value of larger end moment on compression member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, always positive.
e.
Compression members shall be designed using the factored axial load Pu from a conventional frame analysis and a
magnified factored moment Mc defined by EQ 2-43. For members braced against sidesway, Gs shall be taken as 1.0.
For members not braced against sidesway, Gb shall be evaluated as for a braced member and Gs as for an unbraced
member.
M c = G b M 2b + G s M 2s
EQ 2-43
where:
Gb =
Cm
----------------- t 1.0
Pu
1 --------IP c
Gs =
1 - t 1.0
--------------------6P u
1 -----------I6P c
and
4
Pc =
S EI-------------2
kl u
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Ec Ig
----------2.5 EI = -------------1 + Ed
For members braced against sidesway and without transverse loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:
M 1b
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 --------M 2b
EQ 2-44
When a group of compression members on one level composes a bent, or when they are connected integrally to the
same superstructure, and all collectively resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of Gs shall be computed for the
member group with 6Pu and 6Pc equal to the summations for all compression members in the group.
g.
If computations show that there is no moment at both ends of a compression member or that computed end
eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm); M2b in EQ 2-43 shall be based on a minimum
eccentricity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm) about each principal axis separately. Ratio M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44
shall be determined by either of the following:
(1) When computed end eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm), computed end moments
may be used to evaluate M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44.
(2) If computations show that there is essentially no moment at both ends of a compression member, the ratio
M1b/M2b shall be taken equal to one.
h.
When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis shall be
amplified by G computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis.
i.
In structures which are not braced against sidesway, the flexural members shall be designed for the total magnified end
moments of the compression members at the joint.
EQ 2-45
where:
bw = the width of web
d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter, and d need not be taken less than the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.
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When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member and
loads are applied at or near the top of the member, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support
may be designed for the same shear vu as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated
loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be
designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
c.
Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.35.2. When vu exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
NOTE:
d.
The design criteria for combined shear and torsion given in Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete ACI318-02 may be used.
For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
The value fc used in computing vc shall not be taken greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
a.
Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 2 fc c (or 0.17 fc c in metric) unless a more detailed analysis is
made in accordance with Article 2.35.2b or Article 2.35.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall not exceed
the value given in Article 2.35.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.35.2f shall apply.
b.
Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
Vu d
v c = 1.9 fc c + 2500U w --------Mu
EQ 2-46
Vu d
v c = 0.16 fc c + 17U w --------Mu
EQ 2-46M
Vu d
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
but vc shall not exceed 3.5 fc c (or 0.29 fc c in metric). The quantity --------Mu
Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered.
c.
A g
N
v c = 0.17 1 + 0.072 ------u- fc c
A g
EQ 2-47
EQ 2-47M
N
The quantity ------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d.
For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using
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N
v c = 2 1 + 0.002 ------u- fc c
A g
EQ 2-48
N
v c = 0.17 1 + 0.29 ------u- fc c
A g
EQ 2-48M
where:
Nu is negative for tension
N
the quantity ------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
e.
Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
Vu d
v c = 2.14 fc c + 4600U --------Mu
EQ 2-49
Vu d
v c = 0.18 fc c + 32U --------Mu
EQ 2-49M
but vc shall not exceed 4 fc c (or 1--- fc c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less than
3
fc
5
3 fc c (or ----------c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 2.5 fc c (or ------ fc c in metric) for slabs simply
24
4
Vu d
supported. The quantity --------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment occurring
Mu
simultaneously with Vu at section considered.
f.
The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) for
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) used shall not exceed
fc c , but the
fc c .
(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:
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v u v c b w s
A v = -----------------------------fy
b.
EQ 2-50
When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
v u v c b w s
A v = ---------------------------------------f y sin D + cos D
EQ 2-51
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
v u v c b w d
A v = ------------------------------f y sin D
EQ 2-52
fc
in which (vu vc) shall not exceed 3 fc c (or ---------c- in metric).
4
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed using Article 2.35.3b(1).
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any one longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
c.
d.
When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
When (vu vc) exceeds 4 fc c
fc
(or ----------c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
3
one-half.
2 fc
8 fc c (or -------------c in metric).
3
e.
f.
When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.
Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.
b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.35.4c or any other shear transfer design method that
results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.35.4d through Article 2.35.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
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EQ 2-53
where:
P = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.35.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shearfriction reinforcement, area of shear friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
Vu
A vf = ---------------------------------------------------If y P sin D f + cos D f
EQ 2-54
where:
Df = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane
(3) Coefficient of friction P in EQ 2-53 and EQ 2-54 shall be:
concrete placed monolithically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4O
concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface
intentionally roughened as specified in Article 2.35.4g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0O
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6O
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by
reinforcing bars (see Article 2.35.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7O
where O = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
d.
Shear stress vu on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.2f cc nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa).
e.
Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement Av f f y, when calculating required A vf .
f.
Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
g.
For the purpose of this paragraph, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If P is assumed equal to 1.0O, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm).
h.
When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.
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In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b.
Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.35.5c or
Article 2.35.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c.
Design horizontal shear stress vuh at any cross section may be computed by
Vu
v uh = ----------Ib v d
EQ 2-55
where:
Vu = factored shear force at section considered
d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vuh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi
(0.55 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi (0.55 MPa).
(3) When ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e and contact surfaces are clean, free of laitance and
intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress, vh, shall be taken equal to (260 +
0.6UvfyO in psi [(1.8 + 0.6UvfyO in MPa]; but not greater than 500 psi (3.5 MPa).
(4) When factored shear stress, vu, at section considered exceeds I 500 psi (I 3.5 in MPa), design for horizontal shear
shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4.
d.
Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual
change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear
between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear stress shall not exceed the horizontal shear strength
vuh in accordance with Article 2.35.5c, except that length of segment considered shall be substituted for d.
e.
8-2-65
Shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of the following conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.1 through Article 2.35.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.6b and
Article 2.35.6c.
(3) For footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b.
EQ 2-56
where:
Vu and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2).
c.
Factored shear stress vu shall not exceed vu given by EQ 2-57, EQ 2-58, or EQ 2-59 unless shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 2.35.6d.
Ds d
v c = -------- + 2 fc c
b
EQ 2-57
fc
Ds d
v c = -------- + 2 ----------c
b
12
o
EQ 2-57M
4- fc
v c = 2 + ---c
EQ 2-58
fc
2
v c = 1 + ----- ----------c
6
E
EQ 2-58M
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EQ 2-59
v c = 4 fc c
1
v c = --- fc c
3
EQ 2-59M
Ec is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. Ds is 40 for interior concentrated loads or
reaction areas, 30 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas, and 20 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d.
If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.35.3, vc at any section shall
1
1
not exceed 2 fc c (or --- fc c in metric) and vu shall not exceed 6 fc c (or --- fc c in metric). Shear stresses shall be
6
2
investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from the
support.
The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio and av/d not greater than
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b.
Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c.
Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a moment
[Vuav + Nuc(h d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nuc .
(1) In all design calculations in accordance with this paragraph, strength reduction factor I shall be taken equal to
0.85.
(2) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress vu shall not exceed 0.2 f cc nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa). For sand-lightweight concrete,
shear stress vu shall not exceed (0.2 0.07a v /d) f cc nor (800 280a v /d) psi (5.5 1.9a v /d MPa).
(3) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vuav + Nuc(h d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.31 and
Section 2.32.
(4) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall be computed by An = Nuc/Ify. Tensile force Nuc shall not be
taken less than 0.2Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.
(5) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2A v f /3 + An).
d.
Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area of Ah not less than 0.5(As An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e.
f.
At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;
(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or
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Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
The range between a maximum tension stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load plus
impact at service load shall not exceed:
ff = 21 0.33fmin + 8(r/h)
ff = 145 0.33fmin + 55(r/h)
(metric)
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Tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension. When the design yield strength fy for
tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi (280 MPa), cross sections of maximum positive and negative moment shall
be so proportioned that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load fs in ksi (MPa), does not exceed the
value computed by:
Z
f s = -------------but fs shall not be greater than 0.5 fy
3 d A
c
EQ 2-60
where:
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same
centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main
reinforcement consists of several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area
divided by the area of the largest bar used
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto,
inches (mm), but dc shall not exceed (2 inches + 1/2 db) (or (50 mm + 1/2 db) in metric).
b.
The quantity Z in EQ 2-60 shall not exceed 170 kips per inch (30 kN/mm) for members in moderate exposure
conditions and 130 kips per inch (23 kN/mm) for members in severe exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments, such as deicer chemicals, the denseness and nonporosity of the
protecting concrete should be considered, or other protection, such as a waterproof protecting system, should be
provided in addition to satisfying EQ 2-60.
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C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. In
the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the C- correspond to the section/paragraph being explained.
The provisions of this section are not intended to create a structure that will resist the full impact of a direct collision by
a loaded train at high speed. Rather, the intent is to reduce the damage caused by shifted loads or derailed equipment.
This is accomplished by: deflecting or redirecting the force from the pier; providing a smooth face; providing resisting
mass; and distributing the collisions forces over several columns.
b.
Research by the National Transportation Safety Board found no clear break point in the distribution of the distance
traveled from the centerline of the track by derailed equipment. It was therefore decided to retain the existing 25 feet
(7600 mm) distance within which collision protection is required. In addition, it is recognized that the distance traveled
by equipment in a derailment is related to the speed of the train, the weight of the equipment, whether the side slopes
tend to restrain or distribute the equipment and the alignment of the track. In cases where these factors would cause the
equipment to travel farther than normal in a derailment, the required distance should be increased. Structures not
otherwise requiring protection under this section along the railroad right-of-way may also warrant protection by using
crash walls or earthen berms.
c.
Where the risk of serious damage to the overhead structure is estimated to be higher than normal in case of an impact,
this distance should also be increased. Among the factors to be considered in this evaluation are: the height of the pier,
bearing type, redundancy of the structure, length of the span and consequences of loss of use of the structure.
d.
Examples of crash walls and pier protection for tracks on one side of piers are shown in Figure C-8-2-1. Where tracks
are on both sides of the pier the wall shall protect both sides.
The purpose for this guideline stems from the fact that many existing railroad bridge superstructures have been struck
by trucks and other over-height loads and vehicles. Many of these bridges play a pivotal role in the day-to-day
operations of the railroads and the transportation of goods. Railway networks are less extensive than those of other
modes of transportation to the extend that unplanned shutdowns can have an adverse impact on railroad operations,
particularly along core routes of a railway network. Protection of railroad bridge superstructures to abate impacts to
daily railroad operations is critical and should be evaluated.
Parameters that affect railroad operational requirements include:
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There is no supporting documentation for the maximum recommended skew angles given. The information was
compiled from a questionnaire that was sent to several Chief Bridge Engineers of Class I railroad companies. The
skew angle recommendations resulted from the Chief Engineers past experience. The preference to use cast-in-place
concrete for skewed bridges is due to the high torsional stiffness of concrete bridges and the flexibility of forming the
concrete to fit the bearing area. The maximum recommended skew angle is reduced for precast slabs and box beams
since the bearing area of precast box beams and slabs is longer. This longer bearing area can result in warping of the
section during precasting due to the varying cambers.
c.
The placement of interior diaphragms perpendicular to the webs is recommended since they allow for easier
construction or installation of transverse post-tensioning.
d.
On skewed abutments, the end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment or the end of the approach slab is set
perpendicular to the centerline of track to ensure adequate stiffness for the last tie off the bridge.
e.
The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flanges 5-0 wide and wider may be skewed to reduce the
width of pier cap or abutment seat.
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Figure C-8-2-1. Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale)
8-2-72
8-2-73
where K = V/(2/Lf)
Limited data exist for impact on continuous structures. The ORE has done one test on such structures which
suggests that impact values do not normally exceed those for simple spans. Article 2.2.3d(2) recommends
using for the entire continuous structure the impact value calculated for the shortest of the continuous spans.
Assuming the deflection under dead and live load is equal to L/750 (where L is the span length) and the speed is 100 miles per
hour (160 kilometers per hour) and transforming to consistent units we get:
K = V/(2Lf) = 2.64/ L
K = V/(2Lf) = 1.47/ L
where L is in meters
Replacing this value for K in the ORE impact formula and considering the fact that the denominator is practically a constant
for the range of span lengths where the formula is applicable, the impact formula is simplified to:
I = 225/ L
I = 125/ L
where L is in meters
This formula was validated by the ORE with tests on 37 reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel bridges, small
scale models and theoretical calculations. It was found that the formula gave a good representation of the mean impact values
for European railway bridges. For North American bridges, the formula had to be adjusted for higher impacts due to different
track and equipment maintenance standards. It was decided to address this issue by using in the ORE formula a design speed
of 100 mph (160 km/h) which is higher than the actual speed for North American freight operations. Therefore, for bridge
rating purposes, one should not attempt to input actual train speeds in the ORE formula. Impact reduction for bridge rating
purposes is given in Part 19. The different safety factors given in the Manual for impact loading will cover the cases where the
impact would be higher than the mean value.
For piers and abutments, where the weight of the substructure is much greater than the live load, the effects of impact will
generally be minimal and therefore can be neglected in the design.
When the substructure and superstructure are rigidly connected together, the superstructure will undergo additional rotation
due to the impact loading at the point where it is connected to the substructure. In order to maintain compatibility of
deformations, the substructure will experience the same additional rotations. Therefore, impact must be used in this case for
the design of the substructure.
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Maximum impacts measured in prestressed concrete spans of various lengths generally follow the design impact
formula for wood ties with 8 inches of ballast or concrete ties with 12 inches of ballast with continuous welded rail.
Use of wood ties, concrete ties with under-tie pads, plastic composite ties, or ballast mat each helped to reduce
impact compared to that measured under conventional concrete ties on a concrete span. The use of a resilient layer in
the track structure reduces the track stiffness to better match the stiffness of approach track. A resilient layer also
results in better retention of track geometry requiring less frequent track surfacing maintenance.
Reducing ballast depth from 12 inches (300 mm) below wood ties to 8 inches (200 mm) below wood ties resulted in
an increase of approximately 30 percent in measured impacts and an increase in track maintenance demand.
As ballast degraded and became increasingly fouled, measured impacts increased.
C - 2.2.3 (j.) LONGITUDINAL LOAD. (2008) (References 34, 35, 36, 46, 52, 55, 66, 67, 68, 69, and
105)
a.
Longitudinal loads due to train traffic can vary tremendously from train to train. These loads are dependent on train
handling and operating practices. The greatest longitudinal loads result from starting or stopping a train, or moving a
train up or down a grade. The longitudinal loads applied to a bridge from normal train operations could be small in
comparison to the design loads.
b.
Maximum adhesion between wheel and rail for train braking is about 15 percent. This level of adhesion would
typically be reached with an emergency application of the train air brakes. The equation for train braking is derived
using 15 percent of the Cooper E-80 (EM 360) live loading.
c.
Longitudinal load due to braking acts at the center of gravity of the live load. Center of gravity height is taken as 8 feet
(2450 mm) above top of rail. This load is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a
vertical force couple transmitted through the wheels.
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Locomotive traction can be applied at levels of adhesion approaching 50 percent, particularly with locomotives using
AC traction motors. Locomotive tractive effort is generally limited by drawbar and coupler capacity to less than about
500 kips (2200 kN), depending on equipment. Large applications of dynamic braking effort (which generate tractive
forces) are also possible. The greatest locomotive tractive efforts are generally reached at speeds below 25 mph (40
km/h). Above this speed, locomotive horsepower generally governs, and available tractive effort drops.
e.
Longitudinal load due to locomotive traction acts at the drawbar. Drawbar height is taken as 3 feet (900 mm) above top
of rail. As with braking, this force is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a vertical
force couple transmitted through the wheels.
f.
The equation for longitudinal load due to locomotive traction is based on maximum values from AAR measurements
on bridges tested with AC locomotives. The equipment used in the tests was approximately equivalent to a Cooper E60 (EM 270) loading on the spans tested. The formula has been scaled to be consistent with the E-80 (EM 360) design
loading.
g.
Longitudinal deflection limits are required to increase serviceability of the structure. They can also potentially reduce
track problems (buckling, ballast degradation, etc.) on or just beyond the ends of the bridge.
h.
The longitudinal deflection is computed assuming the entire bridge acts as a unit. The stiffness of individual
substructure components must be considered. Stiffer components deflect the same amount as more flexible
components; the stiffer components resist more load.
i.
For the case where longitudinal deflection controls the design of fairly tall flexible pile bents, the designer should
consider adding longitudinal bracing to some of the double bents to stiffen them above the ground line, and thus reduce
longitudinal deflection. Battering or increasing the batter of piles, and/or adding more piles can also reduce deflection.
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Part 14
Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures1
2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
8-14-3
8-14-3
8-14-4
8-14-4
8-14-4
8-14-5
8-14-5
8-14-5
8-14-5
8-14-5
8-14-5
8-14-5
8-14-6
8-14-6
8-14-6
8-14-6
8-14-6
8-14-7
8-14-7
8-14-12
8-14-12
8-14-12
8-14-13
8-14-19
8-14-20
References, Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 870, 1028; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 297, 878; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 336, 716; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 365, 895; Vol. 53, 1952, p. 617; Vol.
54, 1953, pp. 819, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 443, 444, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 688; Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 362, 758; Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 357, 360, 657; Vol.
84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 98.
8-14-1
Description
Page
8-14-22
8-14-22
8-14-22
8-14-22
8-14-22
8-14-23
8-14-23
8-14-23
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-14-24
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Description
Page
8-14-17
8-14-18
8-14-18
8-14-19
8-14-19
8-14-20
8-14-21
8-14-31
8-14-32
8-14-33
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Description
Page
8-14-8
8-14-8
8-14-2
This part applies to the repair and rehabilitation of concrete2 structures by the following methods: patching,
encasement with concrete, shotcrete, pressure grouting, injection grouting of preplaced aggregates, tremie placement,
bagged concrete, epoxy injection, external post-tensioning, splicing of damaged reinforcement and component
replacement. They are intended to provide means of accomplishing repairs both above and below water using a variety
of materials.
b.
This part also identifies some of the major causes for the deterioration of concrete and the methods of protecting
against deterioration.
c.
1
SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE
DETERIORATION (2006)3 R(2015)
a.
In order to select the proper repair procedure for concrete, the cause of the deterioration must first be established. One
or more of the following factors may contribute to the deterioration of the concrete:
The investigation should try to determine the possible cause(s) and then select a repair procedure which will correct the
existing condition and prevent further deterioration by any and all of the suspect cause(s).
See Commentary
May be applicable to either concrete or masonry.
3 See Commentary
2
8-14-3
This method involves the instrumenting of a structure to measure strains or deflections as a means of determining the
capability of the structure to sustain service loads. A prescribed test load is permitted to cross the structure at a given
speed. Often it is desirable to stop the test load on the structure at a predetermined position and take measurements
under static conditions.
b.
The test should be monitored as the loading progresses to verify that the observed data compares favorably with the
theoretical calculations. If a significant difference is observed the test should be stopped and further evaluated before
proceeding.
c.
This method should be used only if calculations indicate a reasonable margin of safety against collapse under the test
load. Loads considerably below the desired service load level may be used initially to make a preliminary evaluation
and to predict the reaction of the structure under a full test load.
1
2
a.
Requires no action.
b.
c.
See Commentary
See Commentary
8-14-4
e.
f.
The materials used should conform in physical properties to Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements, or as hereinafter specified.
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.6 Reinforcement.
b.
Reinforcement may consist of one or more of the following materials: Deformed steel bars, prestressing tendons, wire
mesh or reinforcing fibers consisting of steel, glass, or plastic.
c.
When increased protection from corrosion is required, coatings or cathodic protection of steel reinforcement may be
considered.
8-14-5
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.9 Bonding (1993).
b.
Polymer Concrete may be used as a patching material and where high strengths are needed in a short time.
c.
Polymer Cement Concrete may be used as an overlay (an example of PCC is latex-modified concrete).
Non-shrink grouts consist of either portland cement based grouts with an expanding agent added to counter the
shrinkage from the hydration of the portland cement grout or non-cementitious based grouts such as epoxy grouts.
b.
Non-shrink grouts are generally used for setting and leveling bearings. Selection of the grout is subject to approval by
the Engineer.
c.
Non-shrink grouts should conform to ASTM C1107. Design and use of portland cement non-shrink grouts should be in
conformance with ACI-223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete.
a.
Fiber reinforced polymers may be considered for strengthening or repairing existing reinforced or prestressed concrete.
b.
Polymer resins are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to
provide for the requirements of the specific repair. Selection is subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c.
Reinforcement typically consists of carbon, glass or aramid fiber. Reinforcement is manufactured with a wide range of
properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for the requirements of the specific repair.
Selection is subject to approval of the Engineer.
d.
Fiber-reinforced polymers are typically applied in alternating layers of polymer resin and woven-fabric fiber
reinforcing. Concrete underlying repairs should be cleaned and checked for soundness prior to surface application.
e.
Design and application for FRP repairs should conform to manufacturers recommendations and sound engineering
principles.
See Commentary
8-14-6
Repairs should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated, broken, or honeycombed concrete or stone; cleaning and
preparing the bonding surface and exposed reinforcement; placing of anchors and reinforcement; placing of concrete
by shotcreting, handpatching, forming and placing, tremieing, grouting of preplaced aggregate, or as specified. Such
concrete is to be finished to true line and surface as shown on the plans and properly cured.
b.
Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an externally
applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.1
14.5.1.2 Preparation2
a.
All loose, soft, honeycombed and disintegrated concrete or stone should be removed from the areas to be repaired by
proper tools, to expose a bonding surface of sound material. Appropriately sized equipment should be used so as not to
damage sound underlying material.
b.
Following the removal of all loose, disintegrated or otherwise defective concrete, the entire exposed surfaces of the
structure should be carefully inspected for locations of seepage, internal honeycombed areas, cracks or voids.
c.
In prestressed concrete, extreme care should be taken to avoid any damage to prestressing strands. Exposed strands
should be chemically cleaned by an approved method.
d.
Thin or feathered edges should be avoided and the boundaries of the areas to be repaired should be square cut or
slightly undercut to a depth of 1 inch. For shotcreting, the boundary edges should be 45-degree bevel cuts to a depth of
at least 1 inch. The maximum depth of removal shall be determined based on an analysis of the existing structure and
its condition.
e.
The bonding surface should be rough, clean, sound concrete or stone. Oil or film of any sort that may reduce the bond
should not be permitted. Loose particles, dust and dirt, should be removed.
f.
Sand and water blasting may require containment of dust and/or runoff water. Cracks are to be prepared as specified in
Article 14.5.5.
14.5.1.3 Anchorage
a.
Concrete repairs applied less than 1-1/2 inches thick will not require anchorage, unless specified by the Engineer. A
bonding compound may be specified.
b.
Where new concrete greater than 1-1/2 inches thick and less than 4 inches thick is to be placed, 1/4 inch diameter
galvanized expansion hook bolts should be spaced not more than 18 inches center to center on vertical surfaces and not
more than 12 inches center to center on overhead surfaces. Each bolt should have sufficient engagement in the sound
concrete to resist a pull of 150 pounds. When pried from the wall with a bar inserted under the bend of the bolt, the
bend should straighten out without pulling the bolt.
c.
The specified spacing of expansion bolts should be based on supporting three times the total weight of suspended
concrete and two times the weight of concrete on vertical surfaces. Facilities should be provided for testing the
See Commentary
See Commentary
8-14-7
Load
in lb
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
150
400
750
1,200
1,750
d. Any expansion bolt failing to support such load should be reset and tested.
e.
Where concrete 4 inches or more in thickness is to be placed, approved expansion bolts should be set where shown on
the plans, or in accordance with Table 8-14-2.
Table 8-14-2. Expansion Bolt Placement Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness
Thickness
of Concrete
(Inch)
Vertical Surfaces
Inches Diameter
at Feet-Inch
Top Surfaces
Inches Diameter
at Feet-Inch
4
5
6
7
8
3/8 @ 1-8
3/8 @ 1-5
3/8 @ 1-4
3/8 @ 1-2
1/2 @ 1-7
3/8 @ 2-0
3/8 @ 1-9
3/8 @ 1-8
3/8 @ 1-6
1/2 @ 1-11
3/8 @ 3-0
3/8 @ 3-0
3/8 @ 3-0
3/8 @ 3-0
1/2 @ 3-0
1/2 @ 1-6
1/2 @ 1-10
1/2 @ 3-0
10
1/2 @ 1-5
1/2 @ 1-9
1/2 @ 2-0
11
1/2 @ 1-4
1/2 @ 1-8
1/2 @ 2-0
12
1/2 @ 1-3
1/2 @ 1-6
1/2 @ 2-0
f.
Where the thickness of concrete is more than 12 inches, the size, length, spacing and embedment of expansion bolts
should be determined or approved by the Engineer.
g.
The exposed end of each expansion hook bolt should have a right angle, or greater, bend for engaging reinforcement.
h.
No isolated area greater than 2 square feet should have fewer than 3 bolts.
i.
Where only a single line of bolts is required, the maximum spacing should be 24 inches and the size should be
determined by the supported load shown in Table 8-14-1.
j.
Dowels made of deformed steel bars, grouted in, may be used instead of expansion bolts. When dowels are used, the
size, spacing and bond capacity shall be the same as that required for expansion bolts. Horizontal dowel holes should
be drilled downward on a slope of approximately 1 inch per foot.
8-14-8
No reinforcement is required for shotcrete encasement less than 1-1/2 inches thick unless specified by the Engineer.
b. A layer of reinforcement for each 4 inches (3 inches for suspended encasement) thickness of encasement or fraction
thereof. Each layer should be 3su 3s W 1.4 u W 1.4 welded wire reinforcing.
c.
For encasement thicknesses in excess of 4 inches (3 inches suspended), an additional two-way system of No. 3
reinforcing bars spaced the same as the anchors in both directions should be provided. The last layer of wire mesh
should be secured by wiring to the bars.
d.
Each layer of mesh must be completely encased in the shotcrete or concrete which has taken initial set before the
succeeding layer of mesh is applied.
e.
Mesh extending around corners or reentrant angles should be bent to a template before securing to anchorage and not
sprung or forced into position. At corners, double reinforcing mesh should be provided and extended a minimum
distance of 6 inches beyond the intersection of the 2 planes.
f.
When splicing wire mesh is necessary, a lap of 1-1/2 mesh spacings should be required, wired together at intervals of
not more than 18 inches.
g.
Where special reinforcement is required for structural strength, engineering plans should be furnished.
14.5.1.4.3 Concrete
Reinforcement should meet the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature
Reinforcement (2005).
14.5.1.5 Bonding1
See Commentary
8-14-9
When restoration or encasement is accomplished by placing concrete in between forms and the old surface by gravity
or pressure placement, the forms should have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of the new concrete without
yielding appreciably.
b.
The concrete should be proportioned per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
c.
The new concrete should completely fill the space provided and present a surface comparable to the original.
d.
Concrete is to be compacted per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.6.
14.5.1.8 Shotcrete1
14.5.1.8.1 General
Shotcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate and water, shot into place by compressed air. There are two different
processes in use, namely the dry mix process and wet mix process.
14.5.1.8.2 Dry Mix Method
a.
Shotcrete should be made of a mixture of portland cement and sand in the proportion of one bag of cement for every 4
cubic feet of sand by volume. The amount of sand should be based on dry, loose measurement with proper correction in
quantity for effect of bulking due to moisture content. The sand and cement should be thoroughly mixed dry, passed
through a 3/8 inch screen before being placed in the pneumatic apparatus, and placed by pneumatic pressure through
shotcrete equipment with proper amount of water applied in the mixing nozzle for the necessary placement
consistency. The screened sand and cement should be applied on the surface within one hour after combining them. To
avoid voids and reduce shrinkage cracks, shotcrete should be applied as dry as practicable. Suitable prepackaged
materials may be used as approved by the engineer.
b.
Shrinkage reducing and/or bonding compounds are to be applied as specified by the manufacturer.
c.
The air pressure in the pneumatic apparatus should be maintained uniform and not less than 35 psi while placing the
mixed material, with necessary increase in pressure for horizontal delivery distances of more than 100 feet or vertical
distances of more than 25 feet. The water pressure applied through the nozzle should be not less than 10 psi greater
than the air pressure in the shotcrete machine.
See Commentary
8-14-10
Shooting strips should be employed to ensure square corners, straight lines and a plane surface of shotcrete, except as
otherwise permitted by plans or approved by the Engineer. They should be so placed as to keep the trapping of rebound
at a minimum.
b.
Where no separate bonding agent is used, the surface, particularly porous brick, to which shotcrete is to be applied
should be thoroughly wet, without free water, to facilitate bond.
c.
At the end of each days work, or similar stopping periods requiring construction joints, the shotcrete should be sloped
off to a thin edge. No square joints will be allowed. In shooting vertical surfaces, care must be taken in general to begin
the shotcrete area at the bottom and complete at the top.
A sufficient number of coats should be applied to obtain the required thickness. The thickness of each coat should not
be greater than 1 inch, except as approved by the Engineer, and should be so placed that it will neither slough nor
decrease the bond of the preceding coat. Where a successive coat is applied on shotcrete, which has set more than two
hours, the surface should be cleaned and water blasted.
d.
When placing shotcrete, the stream of flowing material from the nozzle should impinge as nearly as possible at right
angles to the surface being covered, and the nozzle should be held from 2 to 4 feet from the working surface.
e.
Deposits of rebound from previous shooting, whether loose or cemented, should be removed and not covered up.
Should any such deposits be covered, they should be cut out and the area reshot.
f.
8-14-11
Repair should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated or honeycombed concrete; cleaning and preparing the bonding
surface; placing the Polymer Concrete or Polymer Cement Concrete; and finishing to true lines and surface.
b.
Preloading. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an
externally applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.
Mortar should consist of one part cement to three parts sand with sufficient water to produce a workable mixture.
b.
c.
Sand should be fine mason sand with a fineness modulus of not more than 2.0.
14.5.3.4 Procedure
a.
Areas to be tuckpointed should be wet thoroughly to prevent absorption of water from the mortar.
b. All excess material should be removed and the joint tooled to a neat workmanlike appearance.
1
2
See Commentary
See Commentary
8-14-12
Before drilling of the grout holes is started, the test drillings should be made completely through the masonry to
determine the thickness of the masonry. From the test drillings, the proper depth of grout holes should be determined in
order that grout holes are not drilled completely through the masonry.
b.
Grout holes should be drilled at regular intervals, staggered to include approximately 25 square feet of surface area per
hole or at such other locations as may be specified. In cases of arch rings, the holes should be drilled diagonally to
intercept the longitudinal joints (parallel to the barrel) and staggered at such intervals as to include approximately 12
square feet of surface area per hole. Holes should be 1-1/2 inches minimum diameter for Portland cement grout and
should be drilled to such a depth, and in such manner, as necessary to intercept joints and internal voids, to completely
consolidate the structure. Holes which have been drilled completely through the structure should not be used for
pressure grouting and these holes must be completely plugged before grouting begins.
c.
On structures, or parts of structures, of one stone thickness, the grout holes should be drilled in such a manner as to
intercept the horizontal joints where possible; however, if, due to insufficient clearance, the holes cannot be drilled
through the horizontal joints, they should then be drilled so as to intercept the vertical joints. The holes in the courses
of masonry below ground line should be drilled diagonally downward at various angles to the natural foundation below
the masonry, so that the bottom courses and any underlying cavities, including cavities in or under timber grillages,
should be completely filled.
For stone masonry the pressure grout mixture should consist of one part of cement, one-half part of sand and, if
required, an approved type of shrinkage reducing material. The amount of sand to be used in the grouting mixture
should be determined by starting the grouting operation with neat cement grout and adding sand in gradually
increasing proportions until the optimum ratio of sand to cement has been reached which will give a free flowing grout.
See Commentary
8-14-13
If it is found through application of the above that the addition of sand retards the free flow of the grouting material, the
sand should be omitted.
c.
For concrete, the pressure grout should consist of neat cement grout only, and, if required by the Engineer, an approved
type of shrinkage reducing materials.
d.
Polymer grouts may be used for concrete or stone masonry, as specified by the Engineer.
e.
Grout inserts should be set in drilled holes and the interior voids cleaned with water, prior to the application of the
pressure grout.
b.
The grout should be pressure induced into the internal voids and joints of the structure to fill them completely.
c.
d.
e.
Grouting should be started at the lowest row of holes and at the hole nearest the center line of structure.
f.
If grout appears in adjacent holes at the same elevation, these holes should be temporarily plugged and grouting
continued in the original hole until grout appears at the next adjacent hole at the same elevation or at the next line of
holes above the one being grouted. When this condition occurs, grouting of the original hole should be discontinued
and the grout line moved to the last hole at the current elevation at which grout appeared, and the same procedure
followed until all holes in the current line have been grouted, at which time grouting should proceed in a like manner
along the next line of holes above, etc., until the entire structure has been completely filled.
g.
During the course of all grouting operations, extreme care should be given to observing the surrounding ground, track
subgrade, ballast and the stream bed for the breaking out of grout, and when such breaking out occurs, the grout line
should be moved to some other part of structure. Grouting may be resumed in the original location after the elapse of
24 hours. In grouting foundations, pressure grout should be applied to the various holes in rotation. The above program
should be followed until the grout is brought up into the masonry.
h.
When grouting foundations founded on rock, care should be taken to watch for movement of the track structure caused
by the lifting of all or a portion of the structure.
Epoxy injection is generally applicable to cracks ranging in width from 0.003 inch to 0.25 inch. Injection of epoxy into
cracks wider than 0.25 inch should be approved by the Engineer.
b.
Certain members, especially prestressed members, may require preloading during injection.
c.
Cold weather epoxy injection may require special procedures and materials.
14.5.5.3.2 Preparation
a.
The area surrounding the crack should be cleaned of efflorescence, deteriorated concrete and other contaminants that
may be detrimental to adhesion of the epoxy gel. If unsound or deteriorated concrete is located adjacent to the crack,
8-14-14
Cracks should be flushed with water under pressure to remove debris and other contaminants.
Install the injection ports at appropriate intervals to accomplish full penetration of the injection resin. The spacing of
the injection ports should be determined by the size of the crack and the depth of the concrete substrate.
b.
Injection ports should be designed for the intended use and should be acceptable to the epoxy manufacturer.
c.
Injection ports should have the capability of being positively capped and sealed following the injection work.
d.
The injection ports should be installed using one or more of the following methods:
(1) Surface Mounted Injection Ports:
(a) Center the injection port over the crack and secure in place using the epoxy gel.
(b) Completely seal the exposed crack located between the injection ports and other area, as required to prevent
leaking of the resins, using epoxy gel.
(c) If the crack extends through the member, and is accessible, install telltale injection ports on the opposite side
and seal all exposed areas of the crack. Generally, the spacing of the telltale injection ports should be between
12 inches and 24 inches.
(b) The injection ports should be inserted into the drilled holes about 1/2 inch, allowing for a small reservoir
below the injection port. Secure the injection ports into position using epoxy gel. Seal the exposed crack using
the same procedures as described above.
(3) Injection Ports Mounted Against a Head of Water:
(a) For cracks that have water running from them, use an hydraulic cement (fast setting) to set the injection ports,
and seal the crack.
(b) After the hydraulic cement has cured, seal the cracks and injection ports by overlapping the hydraulic cement
about 1 inch on either side using epoxy gel.
14.5.5.3.4 Curing of Epoxy Crack Surface Sealer
Allow all bonded ports and sealed cracks to cure overnight at temperatures of 50 degrees F or above. Should temperatures
below 50 degrees F exist, additional cure time may be required. Under these circumstances, it will be necessary to consult the
manufacturer for proper cure times. In any event, pressure injection operations should not commence until the epoxy gel has
adequately cured and has been deemed capable of sustaining pressures of the injection process.
See Commentary
8-14-15
The following minimum properties should be required of all epoxy used in the repair of the damaged concrete:
(1) Epoxy injection material should meet requirements of ASTM C881, Type IV, Grade 1, Class A, B or C.
(2) Epoxy crack surface sealant gel (paste type) should meet the requirements of ASTM C881, Type 1, Grade 3, Class
A, B or C.
(3) It is recommended that the ratio of the components should be between 1:1 and 2:1 by volume, with similar
viscosities of components.1
(4) The colors of the components should be distinctly different, and when mixed in proper ratio yield a distinctly
different third color.
(5) All injected epoxies should be wet bonding agents.
b.
Epoxy injection equipment should be the automatic mixing and dispensing type. The equipment should include
positive displacement pumps inline pressure gauges, pressure gauges on the mixed materials at the point of injection,
and positive connection to the injection ports. The unit should be capable of delivering 125 psi dynamic fluid pressure
at the point of injection at a minimum flow rate of 2 gpm. The equipment should indicate when the supply of one
component has been exhausted to prevent injection of only a single component.
1
2
a.
After proper curing of epoxy bonded ports and crack surfaces, commence pressure injection operations.
b.
Take ratio checks as follows: The mixing head of the injection equipment should be disconnected and the two adhesive
components should be pumped simultaneously into separate calibrated containers. The amounts discharged into the
calibrated containers simultaneously during the same time period should be compared to determine the mix ratio.
c.
After the test has been completed at a 200 psi discharge pressure the procedure should be repeated for 0 psi discharge
pressure.
d.
The ratio test should be run for each injection unit at the beginning of each day that unit is used.
e.
Samples of the mixed epoxy should be taken before commencing work each day, at least once every hour during
injection work, and each time the mixing head is flushed with solvent. Time, dates and curing of the samples are to be
noted. The samples before work and after flushing should be from the injection nozzles. Samples during work should
be from injected ports.
f.
Commence pumping at the lowest point possible, or first injection port in a line, whichever is applicable. Continue
pumping until the epoxy appears at one or more of the next ports in line. When this occurs, stop pumping, cap the port
through which liquids were being injected and move up to the next port in line from which liquids were observed to
flow. Repeat this operation until all cracks have been filled to refusal.
g.
See Commentary
See Commentary
8-14-16
3
STAPLES
See Commentary
8-14-17
Placing external reinforcing across the crack and extending for a substantial length can distribute the stresses causing
the crack. The stresses at the ends of such reinforcing should be considered to eliminate simply relocating the cracked
condition.
b.
Tensile stress cracks can be arrested by removing the stresses by tensioning the external reinforcement, thereby
compressing the member. Cleaned cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive force sufficient to overcome the
tension and to provide a residual compression.
c.
The principle is similar to stitching and the problem of crack migration must be considered in this process also.
d. Anchorage is required for the external post-tensioning. Some form of abutment is needed such as a strongback bolted
to the face of the concrete (see Figure 8-14-3 and Figure 8-14-4).
8-14-18
Where there may be movement in the structure, by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration, structural joints
subject to leakage may be sealed by using a water stop such as a 10 inch, 16 ounce, cold-rolled copper expansion plate,
preformed along the longitudinal centerline of the copper to produce a modified V-shape as shown in Figure 8-14-5,
or a half round 2 inches diameter PVC pipe, secured in place with straps and anchors as shown in Figure 8-14-6, or
similar noncorrosive materials with the necessary flexibility as approved by the
Engineer.
b.
The concrete or stone should be chipped out sufficiently to provide space for installation of a watertight joint between
the water stop and concrete and also for a channel for water seepage, properly drained at the base of crack or joint, or as
otherwise specified by the Engineer.
c.
The expansion joint between the finished surface and the water stop should be filled with a flexible joint sealing
material. The patch should be reinforced and placed as previously specified.
8-14-19
Non-leaking cracks or joints where movement in the structure by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration is
apparent, may be sealed with a flexible joint sealing material. Where it has been determined that no movement exists, a
rigid compound can be used.
Strands or bars should be spliced by attaching a coupling device to the severed ends. The ends should be trimmed to
sound, undamaged material prior to splicing. The strand or bar should be stressed by tightening the coupling device
until the desired stress is reached.
b.
Consideration should be given to fatigue and space limitations in selecting this method of repair for multiple strands or
bars.
c.
Splices in conventional reinforcing may be accomplished by lap splices. Sufficient bar length must be exposed for
development of the splice and preloading may be required.
8-14-20
External post tensioning should consist of threaded bars or prestress strands applied to the member. The applied post
tensioning force should be calculated based on the internal stresses required under live and dead loads. Location of the
anchorage for the post tensioning system should be based upon the stresses at the transfer of load into the original
member.
b. Anchorages typically consist of corbels attached to the concrete with expansion bolts and bonding agents. Care should
be taken to ensure that existing tendons or bars are not damaged in the placement of anchor bolts.
14.5.7.4 External Metal Splice Sleeves
a.
Metal sleeve splices consist of bonding steel plates across the damaged area with sufficient bond length to develop both
the damaged reinforcing and the metal plates.
b.
Concrete surfaces in the bond area must be clean. Metal plates are galvanized steel with the contact surface scored
vertically by wire brushing.
c.
The plates are bonded to the concrete by pressure injection by epoxy resin. A 1/16 inch gap should be left between the
concrete and the steel. The gap should be maintained by use of metal spacers. The edges of the splice sleeve should be
bolted to the concrete taking care not to damage existing reinforcing. Sufficient mechanical fasteners should be used to
transfer the stresses from the concrete to the sleeve.
d.
Damaged concrete areas within the splice area should be filled with concrete. See Figure 8-14-7.
8-14-21
Girder designed for zero tension in bottom flange concrete under live load. Clean and seal minor defects with
penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. Additional protection may be provided by patching with an acceptable
concrete patching material.
b.
Girder designed for tension in bottom flange concrete under live load. Clean and seal minor defects with penetrating
sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. If patching is used to provide additional protection, the patch should be applied
under preload. If under preload it is found that a crack has propagated from the gouge either the cracked concrete
should be removed or the crack repaired by epoxy injection. The gouge should be patched with an approved concrete
patching mortar and the preload removed after the patch has reached adequate strength. (This applies to existing
girders that may have tension in the bottom flanges. Current standards do not allow this design).
Replacement of lost concrete should be executed under preload if the repaired section would be subject to tensile
stresses when live load is applied.
b.
In preparation of the surface for placement of repair material and in removal of damaged concrete extreme care must be
taken to avoid any damage to prestressing tendons. Tendons should be chemically cleaned.
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
2
8-14-22
Tendons should be repaired by internal splicing. After tendons are repaired the concrete is repaired, usually under
preload.
b.
External post-tensioning and metal sleeve splices may be used to increase the strength of members.
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
2
8-14-23
C - COMMENTARY
-2006The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 14 Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures. In the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the C- correspond to the
section/paragraph being explained.
The techniques and materials described in this chapter are applicable to cast-in-place and precast concrete, stone, and
concrete and brick masonry.
(1) UNDERWATER REPAIRS
General - Repairs to submerged concrete elements can generally be performed by divers working underwater or by
dewatering the work area and using conventional above water repair techniques. Most repairs can be satisfactorily
completed below water, if appropriate preparation and installation procedures are followed. Underwater repairs,
however, will generally take longer and be more expensive than comparable work done in the dry. Regardless,
underwater repairs are often more cost-effective in consideration of the costs to dewater the repair site.
The primary techniques available to permit work to be carried out under dry conditions are sheet pile cofferdams,
earthen dikes, and portable dams. Because underwater repairs are specialized and more difficult to inspect,
prequalification of the underwater contractor is recommended. Whether repairs are performed submerged or in the dry,
all environmental regulations should be complied with. Final acceptance of below water repairs should be made in
conjunction with an independent underwater inspection.
(2) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF CONCRETE
Materials - For underwater placement of concrete, durability and workability are usually as important as strength and
those properties can be enhanced with the proper admixtures. For below water applications, the most important factor
in achieving concrete durability is low permeability. This is accomplished with low water/cement ratio, the use of
pozzolans, and good consolidation. Improper concrete workability will also adversely affect durability.
Specialized concrete mix designs, which differ for marine or freshwater applications, should be used to provide a
durable, long lasting repair. Aggregates should themselves be durable, non-reactive and of the appropriate size for the
means of concrete placement. Admixtures, including water reducers, air entrainers, pozzolans, retarders, and antiwashout additives, are available to assist concrete mixes in satisfying particular requirements. However, their use
should be checked for the compatibility of those to be used together, as well as suitability for the means of concrete
placement and the specific repair parameters. The implementation of trial mixes and placement is recommended prior
to the performance of the repairs. Water reducers are usually used to obtain low water / cement ratios. Air entraining
should be used for freeze-thaw exposures; however, it may not be suitable for other applications since it can increase
permeability. The use of pozzolans (such as fly ash and silica fume) will aid in reducing permeability and
susceptibility to sulfate attack; however, rate of strength gain will vary and moist curing will be needed for a dewatered
application. Anti-washout admixtures (AWA) assist in retaining concrete mix fines during underwater placement, and
can be used in conjunction with water reducers, rich mixes, and pozzolans to obtain maximum benefits. AWA's can
have disadvantages, including high cost, sensitivity to mix changes, and incompatibility with other admixtures, so their
use should be thoroughly investigated.
When steel reinforcement is used for concrete repairs in water related applications, a dense concrete and adequate
cover are imperative. Potential problems related to the concrete reinforcement can also be lessened with the use of
epoxy coated, galvanized, stainless steel, fiberglass or composite reinforcement. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium
nitrite, can also be added to the concrete to lower the corrosion potential of the reinforcement.
2015, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
8-14-24
8-14-25
8-14-26
(a) Impact
(b) Abrasion from ice, stream flow, traffic
(c) Settlement of the foundation
(d) Freeze-thaw cycles
(e) Fire
(f) Seismic activity
(g) Wind
(h) Storm
For determining the extent of concrete or masonry deterioration, the following are some of the non-destructive
techniques available.
(1) For surface conditions, visual inspection can be used to identify the location and size of cracks, voids, scaling,
spalls, delaminations, and exposed (corroded) reinforcement.
8-14-27
8-14-28
Preload consists of the application of external loads during the repair process to restore the prestressing forces in
members where the prestress has been lost due to damage. If the prestress is restored to a level less than the original
design level, the capacity of the member should be evaluated at the reduced level of prestressing.
C - 14.5.1.2 Preparation
Proper preparation of the surfaces to be repaired is critical to the success of the repair. Failure to provide a sound, clean
surface prior to application of repair material is a common cause of failure of repairs.
C - 14.5.1.5 Bonding
When using bonding agents, timing can be critical. Extended exposure of the bonding agent prior to application of the new
material may cause failure of the bond.
C - 14.5.1.8 Shotcrete
The successful application of shotcrete requires experience and knowledge. The use of an experienced, qualified crew is
recommended, especially in the nozzleman position.
8-14-29
Injection pressures above 100 psi (0.7 MPa) are not recommended as the pressure could cause further damage to the
member. If the normal pressures are not sufficient to cause penetration of the materials into the cracks, a lower
viscosity epoxy should be considered.
8-14-30
1
Figure C-8-14-1. Preloading
C - 14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and there was not
significant section loss)
The application of two coats of a penetrating sealer is recommended to prevent moisture intrusion or other corrosive elements
to the prestressing steel.
C - 14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss)
Gouge patches should attain required strength prior to removal of preload.
8-14-31
8-14-32
8-14-33
8-14-34
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8
828
Part 17
Prestressed Concrete1
2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
17.1
8-17-4
8-17-4
8-17-4
17.2
Notations (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-5
17.3
Terms (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-7
17.4
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4.1 Concrete (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4.2 Prestressing Tendons (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4.3 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4.4 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4.5 Rigid Ducts (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-9
8-17-9
8-17-10
8-17-10
8-17-10
8-17-10
17.5
8-17-11
8-17-11
8-17-11
8-17-12
8-17-12
8-17-12
8-17-12
8-17-12
8-17-13
17.6
8-17-13
17.7
8-17-13
17.8
8-17-13
17.9
8-17-14
References, Vol. 84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 102.
8-17-1
Description
Page
8-17-14
8-17-14
8-17-14
8-17-15
8-17-15
8-17-15
8-17-16
8-17-16
8-17-17
8-17-17
8-17-17
8-17-17
8-17-18
8-17-18
8-17-18
8-17-18
8-17-19
8-17-20
8-17-20
8-17-26
8-17-26
8-17-26
8-17-26
8-17-27
8-17-28
8-17-28
8-17-29
8-17-29
17.21 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.21.1 General (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.21.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.21.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.21.4 Horizontal Shear Design-Composite Flexural Members (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-30
8-17-30
8-17-30
8-17-32
8-17-33
8-17-34
8-17-34
8-17-34
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Prestressed Concrete
Description
Page
8-17-35
8-17-39
8-17-40
8-17-40
8-17-42
8-17-44
8-17-45
8-17-45
8-17-45
8-17-45
8-17-45
8-17-48
8-17-48
8-17-48
8-17-48
8-17-48
8-17-49
8-17-49
8-17-49
8-17-49
8-17-51
8-17-52
8-17-52
8-17-52
8-17-52
8-17-52
8-17-53
8-17-53
8-17-53
8-17-53
8-17-53
8-17-53
8-17-54
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-54
Commentary (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-17-57
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Description
Page
8-17-23
8-17-55
8-17-56
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Description
Page
8-17-25
8-17-26
This recommended practice shall govern the design of prestressed concrete members of railway structures supporting
or protecting tracks.
b.
Provisions of Part 17 supplement Part 2 of Chapter 8. All provisions of Part 2 not in conflict with provisions of Part 17
shall apply to prestressed concrete. The following provisions of Part 2 shall not apply to prestressed concrete:
Article 2.2.3d, Section 2.7, Section 2.8, Article 2.11.1, Article 2.23.9, Article 2.32.1, Section 2.38, Section 2.39 and
Section 2.40.
c.
Long spans greater than 150 ft (45 m) or unusual structures require detailed consideration of effects which have not
been included under Part 17.
d.
Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 15, Part 5.
e.
Segmental concrete bridges shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Part 26.
f.
Structures with direct fixation track shall be designed in accordance with Part 27.
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Prestressed Concrete
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fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of cross section
resisting externally applied loads or at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the
flange (In a composite member, fpc is resultant compressive stress at centroid of composite section, or
at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange, due to both prestress and
moments resisted by precast member acting alone) (Section 17.21), psi (MPa)
fpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after allowance for all prestress
losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (Section
17.21), ksi (MPa)
fps = guaranteed ultimate strength of the prestressing tendon, As*fs, lbs (N)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, as defined in Article 17.16.2.3 (Section 17.19), ksi (MPa)
'f s = total prestress loss, excluding friction (Section 17.17), ksi (MPa)
fse = effective stress prestress after losses (Section 17.17), ksi (MPa)
f*su = average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load (Section 17.18), ksi (MPa)
fs = ultimate strength of prestressing steel (Sections 17.16 and 17.18), ksi (MPa)
fsy = yield strength of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in tension (Sections 17.20 and 17.21),
ksi (MPa)
fy = yield strength of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in compression (Section 17.20), ksi
(MPa)
f*y = yield point stress of prestressing steel (Section 17.16), psi (MPa)
h = overall depth of member (Section 17.21), in. (mm)
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the cross section (Section 17.21), in4 (mm4)
K = friction wobble coefficient per foot (meter) of prestressing steel (Section 17.17)
l = length of prestressing steel element from jack end to point x (Section 17.17), in. (mm)
Mcr = moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads (Section 17.21), ft-lbs (Nm)
M*cr = minimum steel cracking moment (Section 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Md/c = composite dead load moment at the section (Section 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Md/nc = non-composite dead load moment at the section (Section 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads (Section 17.21), ft-lbs (N-m)
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section, ft-lbs (N-m)
p = As/bdt ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcements (Sections 17.18-17.20)
p* = As*/bd, ratio of prestressing steel (Sections 17.18 and 17.20)
p = As/bd, ratio of compression reinforcement (Section 17.20)
Pu = factored tendon force, lbs (N)
Q = statical moment of cross sectional area, above or below the level being investigated for shear, about
the centroid (Section 17.21), in3 (mm3)
SH = loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage (Section 17.17), ksi (MPa)
s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement (Section 17.21), in. (mm)
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Prestressed Concrete
Sb = noncomposite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Section 17.19), in3 (mm3)
Sc = composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Section 17.19), in3 (mm3)
t = average thickness of the flange of a flanged member (Sections 17.18 and 17.19), in. (mm)
Tburst = the bursting force computed from the post-tensioning tendon loads at a given point (Section 17.22),
Kips (N)
To = steel stress at jacking ends (Section 17.17), ksi (MPa)
Tx = steel stress at any point x (Section 17.17), ksi (MPa)
T1 = edge tension force (Section 17.22), Kips (N)
T2 = bursting force (Section 17.22), Kips (N)
v = permissible horizontal shear stress (Section 17.21), psi (MPa)
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vci = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from combined shear and
moment (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from excessive principal
tensile stress in web (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vi = factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax
(Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vp = vertical component of effective prestress force at section (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
Vu = factored shear force (Section 17.21), Kips (N)
wc = unit density (weight) of concrete, lbs/ft.3 (kg/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension
(Section 17.21), in. (mm)
P= friction curvature coefficient (Section 17.17)
D = total angular change of prestressing steel profile in radians from jacking end to point x (Section 17.17)
1 = factor for concrete strength, as defined in Part 2 of this Chapter (Sections 17.18-17.20)
J* = factor for type of prestressing steel (Section 17.18)
M = strength reduction factor (Section 17.15)
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Prestressed Concrete
Local Zone - The volume of concrete surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device, subjected to high local
stresses.
Loss of Prestress - Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete and steel, including
effects of elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, friction, and anchorage seating.
Post-Tensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
Precompressed Zone - Portion of flexural member cross-section compressed by prestressing force.
Prestressed Concrete - Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses
in concrete resulting from loads.
Pretensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
Relaxation of Tendon Stress - Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
Shear Lag - Nonuniform distribution of transverse bending stress over the cross section.
Shrinkage of Concrete - Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hydration process).
Special Anchorage Device - Anchorage device whose adequacy must be proven experimentally as specified by construction
contract documents.
Tendon - Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete.
Transfer (1) Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member.
(2) Transfer of stress in a pretensioned tendon to surrounding concrete.
Transfer Length - Length over which prestressing force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned members.
Wobble Friction - Friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile or
alignment.
Wrapping or Sheathing - Enclosure around a prestressing tendon to prevent bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding
concrete.
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Materials
b.
Design
c.
d.
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Prestressed Concrete
The minimum clear distance between prestressing tendons at each end of a member shall not be less than 1-1/3 times
the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. The minimum spacing center-to-center of tendon shall be as follows:
Tendon Size
Spacing
1/2 inch special, 9/16 inch, 9/16 inch special, and 0.6 inch
3/8 inch
b.
Clear distance between post-tensioning ducts or trumpets at each end of a member shall not be less than 1-1/2 in. (40
mm) nor 1-1/2 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
c.
Post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups of 3 maximum, provided the spacing limitations specified in
Paragraph b are maintained in the end 3 feet (900 mm) of the member.
d.
Where pretensioning tendons are bundled, all bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam length and the
deflection points shall be investigated for secondary stresses.
For Precast Concrete the following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing tendons and nonprestressed conventional reinforcement, and ducts:
Minimum Concrete Cover
Pretensioning tendons ......................................................................................1 in. (40 mm)
Post-tensioning ducts ...................................................1 in. (40 mm), but not less than dd/2
Non-prestressed conventional reinforcement ..................................................1 in. (40 mm)
Stirrups, ties and spirals ......................................................................................1 in. (25 mm)
b.
For Cast-in-Place Concrete, the following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing tendons and nonprestressed conventional reinforcement, and ducts:
Post-tensioning ducts .....................................................3 in. (75 mm), but not less than dd/2
Non-prestressed conventional reinforcement ....................................................2 in. (50 mm)
Stirrups, ties and spirals .....................................................................................2 in. (50 mm)
Concrete cast against earth ................................................................................3 in. (75 mm)
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In corrosive or marine environments or other severe exposure conditions, the amount of tendon and reinforcement
protection shall be increased by use of more dense and impervious concrete, by increasing the minimum cover or other
suitable means.
Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed tendons shall be protected from corrosion.
b.
Burning or welding operations in vicinity of prestressing tendons shall be carefully performed, so that tendons are not
subjected to excessive temperatures, welding sparks, or ground currents and the shock to the concrete is minimized.
b.
Ducts for single wire, strand, or bar tendons shall have an inside diameter not less than in. (10 mm) larger than
tendon diameter.
c.
Ducts for multiple wire, strand, or bar tendons shall have an inside cross sectional area not less than 2 times the net area
of tendons.
d.
e.
Ducts shall be grouted within twenty-four hours of post-tensioning, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
Anchorages and couplers for post-tensioning tendons shall develop not less than 95 percent of the specified ultimate
strength of the tendons, when tested in an unbonded condition, without exceeding anticipated set.
b.
Couplers shall be located in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in housing long enough to permit necessary
movements. Couplers shall not be located at points of sharp tendon curvature. Couplers located in areas of high stress
range shall be investigated for fatigue.
Reinforcement shall be provided where required in tendon anchorage zones to resist bursting, splitting, and spalling
forces induced by tendon anchorages. Regions of abrupt change in section shall be adequately reinforced.
b.
End blocks shall be provided where required for support bearing or for distribution of concentrated prestressing forces.
c.
Post-tensioning anchorages and supporting concrete shall be designed to resist maximum jacking force for strength of
concrete at time of prestressing.
d.
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Prestressed Concrete
Seven-wire prestressing strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for a development length, in inches (mm),
not less than
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D
EQ 17-2
EQ 17-2 (Metric)
where D is strand diameter in inches (mm), and f*su and fse are expressed in ksi (MPa).
b.
Investigation may be limited to cross sections nearest each end of the member that are required to develop full design
strength under specified factored loads.
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided for
movement caused by temperature changes.
Movements not otherwise provided for, including shortening during stressing, shall be provided for by means of hinged
columns, rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, or other devices.
4
SECTION 17.8 SPAN LENGTH (2014)
The effective span lengths of simply supported beams shall be the distance center to center of bearings.
The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and beams shall be the distance center to center of supports.
Where fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are built monolithic with
the slab and support, the span shall be measured from the section where the combined depth of the slab and the fillet is at least
one and one-half times the thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments are to be considered as existing at the ends of
the span, as above defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
1
2
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Provision shall be made in the design for positive moment regions due to the combined effects of creep and shrinkage
in the girders and deck slab, and due to effects of live load plus impact in remote spans. Shrinkage and elastic
shortening of the pier should be considered.
b.
Non-prestressed positive moment connection reinforcement at piers may be designed at an allowable stress of 0.6
times the yield strength but not to exceed 36 ksi (250 MPa).
Negative moment reinforcement shall be proportioned by the strength design with load factors in accordance with
Section 17.15.
b.
The negative design moment strength shall be calculated using the compressive strength of the girder concrete
regardless of the strength of the diaphragm concrete.
c.
Non-prestressed negative moment reinforcement shall be proportioned by the strength design method of Part 2 of this
Chapter.
d.
Effect of initial precompression due to prestress in the precast girders may be neglected in calculation of negative
moment strength if maximum precompression stress is limited to 0.45f 'c and continuity reinforcement ratio is less than
0.015.
e.
Extreme fiber stress in compression at ends of girders at piers due to prestress and negative continuity moment shall
not exceed 0.60f 'c.
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Prestressed Concrete
For composite prestressed concrete where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the precast beam, the
effective web width of the precast beam shall be the lesser of:
(1) six (6) times the maximum thickness of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web plus the web and
fillets; and,
The effective flange width of the composite section shall be the lesser of:
(1) one-fourth of the span length of the girder;
(2) six (6) times the thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web width as determined by Article 17.10.1a
plus the effective web width; and,
(3) one-half the clear distance on each side of the effective web width plus the effective web width.
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Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with Articles 17.12b through 17.12e, except that diaphragms may be
omitted where tests or structural analysis show adequate strength and stability.
b.
For all beams other than box beams, diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to strengthen the free edge
of the slab and to transmit forces to the substructure. For all beams other than box beams, intermediate diaphragms
shall be placed between the beams at points of maximum moment for spans over 40 feet (12 m).
c.
For spread box beams, diaphragms shall be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends and at the points of
maximum moment for spans over 80 feet (24 m).
d.
For precast box multi-beam bridges, diaphragms are required only if necessary for slab end support or to contain or
resist transverse tension ties.
e.
For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to resist lateral forces and maintain
section geometry. Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius of curvature of 800 feet (245
m) or greater.
f.
For all types of prestressed boxes in bridges with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet (245 m), intermediate
diaphragms may be required and the spacing and strength of diaphragms shall be given special consideration in the
design of the structure.
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Prestressed Concrete
Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete and Es for nonprestressed steel reinforcement shall be as specified in Article 2.23.4.
Modulus of elasticity Es for prestressing tendons shall be determined by tests or supplied by manufacturer.
Strains vary linearly over the depth of the member throughout the entire load range.
b.
c.
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Prestressed members shall have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the
factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c for the load groups that are applicable.
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones, a load factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon jacking
force.
b.
Pretensioned members:
Stress immediately prior to transferLow-relaxation tendons ............................................................................................................................ 0.75f 's
Stress-relieved tendons.............................................................................................................................. 0.70f 's
b.
Post-tensioned members:
Stress immediately after seatingAt anchorage......................................................................................................................................... 0.70f 's
At the end of the seating loss zone....................................................................................................... 0.83f*y
Tensioning to 0.90f 's for short periods of time prior to seating may be permitted to offset seating and
friction losses, provided the stress at the anchorage does not exceed the above values.
Stresses at service load after losses.................................................................................................................. 0.80f*y
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Prestressed Concrete
b.
0.25 f c ci (metric)
Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds this value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided to resist the total
tension force in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section.
(2) Members with bonded auxiliary reinforcement provided in the tensile zone to resist the total tensile force in
concrete computed with the assumption of an uncracked section ..........................
7.5 f c ci
0.623 f c ci (metric)
17.16.2.2 Stresses in concrete at service loads (after allowance for all prestress losses) shall not exceed
the following:
Compression...........................................................................................................................0.40f 'c
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone...................................................................................0
Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary stresses specified in Article 17.16.2.1.
17.16.2.3 Cracking Stress2
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available:
1
2
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0.623 f c c (metric)
0.523 f c c (metric)
17.16.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load.......................................................................................3000 psi (21 MPa)
(but not to exceed 0.9f 'ci)
To determine effective prestress fse, allowance for the following sources of loss of prestress shall be considered:
'f s = ES + CR c + SH + CR s
where:
fs =total loss excluding friction
ES =loss due to elastic shortening of concrete
CRc =loss due to creep of concrete
SH =loss due to concrete shrinkage
CRs =loss due to relaxation of tendon stress
Anchorage seating and friction due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons shall be considered.
8-17-20
Prestressed Concrete
b.
Total loss of prestress shall be determined in accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses supported by
appropriate research data, representing properties of the materials to be used, methods of curing, ambient service
conditions, and any pertinent structural details.1
c.
In lieu of the more exact procedure prescribed in Paragraph b, loss of prestress may be determined in accordance with
either Paragraph d or Paragraph e for the conditions stated.
d.
Loss of prestress may be determined by the following procedure for normal weight concrete and the following types of
prestressing tendons:
250 ksi (MPa) or 270 ksi (1860 MPa) uncoated seven-wire stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 240 ksi (1650
MPa) stress-relieved or low-relaxation wires; 145 to 160 ksi (1000 to 1100 MPa) uncoated high-strength steel bar
(plain or deformed).
Data representing properties and effects of lightweight concrete shall be determined from documented tests.
(1) Elastic shortening of concrete
(a) For pretensioned members:
E
ES = ------s- f cir
E
ci
EQ 17-3
E
ES = 0.5 ------s- f cir
E
ci
EQ 17-4
Es = modulus of elasticity for prestressing tendons to be determined from documented test data or assumed
to be 28 x 106 psi (194,000 MPa).
Eci = modulus of elasticity for concrete at time of transfer; may be taken as
c
wc
1.5
1.5
0.0428 f
wc
33 f
ci
in psi
ci
in MPa
fcir = stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement immediately after transfer, due to total
prestress force and dead load acting at transfer. fcir shall be computed at the section or sections of
maximum moment. For pretensioned members, fcir shall be calculated using a prestress force reduced
below stress at transfer by elastic shortening of concrete and tendon relaxation during placing and
1
2
Estimating Prestress Losses by Paul Zia, H. Kent Preston, Norman L. Scott, and Edwin B. Workman, ACI Concrete International, June 1979, pp. 32-38.
Certain post-tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening loss.
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EQ 17-5
where:
fcds = stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement, due to all dead load not included in
calculation of fcir.
(3) Shrinkage of concrete
(a) For pretensioned members:
SH = 17 - 0.150 R
EQ 17-6
SH = 117 - 1.03 R
EQ 17-6
(Metric)
EQ 17-7
EQ 17-7
(Metric)
where:
R = annual average ambient relative humidity in percent. The following map may be used to determine R.
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EQ 17-8a (Metric)
EQ 17-8a
EQ 17-8b
4
EQ 17-8b (Metric)
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EQ 17-9a
EQ 17-9a (Metric)
EQ 17-9b
EQ 17-9b (Metric)
EQ 17-9c
EQ 17-9c (Metric)
where:
FR = friction loss below 0.70f's at point being considered, computed according to Paragraph d(6) below.
ES, SH, CRc = appropriate values as determined for either pretensioned or post-tensioned member.
(5) Anchorage Seating
Allowance shall be made for loss of prestress in post-tensioning tendons due to anchorage seating. Calculations
shall be made in accordance with a method consistent with the friction coefficients for the materials used.
(6) Friction
Effect of friction loss due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons shall be computed by:
f lfx = f po > l e Kl x + PD @
T o = T x e KL + PD
EQ 17-10
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When (Klx + D) is not greater than 0.3, effect of friction loss may be computed by:
f lfx = f po Kl x + PD
T o = T x 1 + KL + PD
EQ 17-11
Friction coefficients K and shall be determined experimentally, and shall be verified during tendon stressing
operations. When experimental data for the materials used are not available, the following values for K and may
be used.
0.0020
(0.0027)
0.15-0.25a
Polyethylene
0.0002
(0.0027)
0.23
0.0002
(0.00027)
0.25b
0.0002
(0.00027)
0.15
Type of Steel
Wire or strand
High-Strength bars
Type of Duct
aA
friction coefficient of 0.25 is appropriate for 12 strand tendons. A lower coefficient may be used for larger
tendon and duct sizes.
bLubrication will probably be required.
Friction losses occur prior to anchoring but should be estimated for design and verified during stressing
operations.
Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to maintain proper alignment without visible wobble during placement of
concrete.
Rigid ducts may be fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the welded seam will not
be required.
e.
Loss of prestress due to all causes, excluding friction loss, may be determined for preliminary design in accordance
with the following values for prestressed members or structures of usual design. Tabulated estimates are based on
normal weight concrete, normal prestressing levels, and average exposure conditions. Friction loss in post-tensioning
tendons shall be determined in accordance with Paragraph d(6), above.
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Pretensioning tendon:
Stress-relieved
Low-relaxation
Low-relaxation
Post-tensioning bar
EQ 17-12
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent
rectangular stress block, defined as (A*s f*su + As fsy)/(0.85 f'c b), is not greater than the compression flange thickness t and
which satisfy EQ 17-24, the design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
MMn = M{A*sf*sud[1-0.6((p*f*su/f 'c)+(dt/d)(pfsy/f 'c))] + Asfsydt[1-0.6((d/dt)(p*f*su/f 'c)+(pfsy/f 'c))]} EQ 17-13
EQ 17-14
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For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress
block, defined as (Asr f*su)/(0.85 f'cb') is greater than the compression flange thickness t, and which satisfy EQ 17-24, the
design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
MMn = M{Asrf*sud[1-0.6(Asrf*su/b' df'c)] + Asfsy(dt-d) + 0.85 f'c(b-b')(t)(d-0.5t)}
EQ 17-15
EQ 17-16
EQ 17-17
Asf = 0.85f'c(b-b')t/f*su
EQ 17-18
where:
Asf = The steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the
flange.
Bonded Members:
with prestressing steel only (as defined):
f*su = f's[1-(J*/1)(p*f's/f'c)]
EQ 17-19
EQ 17-20
where J* :
= 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
su
= fse + 6((d-yu)/le)
EQ 17-21
EQ 17-21 (Metric)
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The stress strain properties of the prestressing steel conform to the requirements of ASTM A416 (Low-Relaxation).
b.
The effective prestress after losses is not less than 0.5 f 's.
17.18.4.2 At ultimate load, the stress in the prestressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to:
f*su = lx/D + 2/3 fse
EQ 17-22
EQ 17-22 (Metric)
but shall not be greater the f*su as given by the equations in Article 17.18.4.1. In the above equation:
D = nominal diameter of strand in inches (mm);
fse = effective stress in prestressing strand after losses in psi (MPa);
lx = distance from end of prestressing strand to center of panel in inches (mm).
EQ 17-24
does not exceed 0.361. (See Article 17.20 for reinforcement indices of sections with non-prestressed reinforcement).
For members with reinforcement indices greater than 0.361, the design flexural strength shall be assumed not greater than:
For rectangular sections:
EQ 17-25
EQ 17-26
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MM n t 1.2M* cr
where:
M*cr = (fr + fpe)Sc - Md/nc(Sc/Sb - 1)
EQ 17-27
Appropriate values for Md/nc and Sb shall be used for any intermediate composite sections. Where beams are designed to be
noncomposite, substitute Sb for Sc in the above equation for the calculation of M*cr.
17.19.2.2 The requirements of Article 17.9.2.1 may be waived if the area of prestressed and non-prestressed
reinforcement provided at the section is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis on the
load combinations specified in Part 2.
17.19.2.3 The minimum amount of non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-inplace portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed deck panels shall be 0.25 in2/ft (530 mm2 per meter) of
slab width.
EQ 17-28
EQ 17-29
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on EQ 17-13 or EQ 17-15 if these values are met, and on EQ 17-25 or EQ
17-26 if these values are exceeded.
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EQ 17-30
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section considered, Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vs is
the nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement.
17.21.1.4 When the reaction to the applied loads introduces compression into the end regions of the
member, sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the face of the support may be designed for the
same shear Vu as that computed at a distance h/2. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads
are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case, sections closer than d to the support
shall be designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
17.21.2.1 The shear strength provided by concrete, Vc, shall be taken as the lesser of the values Vci or Vcw.
The shear strength, Vci, shall be computed by:
V i M cr
V ci = 0.6 fc c bcd + V d + --------------M max
V ci = 5 u 10
EQ 17-32
V i M cr
f c c bcd + V d + --------------M max
EQ 17-32
(Metric)
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but Vci need not be less than
1.7 fc c bcd
220 fc c bcd
Metric
EQ 17-33
M cr = I e y t 0.5 fc e + f pe f d
EQ 17-33
(Metric)
The maximum factored moment and factored shear at the section due to externally applied loads, Mmax and Vi, shall be
computed from the load combination causing maximum moment at the section.
EQ 17-34
EQ 17-34
(Metric)
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When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vci and Vcw, shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (1.8 fct) for
fc c
but the value of fct/6.7 (1.8 fct) used shall not exceed
fc c
b.
When fct is not specified, Vci and Vcw shall be modified by multiplying each term containing
fc c
by 0.75 for all lightweight concrete, and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete. Linear interpolation may be used
when partial sand replacement is used.
Vs = (Avfsyd)/s
where Av is the area of web reinforcement within a distance s. Vs shall not be taken greater than
8 fc c bcd
0.66 fc c bcd
Metric
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8-17-32
Prestressed Concrete
The minimum area of web reinforcement shall be:
Av = (50 b's)/fsy
Av = (0.345 b's)/fsy
EQ 17-36
EQ 17-36 (Metric)
where b' and s are in inches (mm) and fsy is in psi (MPa).
17.21.3.4 The design yield strength of web reinforcement, fsy, shall not exceed 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
EQ 17-37
where Vu is factored shear force at section considered, Vnh is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with the
following, and where d is for the entire composite section.
a.
When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 80bvd in pounds (0.552bvd in newtons).
b.
When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 17.21.4.5, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds (0.552bvd
in newtons).
c.
When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 17.21.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 in. (7 mm), shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 350bvd, in pounds (2.413bvd in newtons).
d.
For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by Article
17.21.4.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased by (160fy/40,000)bvd, in pounds [(90fy/100,000) bvd in newtons].
17.21.4.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of
the span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer
that force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear force shall
not exceed horizontal shear strength MVnh in accordance with Article 17.21.4.3, except that length of
segment considered shall be substituted for d.
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When required, a minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area
shall not be less than 50 bvs/fy, and tie spacing s shall not exceed four times the least web width of support element,
nor 24 in. (600 mm).
b.
Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
reinforcement. All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
The anchorage zone is geometrically defined as the volume of concrete through which the concentrated prestressing
force at the anchorage device spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across the entire cross section.
b.
For anchorage zones at the end of a member or segment, the transverse dimensions may be taken as the depth and
width of the section but not larger than the longitudinal dimension of the member or segment. The longitudinal extent
of the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead of anchorage) shall be taken as not less than the larger
transverse dimension but not more than one and one-half times that dimension.
c.
For intermediate anchorages in addition to the length of Article 17.22.1b the anchorage zone shall be considered to also
extend in the opposite direction for a distance not less than the larger transverse dimensions of the anchorage zone.
d.
For multiple slab anchorages, both width and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal to the center-tocenter spacing between stressed tendons, but not more than the length of the slab in the direction of the tendon axis.
The thickness of the anchorage zone shall be taken equal to the thickness of the slab.
e.
For design purposes, the anchorage zone shall consist of two regions; the general zone as defined in Article 17.22.2.1
and the local zone as defined in Article 17.22.2.2.
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17.22.2.3 Responsibilities1
The Engineer is responsible for the overall design and approval of working drawings for the general zone, including the
specific location of the tendons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement, and the specific stressing sequence. The
Engineer is also responsible for the design of local zones based on Article 17.22.7.2 and for the approval of special anchorage
devices used under the provisions of Article 17.22.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be approved by the
Engineer.
Anchorage device suppliers are responsible for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the anchor efficiency requirements
of Article 17.25.3.1. In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the anchorage device supplier is responsible for
furnishing anchorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test requirements of the Engineer. This acceptance test and the anchor
efficiency test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency acceptable to the Engineer. The anchorage device supplier
shall provide records of the acceptance test to the Engineer and to the constructor and shall specify auxiliary and confining
reinforcement, minimum edge distance, minimum anchor spacing, and minimum concrete strength at time of stressing
required for proper performance of the local zone.
The responsibilities of the constructor shall be as specified by the Engineer.
a.
b.
Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or equivalent) (see Article 17.22.5)
c.
Approximate methods for determining the compression and tension forces, where applicable (see Article 17.22.6).
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall conform to the requirements of Article 17.22.3.4.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimensional effects shall be considered in the design. When these three
dimensional effects appear significant, they may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis procedures or may be
approximated by considering two or more planes. However, in these approximations the interaction of the planes models
must be considered, and the model loadings and results must be consistent.
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Compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the requirements of Article
17.22.7.2.
b.
Compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a distance measured from
the concrete bearing surface equal to the smaller of:
(1) The depth to the end of the local confinement reinforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage device.
These compressive stresses may be determined according to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 17.22.4,
from an elastic stress analysis according to Article 17.22.5b, or by the approximate method outlined in Article
17.22.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed 0.7 f 'ci.
c.
Compressive stresses shall also be checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within or ahead of the anchorage
zone may cause stress concentrations.
d.
The bursting force is the tensile force in the anchorage zone acting ahead of the anchorage device and transverse to the
tendon axis. The magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst , and its corresponding distance from the loaded surface,
dburst, can be determined using the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 17.22.4, from an elastic stress analysis
according to Article 17.22.5c, or by the approximate method outlined in Article 17.22.6.3. Three-dimensional effects
shall be considered for the determination of the bursting reinforcement requirements.
e.
Resistance to bursting forces, M Asfsy and/or M A*s f*y, shall be provided by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed hoops, or well anchored transverse ties. This reinforcement is to be
proportioned to resist the total factored bursting force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting reinforcement shall
satisfy the following:
(1) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the full width of the member and must be anchored as close to the outer
faces of the member as cover permits.
(2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon throughout a
distance of 2.5 dburst for the plane considered, but not to exceed 1.5 times the corresponding lateral dimension of
the section. The centroid of the bursting reinforcement shall coincide with the distance dburst used for the design.
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shall exceed neither 24 bar diameters nor 12 inches (300 mm).
f.
Edge tension forces are tensile forces in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to the transverse edge and
longitudinal edges of the member. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the anchors. The tensile force along
the transverse edge is referred to as spalling force. The tensile force along the longitudinal edge is referred to as
longitudinal edge tension force.
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g.
Spalling forces are induced in concentrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded anchorage zones, and
anchorage zones for multiple anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced when the resultant of the
anchorage forces considered causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The edge tension forces can be
determined from an elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in accordance with the approximate methods of
Article 17.22.6.4.
h.
In no case shall the spalling force be taken as less than two percent of the total factored tendon force.
i.
Resistance to edge tension forces, MAsfsy and/or MA*sf*y, shall be provided in the form of non-prestressed or
prestressed reinforcement located close to the longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrangement and
anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement shall satisfy the following:
Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.3.4h shall extend over the full width of the member.
Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchorage devices shall effectively tie these anchorage devices together.
Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices shall be
continuous. The reinforcement shall extend along the tension face over the full length of the anchorage zone and
shall extend along the loaded face from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the eccentric anchorage device or
group of anchorage devices.
Intermediate anchorages shall not be used in regions where significant tension is generated behind the anchor from
other loads. Whenever practical, blisters shall be located in the corner between flange and webs, or shall be extended
over the full flange width or web height to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used on a flange or web,
local shear, bending and direct force effects shall be considered in the design.
b.
Bonded reinforcement shall be provided to tie back at least 25 percent of the intermediate anchorage unfactored
stressing force into the concrete section behind the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement are limited to a
maximum of 0.6fsy or 36 ksi (250 MPa). The amount of tie back reinforcement may be reduced using EQ 17-38, if
permanent compressive stresses are generated behind the anchor from other loads.
EQ 17-38
Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.3.5b shall be placed no further than one plate width from the tendon
axis. It shall be fully anchored so that the yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate width or half the
length of the blister or rib ahead of the anchor as well as at the same distance behind the anchor. The centroid of this
reinforcement shall coincide with the tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the reinforcement shall be
placed in the continuing section near that face of the flange or web from which the blister or rib is projecting.
d.
Reinforcement shall be provided throughout blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel action, bursting
forces, and deviation forces due to tendon curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties or U-stirrups
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Reinforcement shall be provided to resist local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the tendon force and
to resist lateral bending in ribs due to tendon deviation forces.
f.
Reinforcement required by Articles 17.22.3.4d through 17.22.3.4i shall be provided to resist tensile forces due to
transfer of the anchorage force from the blister or rib into the overall structure.
17.22.3.6 Diaphragms
For tendons anchored in diaphragms, concrete compressive stresses shall be limited within the diaphragm in accordance with
Articles 17.22.3.4a through 17.22.3.4c. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at the transition from the diaphragm to
webs and flanges of the member.
Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges and webs of the girder. The
more general methods of Article 17.22.4 or 17.22.5 shall be used to determine this reinforcement. Reinforcement shall also be
provided to tie back deviation forces due to tendon curvature.
17.22.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages
a.
Minimum reinforcement meeting the requirements of Articles 17.22.3.7b through 17.22.3.7d shall be provided unless a
more detailed analysis is made.
b.
Reinforcement shall be provided for the bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab and normal to the
tendon axis in accordance with Articles 17.22.3.4d and 17.22.3.4e This reinforcement shall be anchored close to the
faces of the slab with standard hooks bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum reinforcement is two No. 3
(#10) bars per anchor located at a distance equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor.
c.
Reinforcement in the plane of the slab and normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge tension forces, T1,
between anchorages (EQ 17-39) and bursting forces, T2, ahead of the anchorages (EQ 17-40). Edge tension
reinforcement shall be placed immediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie adjacent anchors together.
Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed over the length of the anchorage zones (see Article 17.22.1d).
EQ 17-39
T1 = 0.10Pu 1- a/s
T2 = 0.20Pu 1 - a/s
EQ 17-40
where:
T1 = the edge tension force;
T2 = the bursting force.
Pu = the factored tendon load on an individual anchor;
a = the anchor plate width;
s = the anchorage spacing.
d.
For slab anchors with an edge distance of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness, the edge tension
reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist 25 percent of the factored tendon load. This reinforcement shall
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preferably be in the form of hairpins and shall be distributed within one plate width ahead of the anchor. The legs of
the hairpin bars shall extend from the edge of the slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than a distance equal to five
plate widths plus development length.
17.22.3.8 Deviation Saddles
Deviation saddles should be designed using the strut-and-tie model or using methods based on test results.
17.22.4.3 Struts
The effective concrete compressive strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to 0.7Mf 'ci. In areas where the
concrete may be extensively cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large plastic rotations are required, the effective
compressive strength shall be limited to 0.6Mf 'ci.
In anchorage zones the critical section for compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface with the local zone node. If
special anchorage devices are used, the critical section of the strut can be taken as that section whose extension intersects the
axis of the tendon at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth of the local confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension
of the anchorage device.
For thin members with a ratio of member thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the dimension of the strut in the
direction of the thickness of the member can be approximated by assuming that the thickness of the compression strut varies
linearly from the transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at
a depth equal to the thickness of the section.
The compression stresses can be assumed as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly distributed over its cross
section.
17.22.4.4 Ties
Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement. Tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected.
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Analyses based on assumed elastic material properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains are acceptable for
analysis and design of anchorage zones.
b.
If the compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of the anchorage device are determined from a linear-elastic stress
analysis, local stress maxima may be averaged over an area equal to the bearing area of the anchorage device.
c.
Location and magnitude of the bursting force may be obtained by integration of the corresponding tensile bursting
stresses along the tendon path.
The member has a rectangular cross section and its longitudinal extent is at least equal to the largest transverse
dimension of the cross section.
b.
c.
The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in the main plane of the member is at least one and one-half times the
corresponding lateral dimension, a, of the anchorage device.
d.
Only one anchorage device or one group of closely spaced anchorage devices is located in the anchorage zone.
Anchorage devices can be treated as closely spaced if their center-to-center spacing does not exceed one and one-half
times the width of the anchorage devices in the direction considered.
e.
The angle of inclination of the tendon with respect to the center line of the member is not larger than 20 degrees if the
anchor force points toward the centroid of the section and for concentric anchors, and is not larger than 5 degrees if the
anchor force points away from the centroid of the section.
No additional check of concrete compressive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices satisfying Article
17.22.7.2.
b.
The concrete compressive stresses ahead of special anchorage devices at the interface between local zone and general
zone shall be approximated by EQ 17-41 and EQ 17-42.
f ca
0.6P
k
u
= ------------- --------------------------------------
A
1
1
b
1 + l c --------- ---
b
EQ 17-41
eff
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k=1
for
EQ 17-42
s t 2a eff
where:
fca = the concrete compressive stress ahead of the anchorage device;
k = a correction factor for closely spaced anchorages;
Ab = an effective bearing area as defined in Article 17.22.6.2c;
aeff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the larger dimension of the cross
section or in the direction of closely spaced anchors;
beff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the smaller dimension of the cross
section;
lc = the longitudinal extent of confining reinforcement for the local zone, but not more than the larger of 1.15 aeff
or 1.15 beff;
Effective bearing area, Ab, in EQ 17-41 shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing plate area, Aplate, or the
bearing area of the confined concrete in the local zone, Aconf, with the following limitations:
(1) If Aplate controls, Aplate shall not be taken larger than
4 e S A conf
(2) If Aconf controls, the maximum dimension of Aconf shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension of Aplate
or three times the minimum dimension of Aplate. If any of these limits is violated the effective bearing area, Ab,
shall be based on Aplate.
(3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct in the determination of Ab.
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EQ 17-43
EQ 17-44
where:
6P u
= the sum of the total factored tendon loads for the stressing arrangement considered;
a = the lateral dimension of the anchorage device or group of devices in the direction considered.
e = the eccentricity (always taken as positive) of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect to the
centroid of the cross section;
h = the lateral dimension of the cross section in the direction considered;
D = the angle of inclination of the resultant of the tendon forces with respect to the centerline of the member;
positive for concentric tendons or if the anchorage force points toward the centroid of the section; negative if the
anchorage force points away from the centroid of the section.
17.22.6.4 Edge Tension Forces
For multiple anchorages with a center-to-center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the section, the spalling forces shall
be given by Article 17.22.3.4h. For larger spacings, the spalling forces shall be determined from a more detailed analysis, such
as strut-and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
If the centroid of all tendons considered is located outside of the kern of the section both spalling forces and longitudinal edge
tension forces are induced. The longitudinal edge tension force shall be determined from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a
section located at one half the depth of the section away from the loaded surface. The spalling force shall be taken as equal to
the longitudinal edge tension force but not less than specified in Article 17.22.3.4h.
When no independently verified manufacturers edge distance recommendations for a particular anchorage device are
available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the larger of:
(1) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice the minimum concrete cover required for the particular
application and environment.
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining reinforcement plus the required concrete cover over the confining
reinforcing steel for the particular application and environment.
b.
When independently verified manufacturers recommendations for minimum cover, spacing and edge distance for a
particular anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as
the smaller of:
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(1) The bearing plate size plus twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage device supplier,
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the anchorage device supplier.
The manufacturers recommendations for spacing and edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum
values.
c.
The length of the local zone along the tendon axis shall be taken as the greater of:
The maximum width of the local zone.
The length of the anchorage device confining reinforcement.
For anchorage devices with multiple bearing surfaces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to the bottom of
each bearing surface plus the maximum dimension of that bearing surface.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as greater than one and one-half times the width of the local zone.
d.
For closely spaced anchorages an enlarged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall also be considered.
Anchorage devices may be either basic anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressive strength limits of Articles
17.22.7.2b through 17.22.7.2d or special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of Article 17.22.7.3.
The effective concrete bearing compressive strength fb used for design shall not exceed that of EQ 17-45 or EQ 17-46 .
Pr = Mfb Ab
f b d 0.7f c ci A e A g
EQ 17-45
f b d 2.25f c ci
EQ 17-46
but:
where:
4
fb = the maximum factored tendon load, Pu, divided by the effective bearing area Ab;
f 'ci = the concrete compressive strength at stressing;
A = the maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to the loaded area and
concentric with it and doesnt overlap similar areas for adjacent anchorage devices;
Ag = the gross area of the bearing plate if the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2c are met, or is the area calculated
in accordance with Article 17.22.7.2d;
Ab = the effective net area of the bearing plate calculated as the area Ag minus the area of openings in the bearing
plate.
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The full bearing plate area may be used for Ag and the calculation of Ab if the anchorage device is sufficiently rigid.
To be considered sufficiently rigid, the slenderness of the bearing plate (n/t) must not exceed the value given in EQ 1747. The plate must also be checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
EQ 17-47
n e t d 0.08 3 E b e f b
where:
fb = stress in anchorage plate at section taken at the edge of the wedge hole or holes.
n = the largest distance from the outer edge of the wedge plate to the other edge of the bearing plate. For
rectangular bearing plates this distance is measured parallel to the edges of the bearing plate. If the
anchorage has no separate wedge plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be taken as the distance between the
extreme wedge holes in the corresponding direction.
t = the average thickness of the bearing plate.
Eb = the modulus of elasticity of the bearing plate material.
d.
For bearing plates that do not meet the stiffness requirements of Article 17.22.7.2c, the effective gross bearing area, Ag,
shall be taken as the area geometrically similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer perimeter of the wedge hole pattern
for plates without separate wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load spreading at a 45 degree angle.
A larger effective bearing area may be calculated by assuming an effective area and checking the new fb and n/t values
for conformance with Articles 17.22.7.2b and 17.22.7.2c.
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The minimum clear spacing of prestressing tendons and post-tensioning ducts shall conform to the requirements of Article
17.5.1.
Prestressing tendons in precast deck panels shall be spaced symmetrically and uniformly across the width of the panel. They
shall not be spaced farther apart than 1 times the total composite slab thickness or more than 18 inches (460 mm).
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than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) over the last three readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the specimen shall be preferably
loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8 Fpu at least at the last three consecutive peak
loadings before termination of the cyclic loading, and at 0.9 Fpu. The maximum load shall also be reported.
17.25.3.5.2 Sustained Loading Test
In a sustained loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8 Fpu and held constant until crack widths stabilize but for not less
than 48 hours. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) over the last
three readings. After sustained loading is completed, the specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the
capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8 Fpu, at least three times at intervals of not less than
4 hours during the last 12 hours before termination of the sustained loading, and during loading to failure at 0.9 Fpu. The
maximum load shall also be reported.
17.25.3.5.3 Monotonic Loading Test
a.
In a monotonic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.9 Fpu and held constant for 1 hour. The specimen shall then
be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.2 Fpu.
b.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at 0.9 Fpu after the 1-hour period, and at 1.0 Fpu. The maximum load
shall also be reported.
c.
d.
The maximum crack width criteria specified below shall be met for moderately aggressive environments.
For higher aggressive environments the crack width criteria shall be reduced by at least 50 percent.
(1) No cracks greater than 0.010 in. (0.254 mm) at 0.8 Fpu after completion of the cyclic or sustained loading, or at 0.9
Fpu after the 1-hour period for monotonic loading.
(2) No cracks greater than 0.016 in. (0.406 mm) at 0.9 Fpu for cyclic or sustained loading, or at 1.0 Fpu for monotonic
loading.
e.
A test series shall consist of three test specimens. Each one of the tested specimens shall meet the acceptance criteria.
If one of the three specimens fails to pass the test, a supplementary test of three additional specimens is allowed. The
three additional test specimen results shall meet all acceptance criteria of Article 17.25.3.5.
For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests are only required for representative samples unless tests for each
capacity of the anchorages in the series are required by the Engineer.
f.
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EQ 17-48
EQ 17-48 (Metric)
where D is the nominal diameter in inches (mm), f*su and fse are in psi (MPa), and the parenthetical expression is considered
to be without units.
Investigations may be limited to those cross sections nearest each end of the member which are required to develop their
nominal strength.
Where strand is debonded at the end of a member and tension at service load is allowed in the precompressed tensile zone, the
development length required above shall be doubled.
Materials and manufacture shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter, except as modified by this Part.
b.
The fabricator shall perform all tests required by the contract documents and ASTM Standards, and the Engineer or his
representative shall be allowed access to observe all of this sampling and testing. The results of all tests shall be
submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
c.
Precast members shall be cast on unyielding beds. Bearing surfaces shall be cast in accordance with the contract
documents, so that they will join properly with other elements of the structure.
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d.
Precast members that are to be abutted together in the finished work shall be match-cast with adjacent segments.
e.
Forms may not be removed until such time as the removal will not damage the member. A member shall not be
handled until its strength is sufficient to prevent damage.
f.
When cast-in-place concrete will later be cast against a precast member, mating surfaces shall be finished to a coarse
texture as approved by the Engineer.
Care shall be taken during storage and handling to prevent damage to precast members. Members damaged during
storage or handling shall be replaced at the Contractor's expense.
b.
Precast girders shall be transported in an upright position with points of support as shown on the Contractor's drawings.
c.
Prestressed concrete members shall not be shipped until tests demonstrate that the concrete has attained a compressive
strength equal to the specified design compressive strength.
The Contractor shall be responsible not to damage precast members during construction. Lifting devices shall be used
in accordance with Contractors drawings that have been reviewed and accepted by the Engineer. Temporary supports
shall be used as necessary to prevent damage.2
b.
Where cast-in-place concrete is to be cast against precast members, forms shall be erected and sealed so that excessive
leakage will not occur.
1
2
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Prestressed Concrete
The permissible interval between tendon installation and grouting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for various exposure
conditions shall be as follows unless approved by the Engineer:
Very Damp Atmosphere (Humidity > 70%) or Over Saltwater ..........................................7 days
Moderate Atmosphere (Humidity from 40% to 70%)..........................................................15 days
Very Dry Atmosphere (Humidity < 40%)............................................................................20 days
After tendons are placed in ducts, the openings at the ends of the ducts shall be sealed to prevent entry of moisture.
When steam curing is used, steel for post-tensioning shall not be installed until the steam curing is completed.
Whenever electric welding is performed on or near members containing prestressing steel, the welding ground shall be
attached directly to the steel being welded. All prestressing steel and hardware shall be protected from weld spatter or other
damage.
17.26.7.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware
The contractor is responsible for the proper placement of all materials according to the design documents of the Engineer and
the requirements stipulated by the anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise all due care and attention in the
placement of anchorage hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation of concrete in anchorage zones. Modifications
to the local zone details verified under provisions of Section 17.22.7.3 and Section 17.26.3 shall be approved by both the
Engineer and the anchorage device supplier.
(2014)1
Cause of any difference in force determination between Paragraph 1 and Paragraph 2 that exceeds 5% for pretensioned
elements or 7% for post-tensioned construction shall be ascertained and corrected.
Where transfer of force from bulkheads of pretensioning bed to concrete is accomplished by cutting prestressing tendons,
cutting points and cutting sequence shall be predetermined to avoid undesired temporary stresses. Unless otherwise required
by the Contract Documents long lengths of exposed pretensioned strand shall be cut near the member to minimize shock to
concrete.
Wire failure in prestressing tendons is acceptable provided total area of broken wires does not exceed 2% of total area of
tendons in member, and wire failure is not symptomatic of a more extensive distress condition.
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Grout shall consist of portland cement and water; or portland cement, water and approved admixtures.
b.
Materials for mortar and grout shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except as modified by this
Part.
c.
The grading of sand for use in grout or mortar shall be adjusted in accordance with Part 1 the use to which the mortar
or grout is being put.
d. Air entraining Portland cement shall be used for grout whenever air entrainment is required for the concrete.
e.
When non-shrink mortar or grout is specified in the contract documents or on the Contractor's drawings, a non-shrink
admixture or an expansive hydraulic cement approved by the Engineer, shall be used.
f.
Six proportions for mortars and grouts shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
g.
Mortar or grout shall not be retempered by the addition of water and shall be placed within one hour of mixing.
Concrete areas to be patched shall be free of all loose material and shall be sprayed with water and allowed to surface
dry immediately prior to placing the mortar or grout.
b. After placing all surfaces of mortar or grout shall be cured by the water method.
c.
Loads shall not be applied to prestressed members until the concrete has attained sufficient strength to prevent damage
or until as specified on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
b. Application of loads to members that are to be post-tensioned shall only be done in accordance with construction
sequences shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
c.
Materials and equipment shall not be supported on the work except as shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
d.
Earth loads shall be applied in such a way as not to cause movements or deformations during construction.
e.
Railway loading shall not be permitted on the completed work until the concrete strengths and other requirements
specified on the contract documents have been achieved.
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b.
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter.
c.
Contractor's Reports:
(1) Whenever steel bars, other than bars conforming to ASTM A706 are to be welded, or when otherwise required by
the contract documents a certified copy of the mill test report showing physical and chemical analysis for each
heat or lot of reinforcing bars shall be provided to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
(2) Shipments of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall include a certificate of compliance that the coated bars or coated
wire conform to the applicable ASTM Specification.
Steel reinforcement shall be cut and bent as shown on the bar lists and bending diagrams.
Uncoated steel reinforcement shall be handled and stored in accordance with the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter.
b.
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be handled and stored in
accordance with the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter.
17.29.5.1 General
a.
Steel reinforcement shall be placed as shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings and held firmly in position as
required by Part 1 of this Chapter.
b.
Tie wires and metal clips for epoxy-coated reinforcement and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be
plastic or epoxy-coated.
a.
Reinforcing steel shall be supported in position by mortar blocks, wire bar supports, supplementary bars or other
devices subject to the acceptance of the Engineer. Supports shall prevent shifting of the reinforcement within the
forms.
b.
Mortar blocks shall have a compressive strength not less than that of the concrete in which they are to be embedded.
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Wire bar supports shall meet the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter.
d. Any damage to the epoxy coating of reinforcing steel and zinc and expoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be
repaired in accordance with Part 1 of this Chapter.
SECTION 17.30 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP AND/OR SILL FOR TIMBER PILE
TRESTLE (2014)1
For guidelines for prestressed concrete cap and/or sill for timber pile structures, refer to Figure 8-17-2.
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Figure 8-17-2. Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle
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Figure 8-17-2M. Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle
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COMMENTARY (2014)
With the increased use of High Performance Concrete and the desire to use 0.6 inch tendon to take advantage of the higher
strength concrete being used, the U. S. D. O. T. - Federal Highway Administration had extensive tests performed relative to the
bond and spacing of these new prestressing tendons. The test results indicated that the 0.6 inch tendon was behaving fine: 2
inch (50 mm) spacing for 0.6 inch diameter tendons was acceptable, and that designers could use 1/2 inch diameter tendons at
1-3/4 inch (45 mm) spacing. Subsequently, AASHTO adopted these criteria in the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges.
Since the prestressing industry has been using this strand at the 2 inch (50 mm) spacing with success, it is believed, in the
interest of uniformity of facilities and economy, Part 17 should follow this criteria adopted by the industry.
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reduced by creep. Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load and the beam deflection profile. When these factors
are particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage should be added to the effect of loads.
As noted in 17.22.2.3 the responsibilities of the Contractor shall be specified by the Engineer. Here are some general
responsibilities that could be required for the Contractor:
Upon completion of concrete placement, prove the post-tensioning ducts are free and clear of any obstructions or damage and
are able to accept the intended post-tensioning tendons by passing a torpedo through the ducts.
When the prestressing steel is installed, after the concrete has been placed, demonstrate that the ducts are free of water and
debris immediately prior to installation of the steel.
Accept responsibility for the proper placement of all materials according to the design documents and the requirements
stipulated by the anchorage device supplier.
Exercise all due care and attention in the placement of anchorage hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation of
concrete in anchorage zones.
Furnish the Engineer the verification testing samples from each lot (free of cost) described below:
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It is recommended that lifting devices shall be designed with a safety factor to account for temporary stresses due to
shipping and erection.
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2014, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
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Part 19
Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges1
2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.1.1 Scope (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-19-2
8-19-2
19.2 Rating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.1 General (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.2 Normal Rating (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.3 Maximum Rating (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.4 Load Carrying Capacity (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.5 Inspection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.6 Computation of Stresses or Strengths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-19-2
8-19-2
8-19-2
8-19-3
8-19-3
8-19-3
8-19-3
8-19-4
8-19-4
8-19-4
8-19-4
8-19-5
8-19-5
8-19-5
19.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4.1 Concrete (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4.2 Reinforcing Steel (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-19-5
8-19-5
8-19-6
8-19-8
8-19-8
8-19-9
8-19-9
8-19-10
8-19-10
References Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 355, 656; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 232; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 80.
8-19-1
Description
Page
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-19-11
LIST OF TABLES
Table
8-19-1
8-19-2
8-19-3
8-19-4
Description
Page
8-19-6
8-19-7
8-19-7
8-19-7
The provisions of Parts 2 and 17, this Chapter, should be followed except as modified by this Part.
Concrete railway bridges shall be rated according to their load carrying capacity as determined by the rules specified
herein.
b.
The rating of the bridge shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service load stresses as
provided in SERVICE LOAD RATING or, alternatively, with reference to load factors and strength as provided in
LOAD FACTOR RATING. The method to be used, SERVICE LOAD RATING or LOAD FACTOR RATING, shall be
as directed by the Engineer. A more consistent rating result will be achieved if the same method is used for rating as
was used for the original design.
c.
Each bridge shall be assigned two ratings; NORMAL and MAXIMUM. The stated normal and maximum ratings of
each bridge as a unit shall be the lowest of the ratings determined for the various components.
Normal rating is the maximum load level which can be carried by an existing structure for an indefinite period of time.
See Commentary
8-19-2
Maximum rating is the maximum load level which the structure can support at infrequent intervals.
The load-carrying capacity of a bridge should be determined by the computation of stresses or strengths based on
actual records of the design, details, materials, workmanship, and physical condition, including data obtained by
inspection and load tests, if feasible.
Inspection of the bridge shall be made in accordance with Part 21, this Chapter, with special attention to the following
items:
(1) Whether the actual sections and details conform to the plans. Dimensions of the concrete sections should be
measured to nearest 1/4 inch (nearest 5 mm). Location and size of reinforcement should be checked at critical
sections by use of a pachometer or other suitable device.
(2) Any additions to the dead load not shown on the plans, such as heavier rail, deeper ballast section, concrete ties,
walkways, pipelines, conduits, signal devices, and wire supports.
(3) The position of the track with respect to the center line of the bridge.
(4) Any loss of concrete. All loose concrete shall be removed before making this determination.
(5) Any reduction in reinforcing steel area due to corrosion. This determination should be made by measurements
after removal of corrosion.
(6) The physical condition, noting such conditions as excessive cracking at points of maximum moment and at points
of maximum shear. If cracks are deemed critical, they should be observed during the passage of a train to
determine whether live load stresses cause movement or growth in the cracks.
The computation of stresses or strengths should be made for all load-carrying members and components, giving
particular attention to the increased load carried by any member due to eccentricity.
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
2
8-19-3
The critical sections at which computations are made should be approved by the Engineer. In addition to the main
reinforcement, consideration shall be given to:
(1) Sizes, spacing and development length of shear reinforcement.
(2) Development length of and splices in longitudinal reinforcement.
(3) Column moments due to continuous construction or eccentricity of loading.
(4) The bond (development length) requirements in effect at the time the bridge was designed.
For continuous bridges, moments determined by elastic analysis may be redistributed by increasing or decreasing the
negative moments by not more than 20 percent.
b.
This redistribution of moments should follow that given in Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
ACI 318-11 (ACI 318-11M), ART. 8.4 for nonprestressed members or ART 18.10.4 for prestressed members.
For LOAD FACTOR RATINGS the area of tension steel to be used in computing the design moment strength should
not exceed that available at the section. If the area of the tension steel exceeds the reinforcement required for balanced
conditions, then a general analysis is required.
The loads and forces should be computed and are defined as follows:
The dead load should be the weight of the bridge, including the track, ballast, and fill, together with that of any other
loads (mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity).
1
2
a.
The live load should be one of the Cooper E (EM) series. Other standard loading criteria, or a load consisting of a
specific locomotive or other equipment may be used, depending on the purpose for which the rating is being done.
b.
The lateral and longitudinal distribution of the axle loads to the structure should be determined as outlined in Part 2,
this Chapter.
See Commentary
See Commentary
8-19-4
The impact should be determined as outlined in Part 2, or Part 17, this Chapter, as applicable.
b.
Reduction of impact may be allowed as follows: for speeds less than 40 mph (65 km/h) the impact shall be reduced in
a straight-line variation from full effect at 40 mph (65 km/h) to 0.5 of the full effect at 10 mph (15 km/h). The load
rating may be increased by reducing the speed over the structure.
19.4.1.1 General3
a.
The compressive strength of the concrete shall be taken as the 28-day strength of the concrete, if records of same are
available. If there is no record of the compressive strength of the concrete, it shall be assumed as 3,000 psi (20 MPa).
For deteriorated concrete, the compressive strength should be assumed as not more than 2,500 psi (17 MPa), or a lower
value should be used as required by the Engineer.
In the event that the concrete stress proves to be critical, the compressive strength of the concrete may be determined
by Standard Test Methods for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete, ASTM Standard
C42 (C42M), or other methods as determined by the Engineer.
All core holes shall be filled with cementitious material having a 28-day specified compressive strength equal to or
higher than that of the structure, or with a commercial grout approved by the Engineer. Epoxy bonding compound,
meeting the approval of the Engineer, shall be used to bond the new concrete to the existing concrete.
The permissible stress for the concrete shall be taken as 1.2 fc, where fc is the allowable stress as specified in Part 2,
this Chapter.
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
2
8-19-5
Modular ratio n shall be determined as the ratio of elasticity of steel to that of concrete, Es/Ec, as specified in Part 2,
this Chapter.
The applicable concrete design assumptions shall follow those in Part 2, this Chapter.
The following maximum allowable stresses should be used where fy is determined as indicated in Article 19.4.2.2.
Table 8-19-1. Maximum Allowable Stresses
METRIC UNITS
IMPERIAL UNITS
0.8 fy
0.7 fy
0.6 fy
20 ksi
0.8 fy
0.7 fy
0.6 fy
140 MPa
0.7 fy
34 ksi
0.7 fy
230 MPa
24 ksi
20 ksi
165 MPa
140 MPa
0.6 fy
0.6 fy
0.5 fy
20 ksi
0.6 fy
0.6 fy
0.5 fy
140 MPa
24 ksi
20 ksi
165 MPa
140 MPa
24 ksi
20 ksi
165 MPa
140 MPa
The yield strengths of the reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans unless mill test reports of the reinforcement
used in the structure are available. If the reports are available, the yield strength of the reinforcement used in
determining the rating shall be the lowest value shown for the size of bar used at the section being analyzed.
See Commentary
8-19-6
REINFORCING BARS
Imperial
Metric
33 ksi
230 MPa
40 ksi
300 MPa
50 ksi
350 MPa
Grade 60 (400)
60 ksi
400 MPa
Grade 75 (500)
75 ksi
500 MPa
PRESTRESSING STEEL
Imperial
Metric
1) Low-Relaxation
2) Stress-Relieved
243 ksi
230 ksi
1670 MPa
1580 MPa
1) Low-Relaxation
2) Stress-Relieved
225 ksi
213 ksi
1550 MPa
1470 MPa
212 ksi
200 ksi
1460 MPa
1380 MPa
128 ksi
120 ksi
880 MPa
820 MPa
Table 8-19-4. Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength
WELDED WIRE FABRIC OR COLD-DRAWN STEEL WIRE
Imperial
Metric
64 ksi
70 ksi
440 MPa
480 MPa
56 ksi
60 ksi
380 MPa
410 MPa
8-19-7
Table 8-19-4. Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength
WELDED WIRE FABRIC OR COLD-DRAWN STEEL WIRE
Imperial
Metric
75 ksi
510 MPa
70 ksi
480 MPa
The following notations represent the effect, due to the load or force specified, to be considered in the rating of a
railroad bridge. The effects should be determined as stresses for service load rating and as forces for load factor
rating.
D = Dead Load
L = Live Load
I = Impact Load
CF = Centrifugal Force
E = Earth Pressure
B = Buoyancy
W = Wind Force on Structure
WL = Wind Force on Live Load
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
F = Longitudinal Force due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings
SF = Stream Flow Pressure
8-19-8
b.
The rating factor (SLN) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
> S f e 1.2 @ > D + E + B + SF @
SLN = ---------------------------------------------------------------------> L + I + CF @
EQ 19-1
S f > D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F @
SLN = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------> L + I + CF + LF @
EQ 19-2
The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series shall be computed in accordance with the following expression.
For example, if the live load in EQ 19-1 or EQ 19-2 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Normal Rating = SLN u 80 SLNx360
EQ 19-3
b.
This rating factor (SLM) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
S f > D + E + B + SF @
SLM = ----------------------------------------------------> L + I + CF @
EQ 19-4
EQ 19-5
The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series shall be computed in accordance with the following expression.
For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-4 or EQ 19-5 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Maximum Rating = SLM u 80 SLMx360
EQ 19-6
8-19-9
b.
The rating factor (LFN) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
IS N 1.1 D + E + B + SF
LFN = -----------------------------------------------------------------1.3 > 5 e 3 L + I + CF @
EQ 19-7
EQ 19-8
The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series shall be computed in accordance with the following expression.
For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-7 or EQ 19-8 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
EQ 19-9
b.
The rating factor (LFM) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
IS N 1.1 D + E + B + SF
LFM = -----------------------------------------------------------------1.3 L + I + CF
EQ 19-10
EQ 19-11
The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series for full speed shall be computed in accordance with the
following expression. For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-10 or EQ 19-11 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360)
series, then the rating value would be:
Maximum Rating = LFMx80 LFMx360
EQ 19-12
If the normal operating loads exceed those permissible under these rules, the speed and/or the loading should be
restricted so that the permissible loads will not be exceeded; otherwise, appropriate action should be taken until the
bridge is strengthened or replaced. When the operating loads are determined to be close to permissable loads, or when
the physical conditions of the main members or components are marginal, the bridge should be frequently inspected as
long as it is in service.
See Commentary
8-19-10
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this Commentary is to provide additional information and explanation regarding various articles in Part 19
Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges. The numbers after the C - correspond to the Article or Section being explained.
Protection of the investment made in a bridge facility through well programmed preventative maintenance, inspections,
ratings, and repairs is second only to the overall safety of the structure and the traffic it carries. The procedure for
rating requires careful evaluation of a number of complex and often conflicting factors in the continuing effort to
extend the useful life of concrete railroad bridges. The evaluation of bridges should include a detailed inspection, a
thorough structural analysis, and consideration of the degree of control the railroad can exercise over the bridge
loading. This work is to be performed in the interest of obtaining the maximum safe and cost-effective utilization of
the assets of the railroad facility.
b.
Two methods of analysis are allowed. The two methods may not produce the same rating result. It is recommended that
the method used in the initial design also be used for rating taking into account the current state of the bridge. The
method used should be identified for future reference.
c.
The MAXIMUM load rating is the higher level rating, and reflects the absolute maximum permissible load level to
which the structure may be subjected on an infrequent basis. The NORMAL load rating reflects the load level that can
safely utilize an existing structure on a regular basis. Both ratings need to be re-evaluated periodically to account for
ongoing deterioration that may be detected in regular inspections.
Field tests should be made and the results given due consideration in the assessment of the load carrying capacity if
required by the Engineer. For a specific service, the location, history, and behavior of the bridge under investigation
should be taken into account.
Rating of a bridge generally should start with a detailed field inspection. All physical features of the bridge having an
affect upon its structural integrity should be examined. In some cases, a detailed physical inspection may be all that is
required for the Engineer to make a judgment that the bridge is safe for normal, every-day loads. An example could be
a sound concrete bridge carrying normal traffic for many years and shows no distress. Features other than the bridge
itself that may affect the structure should also be observed and noted. For example, a rough or otherwise abrupt
transition between the track on the embankment section and the track on the bridge may cause an increase in the impact
above what would routinely be calculated.
Generally, most bridges requiring load restrictions are either old, or are of insufficient strength as a result of damage.
With some exceptions, the elements of older structures with insufficient strength are usually in the superstructures, not
8-19-11
Under certain specific conditions, negative moments at interior supports of continuous beams may be reduced. Such
reduction must be accompanied by an increase in the positive moments in the adjacent spans equal to the average
decrease in negative moment. Moment redistribution is dependant upon adequate ductility in the plastic hinge regions
to allow plastic hinges to develop. Often, the ductility required to allow redistribution of moments is not available in
members designed by the Working Stress Method.
The total load in any member caused by dead load, live load, and other loads deemed applicable by the Engineer shall
not exceed the member capacity. When it becomes necessary to reduce the allowable live load in order to avoid
exceeding the capacity of the bridge, such a reduction is based upon the assumption that each axle load maintains a
constant relation to the total load. For example, each axle of an E-60 (EM-270) live load is exactly three-fourths of the
magnitude of each corresponding axle of an E-80 (EM360) live load.
A reduced speed of operation may be considered where it is desirable to reduce impact loads. In some cases, a
reduction in speed of operation will reduce impact loads to the extent that decreasing the load rating will not be
required. Consideration of a reduced speed of operation will require the judgment of the Engineer and much will
depend upon the track alignment, the bridge location, as well as the type and volume of traffic. The condition of the
approaching track and the transition from the embankment section to the bridge section may also influence the
selection of an appropriate impact factor.
Longitudinal forces due to train traffic on railway bridges are influenced by a number of factors including: 1) the type
of motive power used, 2) train tonnage, 3) grades, 4) braking forces, 5) likelihood of starting or stopping a train at or
near a particular bridge, and 6) individual railroad operating practices. For further information, see Chapter 8
commentary section on design for longitudinal forces (C -2.2.3(j)), and see related material in Chapter 15.
b.
The longitudinal force in Article 2.2.3(j) is based on E-80 (EM-360) loading. For structures with a live load plus
impact rating different from E-80 (EM-360), the longitudinal force used in the rating is to be reduced or increased by
the ratio of the rating for live load plus impact to E-80 (EM-360).
c.
It is important to trace the load path these forces will follow to the point at which they are taken out of the structure,
and ensure the load path is consistent with compatibility of deflections and rotations.
d.
Longitudinal forces are included in the Group III load case in design. The same load case is used to include
longitudinal forces for rating purposes.
e.
These rating cases cover the extreme events of emergency braking, and starting a train from a static state at maximum
tractive effort. Longitudinal forces applied during normal train operations might be significantly lower. If the rating of
8-19-12
In some cases, such as with compression members or over-reinforced flexural sections, the strength of the concrete
may be the controlling factor in the rating calculation of the member. In such cases, use of an assumed concrete
strength may not be advisable.
Care must be exercised in gathering and interpreting the results of field and laboratory tests. Several issues may play a
part in the evaluation, especially if the test results indicate incipient failure, the need for immediate repairs, or load
rating reduction below acceptable levels. For example, was sampling done properly? Were the location, size, and
number of samples adequate to represent the member being evaluated? Is there a pattern or consistency in the results?
Are other tests or inspections needed to verify results, or to investigate other members in the bridge for similar defects?
Is there a possibility or likelihood other structures on the system have similar problems that may not have been
discovered yet?
These strengths are provided to facilitate rating of bridges with unknown steel reinforcement properties. Records
should exist for most bridges, and these records should be researched in an effort to determine the most accurate data to
use in the bridge rating. The yield strengths given in this section should only be used after an exhaustive search for the
actual records proves unproductive. The values given in this section may also be used as a rough approximation prior
to searching for the actual data.
All bridges should be included in a regular inspection program. More frequent inspections are required for any bridge
with known deficiencies or which is in questionable condition. Also, bridges with no apparent deficiencies loaded at a
level above their NORMAL rating should be subject to more frequent, competent inspections. Several factors may
influence the selection of the load level. For example:
8-19-13
8-19-14
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Part 27
Concrete Slab Track
2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
Description
Page
8-27-7
8-27-7
8-27-7
8-27-8
8-27-8
8-27-8
27.5 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.5.1
Design Considerations (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.5.2
Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.5.3
Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.5.4
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.5.5
Drainage (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-27-8
8-27-8
8-27-9
8-27-9
8-27-9
8-27-9
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.1
Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.2
Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.3
Construction Methods (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.4
Reinforcement Placement (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.5
Concrete Placement (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.6
Curing (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.7
Construction Joints (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.6.8
Installation of Fastener Inserts (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-27-10
8-27-10
8-27-10
8-27-10
8-27-10
8-27-11
8-27-11
8-27-11
8-27-11
8-27-1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
27.6.9
27.6.10
27.6.11
Description
Page
8-27-13
8-27-14
8-27-14
8-27-14
8-27-14
8-27-15
8-27-16
8-27-16
8-27-16
8-27-16
8-27-17
8-27-19
8-27-19
8-27-20
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-27-24
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
8-27-1
8-27-2
8-27-3
8-27-4
8-27-5
8-27-6
8-27-7
8-27-8
Description
Page
8-27-4
8-27-12
8-27-13
8-27-15
8-27-18
8-27-21
8-27-22
8-27-23
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Description
Page
8-27-26
2012,
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
American
2015, American
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-27-2
These recommendations for design and construction of continuously reinforced concrete slab track system provide
guidelines to railroads, rail transit systems, public agencies, consultants, contractors and other interested professionals.
A typical continuously reinforced concrete slab track system is shown in Figure 8-27-1.
CRC
ks
DFF
1
SECTION 27.2 APPLICATION AND DEFINITIONS
27.2.1 APPLICATION (2011)
a.
These recommendations state minimum performance requirements and are applicable for both moderate rolling stock
speed up to 125 mph (200 km/h) and high speed over 125 mph (200 km/h), low axle loads (light rail transit, rail transit
system), medium axle loads (commuter rail-electric or diesel system) and heavy axle loads (freight).
c.
Other types of concrete2 slab tracks which have been used but are not addressed in these recommendations include:
(1) Cast-In-Place Unreinforced or Conventionally Reinforced
(2) Cast-In-Place Post-Tensioned
(3) Precast Reinforced
1
2
See Commentary
See Commentary
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Association
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8-27-4
DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM - A group of components of track structure which directly attaches the
rail to the concrete slab.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH - The maximum resistance to bending of a given cross section.
INSERT - A component of the fastening system which is embedded in the concrete slab. The insert may be installed
by presetting it in the formwork prior to placement of concrete, or inserting it in a hole either drilled, cored or formed
in the slab after concrete has hardened.
LATERAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at the gage side of the rail parallel to the transverse axis of the
slab and perpendicular to the rail. The lateral load shall be assumed to be applied at the base of rail.
LONGITUDINAL LOAD - A load acting along the longitudinal axis of a rail. The longitudinal load shall be assumed
to be applied at the base of rail.
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION (ks) - The modulus of subgrade reaction (also soil "spring" constant or
coefficient of subgrade reaction) is expressed as:
ks = q/y with units of force/length, lb/in (N/mm)
where q = intensity of contact pressure, psi (MPa)
y = soil deformation, in (mm)
The modulus of subgrade reaction can be obtained by performing a plate load test (ASTM D1196) and plotting a curve
of q versus y.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TIE - A tie utilizing precompressed concrete and prestressing tendons.
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u= 1
4
(PY ) (EI)
d
lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
where,
Pd = Dynamic wheel load, lb (N)
E = Modulus of elasticity of rail steel, psi (MPa)
I = Moment of Inertia of Rail Section, in4 (mm4)
Yo = Maximum rail deflection under single wheel load, in (mm).1
VERTICAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at right angles to a line joining the two opposite rail seats and
normal to the longitudinal axis of the rail.
In supporting and guiding railway rolling stock, the track structure shall be adequate to sustain repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces. Hence, in the design of a concrete slab track system, the concrete slab shall be considered
interconnected with other components of the track structure.
b.
Items to consider in the design of the concrete slab track system are:
(1) The concrete slab, rail, fasteners, subbase and subgrade.
(2) The quality of each component, method of manufacture, installation and maintenance.
(3) The direction, magnitude and frequency of traffic induced loads, the effect of environmental factors such as
temperature and weather.
(4) The need to adequately support and safely guide railway rolling stock while sustaining repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces.
(5) Overall economics of installation and maintenance.
1
2
See Commentary
See Commentary
2012,
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
American
2015, American
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-27-6
A properly designed concrete slab track system shall distribute the load uniformly through a layered system of three
distinct materials: compacted subgrade (low stiffness), stabilized subbase (medium stiffness), and reinforced concrete
slab (high stiffness).
Rail, lateral and longitudinal loads shall be as formulated in AREMA Manual Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties, and
modified as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
The width of the slab is a function of the number of tracks, the distance between tracks, and the gage of the tracks.
Other components such as third rail for electrification may affect the width of the slab. For a single track layout with
standard gage, a minimum width dimension of 10.5 feet (3.2 m) is recommended. The thickness of the slab shall be
based on requirements stated in Article 27.5.4.
The subbase pressure on stabilized asphaltic subbase shall not exceed 30 psi (0.2MPa).
The subgrade pressure on well compacted subgrade shall not exceed 20 psi (0.14MPa).
An impact factor of 200 percent shall be used for design of continuously reinforced concrete slab track.
The properties and characteristics of the existing foundation conditions shall be investigated as specified in Part 22,
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
The subgrade material shall preferably be cohesionless, well draining gravel-sand material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be free from organic material, and be suitable to distribute the loads to stratum below. In case of
construction on either existing or new embankment, it is recommended to limit the sandy material to a 1/4 inch (6 mm)
maximum size. However, the No. 200 fines shall be limited to a maximum of 15 percent by weight to reduce
possibility of pumping action and to mitigate frost heave in cold regions.
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
1
2
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8-27-7
Stabilized subbases that have been used successfully include stabilized bituminous (asphalt). Some of the other types
of subbase materials which have been used and may be appropriate, are the following:
(1) Crushed Stone
(2) Granite Stone
(3) Lean Concrete
(4) Cement-Treated Gravel
(5) Cement-Treated Crushed Stone
(6) Expanded Polystyrene Concrete
The minimum 28-day compressive strength of concrete shall be 4000 psi (28MPa) as determined by ASTM C39.
b.
Cement shall be portland cement and shall meet the requirements of ASTM Specification C150. Aggregates and mix
water shall meet the requirements of Chapter 8, Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements. Air entraining
admixtures shall be used in freeze-thaw environments. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used.
c.
Based on requirements of Part 1, consideration shall be given to selection of concrete ingredients and properties that
affect the durability of the concrete slab. These include alkali-aggregate reaction, freezing and thawing, air entraining
agents and other admixtures, and sulfate and adverse chemical reactions.
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements as stipulated in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
b.
When the concrete is subjected to aggressive environments, the top mat of reinforcing steel shall be provided with a
corrosion protection system.
a.
The design procedures shall be as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Moreover, the design of the continuously
reinforced concrete (CRC) slab shall be based on the existing construction technology available in North America for
CRC highway and airfield pavements.
b.
The design can be formulated by using the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks), and elastic theory analytical techniques.
The slab track system generally involves three distinct materials. The compacted subgrade with a low stiffness is
overlaid with a stabilized subbase followed by the CRC slab, which is a stiff structure. This will ensure that the
stresses induced by the rolling stock are minimized in the various layers, enabling the entire track system to perform
satisfactorily. However, in case of subgrade material being sound rock2, the subbase can be eliminated.
See Commentary
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and Maintenance-of-Way
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American
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The following design considerations should be established for any concrete slab track system:
(1) Track must be structurally adequate and capable of maintaining alignment and profile.
(2) The system must be capable of being constructed efficiently and economically.
(3) A fastening assembly with the capability of allowing lateral and vertical adjustments shall be utilized.
(4) Concrete slab must have provision for attaching contact (third) rail assembly for electrification, if required or
expected in the future.
A minimum of 350 lb/in (0.09 N/mm) is suggested as the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) for subgrade, on which
the slab track is to be constructed.
A subbase of one of the types listed in Article 27.4.3 shall be provided between the concrete slab and the finished
subgrade.
The thickness of the concrete slab shall be established by considering both the fatigue effect and the static wheel load,
for 50,000 Cooper E-80 (EM-360) loadings for 50 years, or loading as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
b.
In calculating the longitudinal bending stiffness (EI) of the concrete slab about the neutral axis of the slab cross section,
the tensile strength of concrete shall be assumed to be zero.
c.
(1) Bending and shear stresses produced by wheel loads (live load plus impact).
(2) Longitudinal stresses induced as a result of anchoring continuous welded rail (CWR) to the concrete slab.
(3) Warping stresses (temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab).
d. Adequate reinforcement shall be provided to ensure that the cracks in concrete do not exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), so
that the passage of water or moisture to reinforcement is minimized. In addition, longitudinal reinforcement shall be
sufficient to maintain aggregate interlock for transfer of the load at the crack locations.
The slab track shall be designed to provide for transverse drainage to the edges of the slab. To reduce infiltration of
water under the slab, a paved ditch shall be provided between individual slab tracks.
b.
Drainage water shall be collected in a paved ditch. Water shall be discharged through sub-invert pipes to an external
discharge system for an at-grade concrete slab.
Rock quality shall be as defined in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, sub-article 22.4.3 (d), of Chapter 8.
See Commentary
See Commentary
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Association
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For concrete slab on embankment, drop inlets shall be provided in the embankment discharging to a positive drainage
system. To reduce embankment erosion, paved ditches shall be installed adjacent to the slab.
d.
In tunnel construction, a trough shall be provided in the center of the slab with a longitudinal slope to drain through
sub-invert pipe(s), which discharge to a positive drainage system.
All materials susceptible to frost heave shall be removed to at least 24 inches (610 mm) depth below subbase and
replaced with frost free cohesionless material. The subgrade should be compacted in order to achieve a minimum ks
value of 350 lb/in (0.09 N/mm).
b.
If the construction is on a new embankment, the top 24 inches (610 mm) at a minimum shall be granular material. Soil
for embankment shall be placed in layers not thicker than 9 inches (230 mm) and compacted to 95 percent of maximum
density obtained by the Standard Proctor Method (ASTM 698). Soils having a moisture content in excess of 2 percent
above optimum moisture content as determined by Modified Proctor Method (ASTM 1557), shall be unacceptable as
an embankment material. When the construction entails placement on an existing embankment, all load bearing soil
material in the frost zone shall be removed and replaced with cohesionless granular material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be compacted to achieve the specified ks value.
A minimum 4 inches (100 mm) thick subbase material as determined by geotechnical evaluation, shall be laid over the
finished subgrade. The subbase shall project 2 feet (610 mm) beyond each side of the concrete slab.
The contractor shall be responsible for means and methods of construction. There are basically two types of
construction methods used for installing direct-fixation fastener system on concrete surfaces: Bottom-Up and TopDown.
The bottom-up construction is generally used when the concrete slab track has already been poured. This conventional
approach involves installing formwork and reinforcements in place, placing concrete, coring/drilling for fastener
inserts, fitting rail fasteners to cast concrete and shimming/adjusting rail to final position.
The top-down construction entails pre-assembling (skeletonized) track and setting the rail and the fasteners to a final
line and surface on temporary supports and then pouring the concrete as a final operation.
Steel reinforcement shall be placed on chairs in two layers, with the main longitudinal reinforcement divided between
the bottom and top layers. Longitudinal steel shall be spliced in tension only as specified under Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, of Chapter 8. Transverse bars shall be spaced as necessary in the top and bottom layers. Steel
reinforcing bars shall be placed so as to be clear of the drilling/coring areas, using special templates for marking hole
locations, both before and after concrete placement. This technique will minimize damage or cutting of reinforcing
steel which may be encountered during the concrete drilling or coring operation.
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2015, American
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It is recommended that in order to achieve the proper tolerances, conventional highway paving forms be utilized. For
large projects, the use of slipform paving equipment may be warranted, for obtaining higher production rates for
concrete placement. Paving equipment shall include vibrating screed and associated components necessary to obtain
the required slab cross section. The paving equipment train can be mounted on adjustable screed rails, accurately set
by a surveyor for both horizontal and vertical alignments. Concrete should be consolidated by internal vibrators.
b.
In order to minimize shimming and/or grinding of concrete, it is recommended that tight vertical tolerance of +0 inches
(+0 mm) and -1/4 inches (-6 mm) be required of the finished concrete. Careful attention should be paid to obtain the
required finish tolerances when using slipform paving equipment.
c.
The concrete can be placed either in a single pour method, a two separate pour sequence, or a recessed two pour
method, which can maximize clearance in tunnel construction.
d.
The two pours (sections) shall be adequately attached to each other by dowels and an adhesive bonding material.
The curing of concrete shall be as specified under Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
The following provisions shall be specified, when construction joints are required at the end of a day's concrete
placement.
(1) Construction joints shall not be closer than 5 feet (1.5 m) from splices in longitudinal reinforcement.
(2) Transverse reinforcement shall be doubled for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction joint.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be increased by one third for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction
joint.
(4) Formed keys or dowel bars can also be used to prevent differential settlement.
Inserts may be installed by presetting them in the formwork, by means of a template, prior to the placement of
concrete. Accurately locate female inserts, into which fastener hold down bolts can be threaded, prior to casting the
slab. After casting, the tops of the inserts must be flush with the slab surface. The surface around the inserts shall be
smooth and flat, providing a satisfactory bearing area for the rail fasteners. A variation of this method would be to castin-place rail holding devices (shoulders).
b. An alternative method is the installation of inserts after placement and curing of concrete, either by drilling or coring
holes. Percussion drilling is not permitted. Precision must be exercised in locating and drilling/coring of holes into
which inserts (or anchor bolts) are installed.
c.
It is recommended that slab drilling or coring for fastener inserts be performed after the initial shrinkage of the
concrete has occurred and the 28 day specified compressive strength has been obtained. Slight adjustment in spacing of
inserts may be permitted to avoid existing shrinkage cracks.
d.
The inserts shall be held plumb in the hole, either by templates or other means, and the hole filled with an adhesive
material. Fastener inserts may be epoxy coated to provide additional electrical insulation.
2012, American
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
2015,American
RailwayRailway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-27-11
2012,
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
American
2015, American
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
8-27-12
The inserts which attach the rail fastener to the slab track are subject to pull-out forces generated by bolt torque,
vertical uplift forces produced by a passing train, and forces produced by thermal conditions.
For rail fastener bolts, or female inserts that are embedded in concrete and rely on concrete tensile strength for pull-out
resistance, the tensile stress in the concrete at maximum pull-out load shall not exceed 6 percent fc, where fc =
compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa).
b.
In order to determine the load capacity of an anchoring system, tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM
E1512. A mock-up test shall be required to simulate the in-situ conditions, with satisfactory results.
c.
A minimum of 10 percent of the inserts shall be randomly tested for a pull-out force of not less than 14,000 lb (62,300
N). In case of inserts failing pull-out testing, the percentage of inserts being tested shall be increased, as per judgement
of the Engineer. The test load shall be applied in three equal increments. The final load shall be held constant for one
minute and the epoxy, concrete and insert inspected for distress.
d.
If no drop in gage pressure occurs after one minute, the insert shall be accepted. If the insert fails to meet the pull-out
strength, then it shall be cored out and replaced with a new insert. The pull-out tests shall be performed using the
Restrained Test as shown in Figure 8-27-3.
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Screw anchor bolt into insert, tight against lock nut. Apply 600 foot-pounds (813 N-m) torque to the anchor bolt head.
b.
The insert shall be considered acceptable, if it shows no evidence of rotational movement in the concrete.
After installation of inserts, the finished surface of concrete shall be surveyed, and if necessary, grinding the high spots
of concrete may be required. If the concrete finished surface is lower than that required, then shim pads up to a
maximum height of 3/8 in (9 mm) can be placed under the fastener at the discretion of the Engineer. The inserts
(anchor bolts) shall be checked for vertical plumbness and correct location prior to the placement of rail fasteners. Rail
fasteners shall then be installed.
Continuous welded rail (CWR), the weight and type to be determined by the individual agency, may be delivered on
work trains with factory welded sections and shall be carefully placed on the fasteners. As an alternative, the rail can
be entirely field welded at the project site to form continuous welded rails.
b.
Changes in temperature of CWR will develop stresses in the rail and the concrete slab. Rail is typically installed at a
high neutral temperature, to reduce the risk of rail buckling at high temperatures and rail pull-apart at low
temperatures.
c.
The suggested procedure, during low temperatures, is that each section of the CWR be heated at installation to a
predetermined temperature, in order to ensure that the rail will remain in tension a large percentage of the time. The
base of the rail shall be secured to the direct fixation fastener, with elastic clips.
d.
It is suggested that the Engineer should refer to the detail guidelines of Chapter 5, Track, for the handling, transporting,
laying and construction of CWR.
Rail fasteners for installation under the continuous welded rail shall satisfy the following:
(1) Allow for vertical and lateral adjustment, if required.
(2) Provide resilience that will reduce the effect of dynamic impact on the track structure, minimize vibrations, absorb
energy and reduce noise.
(3) Maintain a consistent clamping force on the rail to provide resistance to rail creep, and maintain rail alignment.
(4) Provide the required electrical insulation for electrified and/or signalized railways.
(5) Exhibit resistance to track environment (weather, oil, etc.).
See Commentary
2012,
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
Association
American
2015, American
Railway
Engineering
and Maintenance-of-Way
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8-27-14
There are a variety of rail fasteners of different design and capabilities available. It is recommended that for slab track
construction the direct fixation fasteners with satisfactory in-service performance history be installed. As an
alternative, new direct fixation fasteners which have satisfactory passed extensive laboratory testing may be used.
b.
The type of direct fixation fastener to be specified shall be a function of the slab track operating environment (main
line, yard, etc.), axle load, train speeds and maintenance considerations. Figure 8-27-4 shows a typical direct fixation
fastener envelope.
See Commentary
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The vertical spring rate, K, of direct fixation fasteners normally ranges from 90,000 pounds/inch (15.8 kN/mm) which
is considered as soft pad to 300,000 pounds/inch (52.5 kN/mm) which is considered a hard pad. The slope of the loaddeflection curve (the fastener spring rate) shall be within 20 percent of a constant slope calculated at each 1000 pounds
(4450 N) increment (secant modulus between two given load points).
b.
The selection of a spring rate for a fastener shall be determined by the individual railroad based on its operating needs,
requirements and practice.
Elastic clips shall be used in combination with direct fixation fasteners, in order to attach the base of the rail to the
fasteners.
b.
The recommended toe load for elastic clips shall be in the range of 2200 pounds (9800 N) to 3200 pounds (14,240 N).
The laboratory testing requirements are comprehensively covered in AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering,
Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties.
b.
It is recommended that the Engineer adhere to Chapter 30, with modifications as deemed appropriate.
Transition areas such as behind abutments at bridge approaches or at change of track structure from slab track to wood
tie track require special considerations.
b.
Factors to be considered in the design of transition areas are: susceptibility of backfill soil material to settlement
behind bridge abutments, difference in track modulus between stiff (concrete slab) track, and soft (wood tie) track,
respectively.
c.
In the case of bridge abutments, a sub-surface approach slab adequately reinforced and varying in thickness from 18 in
(450 mm) at bridge abutment to 12 in (300 mm) at the opposite end, for a length of 25 feet (7.5 m), may be installed as
detailed in Figure 8-27-5.
d.
Where change of track structure from concrete slab to wood tie track occurs, a sub-surface concrete slab of similar
design features as in (c) above, may be installed starting from the end of the concrete slab track and carried below the
wood track structure a length of at least 20 ft (6 meters).
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
1
2
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Expansion joints are recommended at slab ends to handle slab movements at bridge sites and at ends of the slab track
construction.
b.
The slab track can be terminated 25 feet (7.5 m) from bridge abutment approaches, if the bridge is at the end of the slab
track. Transverse reinforcing steel shall be doubled for a 15 feet (4.5 m) distance from slab ends. A galvanized
structural steel inverted T-section shall be installed in a 10 feet (3 m) long reinforced concrete slab that supports one
end of the slab track. The structural steel inverted T-section shall have expansion joints that permit up to a 3 in (75
mm) expansion and a 2 in (50 mm) contraction. Expansion material shall be installed in the expansion joints. Refer to
Figure 8-27-5 as one example for design details.
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8-27-18
This section is applicable to straight, simply supported concrete deck bridges of spans up to 75 feet (23 m). If it is
required to continue the concrete slab track over a bridge deck, the following provisions shall be addressed:
(1) In order to minimize slab cracking and to permit sliding of bridge deck under the concrete slab track, it is
imperative to reduce friction at the interface between the bottom of the slab track and top of the bridge deck
concrete.
(2) Provide two layers of bituminous material separated by two sheets of polyethylene between slab and bridge
decking.
(3) As an alternative, teflon may be used as a friction reducing material, if additional cost considerations are
acceptable.
In existing tunnels, the following two types of track structures are generally encountered:
(1) Type (A) Concrete tunnel invert with ballast and ties.
(2) Type (B) Half wood ties embedded in concrete tunnel invert.
b.
The following reconstruction methodology can be used to modify the tunnel invert:
(1) Type (A) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove ballast and cross ties.
(b) If additional vertical clearance is required or the top section of concrete invert consists of unsuitable or
deteriorated concrete, it shall be removed until sound matrix of concrete is reached. If reinforcing steel is
encountered, remove the steel and replace it with new bars.
See Commentary
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Single-pour method
b.
c.
Two-pour method
d.
Figure 8-27-6 shows Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing Tunnel Invert.
Figure 8-27-7 shows Single-Pour method of construction of a new Tunnel Slab Track.
Figure 8-27-8 shows a New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.
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3
Figure 8-27-6. Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert.
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C - COMMENTARY
C - 27.1.1 Scope (2011)
A concrete slab track can provide improvements over a conventional track system, and solutions to the problems of costly
track maintenance, increasing axle loads, and faster operating speed.
A concrete slab track system consisting of a continuously reinforced concrete slab, supported on a subbase and compacted
subgrade, is one example of an improved track structure.
A slab track system provides the following advantages:
(1) Elimination of those components with inherent weakness that require periodic maintenance such as ballast, ties, tie
plates and spikes.
(2) Rail fasteners with better lateral and longitudinal restraint characteristics are used.
(3) Load is distributed more uniformly on the subgrade, thus settlement is reduced.
(4) Proper line and surface are maintained, thus reducing need for surfacing and lining.
(5) When combined with continuous welded rail, ride quality is improved, and faster operating speeds are possible.
(6) Reduced maintenance results in less traffic disruption.
(7) Due to improved track structure, rolling stock encounters less wear and tear, and thus, requires less maintenance.
C - 27.2.1 (c) Other Types of Concrete Slab Tracks (2011)
A Floating slab design incorporates elastomeric pads which separate, and therefore isolate and dampen, the rail support slab
from the underlying concrete sub-slab. Floating slab track system as show in Figure 8-27-8 is an effective and reliable
solution for mitigating mechanical vibrations and ground-borne noise generated by rolling stock.
An Embedded Slab Track system, consists of dual tie blocks, set in rubber boots using microcellular pads locked-in with a
second pour of concrete.
Some of the slab track systems in use are proprietary in nature, such as: Individual Dual Block Track and Precast Reinforced
and Precast Pretensioned both developed in Europe and used in various systems around the world.
C - 27.2.2 Definitions (1999)
Track Modulus (u)
The value of modulus of elasticity of rail support (u) for directly fixed track is dependent upon the moment of inertia of the rail
section and the amount of deflection obtained by the compression of the fastener pad.
The allowable deflection of a rubber pad is limited to 15 percent of its uncompressed thickness. Direct fixation fasteners
presently in service use 1/2 in (12 mm) pads. These pads allow a maximum deflection of 0.075 in (2 mm).
Track Modulus for slab track systems are generally in the range of 8,000 lb/in/in (55 N/mm/mm) to 10,000 lb/in/in (70
N/mm/mm).
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Slab
Depth
inches
(mm)
Slab
Stiffness
EI
lb-in2
(N-m2)
6
(152)
516 x 107
(1.48 x107)
0.047
(1.19)
9600
(67.2)
0.022
(0.55)
1025
(7.17)
10.85
(0.076)
18
(457)
13,380 x107
(3.971 x107)
0.044
(1.11)
9150
(64.0)
0.018
(0.46)
800
(5.6)
9.15
(0.064)
Rail
Peak Rail
Slab
Slab Slab Bearing
Deflection Stress Deflection Stress Pressure
inches
psi
inches
psi
psi
(mm)
(MPa)
(mm)
(MPa)
(MPa)
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stresses in slab
Longitudinal Reinforcement (2011)
Selection of percentage of steel should be based on the following considerations:
The reinforcement should help the slab resist train loads.
Crack width not to exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), in order to limit corrosion by minimizing passage of water or
moisture to reinforcement.
Given contraction of the slab, the tensile stresses in the reinforcement should be within elastic range.
a.
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Longitudinal reinforcement to prevent cracks from widening and reinforcement at the crack location must be less than
its yield point, say fsy = 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is
required, the use of softer pads may be more desirable However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads,
and the objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may
be more appropriate.
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4
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES (2011)
1 Slab Track Field Test and Demonstration Program for Shared Freight and High Speed Passenger Service,
PCA, R & D Serial No. 2988, 2007.
2 Performance of Direct-Fixation Track Structure, Design Guidelines, Battelle, Ohio, April 1999.
3 Paving Alternatives to Ballasted Track, Heiner H. Moehren, AREA, Volume 98, Bulletin 762, December
1997.
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Part 28
Temporary Structures for Construction
2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article
28.1 General
28.1.1
28.1.2
28.1.3
28.1.4
28.1.5
28.1.6
Description
Page
...............................................................................
Scope (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criteria (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Qualifications (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Responsibility (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Temporary Structures (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Falsework (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8-28-13
8-28-13
8-28-14
8-28-15
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8-28-17
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8-28-1
Description
Page
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-28-18
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
8-1
Description
Page
8-28-7
This Part provides a recommended practice for the design of the most commonly used temporary structures. Other
types of temporary structures may be used with the approval of the Engineer. This Part is intended for SERVICE
LOAD DESIGN only.
b.
Temporary structures are defined as those structures used to facilitate the construction of a permanent structure. The
temporary structures addressed by this Part are primarily shoring and falsework systems. This Part is intended for
evaluating earth pressure loading, tieback anchor design, wall design, stability considerations and corrosion protection
requirements.
c.
All temporary structures anticipated to be in service for more than an 18-month period are not within the scope of this
Part.
d.
Temporary bridges to carry railroad traffic shall be designed as permanent structures and are not included in this Part.
All temporary structures shall be designed and constructed to provide safe support and adequate rigidity for the loads
imposed.
b. All temporary structures shall be constructed with minimal interference to the operating tracks.
The Contractor shall be solely responsible for the design, construction and performance of a temporary structure unless
it is provided by others.
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8-28-2
Designs completed by the Contractor shall be submitted to the Engineer, including working drawings and design
calculations for the temporary structures. The drawings and calculations shall be signed and sealed by a Registered
Professional Engineer. The temporary structure(s) shall follow the lines, grades and location as shown on the plans.
The temporary structure(s) shall be designed to conform to the right-of-way and easement restrictions provided and
shall protect facilities and utilities shown on the plans or known to exist.
c.
Review by the Engineer of the Contractors designs and working drawings shall in no way relieve the Contractor of full
responsibility for the temporary structure, or its effect upon other adjacent facilities.
A cantilever sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded.
b. An anchored sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded and the tensile resistance of the anchor. Anchors may
be cement-grouted tiebacks or other types of anchors acceptable to the Engineer.
A cantilever soldier beam with lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and
derives stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded.
c.
Soldier beams include steel H-piles, wide flange sections or other fabricated sections that are driven or set in concrete
in drilled holes. Lagging refers to the members spanning between soldier beams.
An anchored soldier beam and lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives
stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded and the tensile resistance of the
anchors.
d. Anchored soldier beam with lagging walls are generally designed as flexible structures which have sufficient lateral
movement to mobilize active earth pressures and a portion of the passive pressure.
e.
f.
A braced excavation is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from passive
resistance of the soil in which the vertical members are embedded and from the structural capacity of the bracing
members. The vertical members of the braced excavation system include steel sheet piling or soldier beams comprised
of steel H-piles, wide-flange sections, or other fabricated sections that are driven or installed in drilled holes. Wales are
horizontal structural members designed to transfer lateral loads from the vertical members to the struts. Struts are
structural compression members that support the lateral loads from the wales.
A cofferdam is an enclosed temporary structure used to keep water and soil out of an excavation for a permanent
structure such as a bridge pier or abutment or similar structure. Cofferdams may be constructed of timber, steel,
concrete or a combination of these. This Part considers cofferdams primarily constructed with steel sheet piles.
Falsework is defined in general terms as a temporary construction work on which a main or permanent work is wholly
or partially supported until it becomes self-supporting.
b.
8-28-3
Conventional falsework typically consists of timber posts and caps, timber bracing, and either timber or steel stringers
and timber joists. Foundation support is usually provided by timber pads or sills set on the surface of the ground,
although poor soil conditions may require the use of concrete footings, or by steel sills designed to distribute the loads
to adequate timber pads or cribbing.
b.
Large-diameter, typically 20 inches (500 mm) or more, welded steel pipe columns are occasionally used to support
steel caps and girders. When properly braced, pipe columns may provide an economical design when falsework is tall
and spans are long.
c.
Patented steel shoring typically consists of individual components that may be assembled into modular units and
erected in place to make any desired falsework configuration. When erected, the shoring consists of a series of
internally-braced steel towers which, either directly or through a cap system, support the load-carrying members.
d.
Depending on load-carrying capacity, steel shoring systems are classified as pipe-frame shoring, heavy-duty shoring or
intermediate strength shoring. For bridge falsework the use of pipe-frame shoring is limited to installations where
tower leg loads do not exceed 11 kips (49 kN). In contrast, a properly designed heavy-duty shoring system will be
capable of supporting loads of 100 kips (445 kN) per tower leg. Intermediate strength shoring will have a load carrying
capacity of up to 25 kips (111 kN) per tower leg. Typically, timber caps and stringers are used with pipe-frame
intermediate strength systems, whereas rolled-beams or welded plate girders will be more economical for the longer
spans which are possible with heavy-duty shoring. Pipe-frame shoring is usually supported on timber pads; however,
the larger leg loads associated with heavy-duty shoring will require, depending on soil conditions, solid timber cribbing
or reinforced concrete footings.
8-28-4
Cantilever sheet pile walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular soils or stiff
clays.
b.
If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track the wall should be at least 10 feet (3 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height should not exceed 10 feet (3 m). Depth of disturbed soil shall not be considered for
passive resistance.
a.
The total depth of embedment D shall be determined as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.3 of this Chapter. The
coefficient of passive resistance Kp shall be multiplied by 0.66 to provide a factor of safety of 1.5.
b.
Conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, potential for overall
instability, scour or erosion shall be taken into account, and the depth of embedment increased to not less than the
height of the wall.
See Commentary
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
2
8-28-5
Sheet Pile Section: 2/3 tensile yield strength for new steel. Allowable stresses shall be reduced depending on the extent
of usage for reused material.
b. All other structural material shall comply with applicable parts of this AREMA Manual.
Cantilever soldier beam with lagging walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular
soils or stiff clays.
b.
If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track, the wall should be at least 13 feet (4.0 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height shall not exceed 8 feet (2.4 m).
The total depth of embedment D shall be determined using the guidelines given in Article 28.5.1.2 except that the
pressure distribution on the soldier piles below the excavation elevation shall be adjusted based on their equivalent
width. The equivalent width for passive pressure shall be assumed to equal the width of the soldier pile multiplied by a
factor of 3 for granular soils and a factor of 2 for cohesive soils. The width of the soldier piles shall be taken as the
width of the flange or diameter for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled hole for sections encased in
concrete. Also, when determining the passive pressure distribution on the soldier piles, a depth of 1.5 times the width
of the soldier pile in soil, and a depth of one foot in rock below the excavation elevation, shall not be considered in
providing passive lateral support.
b.
For conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, the potential for
overall instability, scour or erosion, shall be taken into account and the depth of embedment increased.
1
2
See Commentary
See Commentary
8-28-6
The design load on the lagging is the theoretical pressure computed to act on it. When arch action can form in the soil
behind the lagging (i.e., in granular or stiff cohesive soils where there is sufficient space to permit the in-place soil to
arch and the back side of the soldier piles bear directly against the soil) the moment computed based on simple end
supports may be reduced by one third.
b.
pa
pa
pa
8-28-7
The width of the soldier beam shall be assumed to be equal to the width of the flange for driven sections and the shaft
diameter of the drilled sections. The resultant passive resistance of a soldier beam assumes that passive resistance is
mobilized across an equivalent width described in Article 28.5.3.2, Paragraph a. The effects of backfill compaction and
surcharge loads applied to the surface behind the wall shall be considered in the design earth pressure. The design
stresses shall be in accordance with the current edition of Chapter 15 of the Manual.
c.
The unbonded tendon length shall extend beyond the critical failure surface and be a minimum of 15 feet (4.6 m) in
length. The critical failure surface starts at the bottom of the excavation. The wall-anchor system shall be checked for
adequate stability. The overall stability of the earth mass being retained shall be checked and shall have a minimum
factor of safety of 1.3.
28.5.4.2 Submittals
The drawings shall include all details, dimensions, cross-sections, and sequence of construction necessary to construct the
wall. The drawings and calculations shall include, but not be limited to:
a.
A description of the tieback installation including drilling, grouting and stressing information;
b. Anchor capacity, type of tendon, anchorage hardware, minimum unbonded lengths, minimum anchor lengths, angle of
installation and tieback locations and spacings;
c.
d. A section view indicating the elevation at the top and bottom of the wall and the centerline of track including all
horizontal and vertical dimensions;
e.
A plan view of the wall indicating the offset from the construction and track centerlines to the face of the wall at all
changes in horizontal alignment;
f.
All details for construction of drainage facilities associated with the wall clearly indicated;
g.
Soldier beams may be installed by driving with impact or vibration hammers or set in predrilled holes and encased with
concrete below subgrade elevation and with lean concrete backfill above subgrade elevation. Encasement below
subgrade level shall be concrete with a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa). Methods and
equipment used for soldier beam installations shall be determined by the Contractor. The effect on existing structures
should be considered.
b.
For driven soldier beams, leads or spuds shall be centered in such a manner as to afford freedom of movement to the
hammer and shall be rigged to hold the soldier beam and hammer in alignment during driving. The soldier beam shall
be driven with equipment which will ensure a properly distributed hammer impact on the soldier beam and prevent
damage while driving.
c.
For drilled-in soldier beams, side wall stability shall be maintained during drilling. If required by soil and water
conditions, provide casing for hole excavation. Provide casing of sufficient strength to withstand handling stresses,
lean concrete backfill pressure and surrounding earth and/or water pressure. Drilling mud may also be used to maintain
side wall stability of soldier beam holes subject to the approval of the Railroad. Pump water from drill holes.
Contractors may use tremie methods in lieu of pumping water.
8-28-8
Soldier beams may be furnished in full-length sections or may be spliced according to the method of splicing as shown
on the plans. Field welding will be allowed only in accordance with the requirements for welding as specified in AWS
D1.1, except as amended on the plans.
e.
Structural welding of steel, steel reinforcement and soldier beams shall be made by personnel qualified to perform the
type of welding involved in accordance with the qualification procedure of AWS D1.1 and D1.4, except as amended on
the plans.
This section deals primarily with cofferdams constructed with steel sheet piles. This section applies to the case where
the water level lies above the soil or rock level such as in rivers, lakes and bays.
b. A single-wall cofferdam consists of a single wall of sheet piling driven in the form of an enclosure. Single-walled
cofferdams shall be designed as flexible sheet pile bulkheads or braced excavations.
c.
A double-walled cofferdam consists of two rows of steel sheet piling driven parallel to each other and tied to each other
with anchors and wales. Double wall cofferdams shall be designed similar to single-wall cofferdams. The two rows of
sheet piles shall not be assumed to share equally in resisting the outside pressure unless concrete fill or rigid bracing is
used between them. The use of double-wall cofferdams over single-wall cofferdams is usually to provide increased
water tightness.
d. A cellular cofferdam consists of soil-filled interconnected circular or diaphragm cells constructed of steel sheet piling.
Cellular cofferdams are designed as gravity retaining structures.
28.5.6.2 Required Data
The required information about the site includes the following:
High water elevation
Velocity of water flow
Wave height and period
8-28-9
See Commentary
8-28-10
1 to 1
Silty coarse-grained
2 to 1
Fine-grained
3 to 1
28.5.6.5.3 Sliding
Cofferdams shall be investigated for sliding at the base. The resisting forces shall consist of the frictional resistance of the soil
along the bottom of the cofferdam, the passive resistance of soil on the inboard face, and the passive resistance of a berm, if
any, on the inboard face. The unit weight of the soil below the saturation line shall be the submerged unit weight.
28.5.6.5.4 Overturning
Cofferdams shall be investigated for overturning about the inboard toe. The resultant of the applied forces and the cell weight
shall lie within the middle one-third of the cofferdam.
Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for vertical shear failure on the centerline of the cells. The total shearing force, Q,
on the neutral plane at the centerline of the cell shall be as follows:
Q = 3M/2E
b.
The shearing force, Q, shall be resisted by vertical shear within the cell fill and friction in the interlocks of the sheeting.
In computing the vertical shear resistance of the fill material, the coefficient of earth pressure, K, shall be as follows:
2
coscos
I 2IK = ---------------------2-cos2I
2 cos I
I = angle of internal friction of cell fill
8-28-11
The total centerline shear force resistance of the cell fill per unit length of cofferdam shall be the resultant lateral force
due to soil fill material multiplied by tanI. The frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks per unit length of
cofferdam shall be the interlock tension multiplied by the coefficient of friction of the interlocks.
Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for tilting failure through horizontal shear in the cell fill material. The resisting
moments shall be those due to the lateral resistance of the cell fill, the frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks,
and the passive resistance of the berm if one is used.
b.
The lateral resisting moment, M, of the cell fill about the base of the cofferdam shall be:
M = s
c.
height of cofferdam
The resisting moment due to frictional resistance of the interlocks shall be the interlock tension multiplied by the
coefficient of friction of the interlocks multiplied by the equivalent width of the cofferdam.
The hoop or interlock forces for circular cells and connecting arcs shall be calculated by the following equation:
T =
PR
b.
The lateral pressure may be taken as maximum at 1/4 the height from the mudline to the top of the cofferdam.
c.
The interlock force at the connection of arc to circular cell shall be calculated by the following equation:
Tc =
PLsec )
Tc
angle between centerline of cells and a line from center of cell to point on cell
periphery where connecting arc is attached.
2015, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
8-28-12
The interlock tension shall not exceed the manufacturer's recommended values.
e.
The maximum coefficient of friction of steel on steel at the interlocks shall not exceed 0.3.
Cofferdams for foundation construction shall be carried well below the bottom of the excavation or as far below the
bottom of the excavation as conditions will permit and shall be well braced and as watertight as practical. The interior
dimensions of cofferdams shall provide sufficient clearance inside the wales for constructing forms, driving piles,
pumping outside the forms, and inspection.
b.
Cofferdams which are tilted or moved out of position by any cause during the process of construction shall be righted
or enlarged as necessary.
c.
No bracing which will induce stress, shock, or vibration in the permanent structure will be permitted in cofferdams.
d.
Cellular cofferdams with diaphragm walls shall be filled equally on each side of the diaphragm walls to avoid
distortion of the cells.
e.
After completion of the construction, the cofferdams with all sheeting and bracing shall be removed as directed by the
Engineer or as shown on the plans. Such removal shall be done in a manner that will not disturb or mar the permanent
structure.
1
SECTION 28.6 DESIGN OF FALSEWORK SYSTEMS
28.6.1 REVIEW AND APPROVAL OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS (2015)
a.
Falsework design drawings and calculations prepared by, or for an outside agency covering falsework adjacent to or
over Railroad's operating tracks shall be certified to be complete and satisfactory to the submitting agency prior to
being submitted to the Railroad.
b.
There shall be sufficient detail in the drawings to permit a complete stress analysis. In particular, the drawings shall
show the size of all load-supporting members; all lateral and longitudinal bracing, including connections; the method
of adjustment; and similar design features.
c.
All design-controlling dimensions shall be shown, including, but not limited to, beam length; beam spacing; post
location and spacing; vertical distance between connectors in diagonal bracing; overall height of falsework bents; and
similar dimensions critical to the analysis.
d.
Minimum horizontal and vertical clearances to the centerline of all tracks, tops of rails and adjacent facilities shall be
shown on the plans.
Where cast-in-place concrete will be supported by falsework, a diagram showing the placing sequence and
construction joint locations shall be provided. When a schedule of placing concrete is shown on the contract plans, no
deviation will be permitted without the approval of the design engineer.
e.
When footing type foundations are to be used, the Contractor shall determine the bearing value of the soil and shall
show the values assumed in the design of the falsework on the falsework drawings.
f.
Anticipated total settlements of the falsework and forms shall be shown on the falsework drawings.
8-28-13
Falsework footings shall be designed to carry the load imposed upon them without exceeding the estimated soil
bearing values and anticipated settlements. Refer to Part 3 of this Chapter for allowable soil pressures of various
material and settlements.
h.
When falsework will be supported on pile bents, the required pile capacity and the maximum allowable driving
tolerances shall be shown.
i.
The support systems for form panels supporting concrete deck slabs and overhangs on girder bridges shall also be
considered to be falsework and designed as such.
j.
The falsework drawings shall show all openings which are required through the falsework. Horizontal and vertical
clearances shall be adequate and be shown on the plans.
k.
Temporary bracing shall be provided to all falsework bents adjacent to the operating tracks, and shall be designed to
withstand all imposed loads during erection, construction and removal. Wind loads shall be included in the design of
such bracing.
l.
In addition to the falsework drawings, the design engineer shall submit a copy of design calculations. The design
calculations shall show the stresses and deflections of all load-supporting members. Calculations furnished by the
design engineer are for information only, rather than for review and acceptance. Accordingly, design and/or
construction details, which may be shown in the form of sketches with the calculation sheets, shall be shown on the
falsework drawings as well; otherwise the drawings will not be considered complete.
The design loads for falsework shall consist of the sum of dead and live vertical loads, and the assumed horizontal
load. The minimum total design load for any falsework shall be not less than 100 pounds per square foot (4.8 kPa) for
the combined live and dead load regardless of slab thickness.
b.
Dead load shall include the weight of concrete, reinforcing steel, forms and falsework. The weight (mass density) of
concrete, reinforcing steel and forms shall be assumed to be not less than 160 pounds per cubic foot (2600 kg/m3) for
normal concrete.
c.
Live loads shall consist of the actual weight of equipment to be supported by the falsework applied as concentrated
loads at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less than 20 pounds per square foot (960 Pa) applied over the
area supported, plus 75 pounds per linear foot (1100 N/m) applied at the outside edge of deck overhangs.
d.
The assumed horizontal load to be resisted by the falsework bracing system shall be the sum of the actual horizontal
loads due to equipment, construction sequence or other causes and an allowance for wind, but in no case shall the
assumed horizontal load to be resisted in any direction be less than 2 percent of the total dead load.
e.
The falsework shall be designed so that it will have sufficient rigidity to resist the assumed horizontal load without
considering the weight of the supported structure.
f.
The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on each heavy-duty steel shore having a vertical load carrying
capacity exceeding 30 kips (133 kN) per leg shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area, shape factor, and
the applicable wind pressure value for each height zone. The wind impact area is the total projected area of all the
elements in the tower face normal to the applied wind. The shape factor for heavy-duty shoring shall be taken as 2.2.
Wind pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
8-28-14
WIND PRESSURE
g.
Height Zone
Distance above ground
Shores Adjacent to
Traffic Openings
At Other Locations
0 to 30 ft. (0 to 9 m)
30 to 50 ft. (9 to 16 m)
The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on all other types of falsework, including falsework supported on
heavy-duty shoring, shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area and the applicable wind pressure value for
each height zone. The wind impact area is the gross projected area of the falsework and any unrestrained portion of the
permanent structure, excluding the areas between falsework posts or towers where diagonal bracing is not used. Wind
pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
At Other Locations
0 to 30 (0 to 9 m)
30 to 50 (9 to 16 m)
50 to 100 (16 to 30 m)
In the preceding formula, W is the width of the falsework system in feet (meters), measured in the direction of the wind
force being considered.
h.
The entire superstructure cross-section, except railing, shall be considered to be placed at one time. If the concrete is to
be prestressed, the falsework shall be designed to support any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing
forces.
The maximum allowable design stresses and loadings listed are based on the use of undamaged, high-quality structural
grade material. Stresses and loadings shall be reduced by the design engineer if lesser quality materials are to be used.
b.
The maximum allowable stresses, loadings and deflections used in the design of the falsework shall be as follows:
28.6.3.1 Timber
a.
Allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 2, Design of Wood Railway Bridges
and Trestles for Railway Loading, or Chapter 7, Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures, of this Manual.
8-28-15
Deflection due to the weight of concrete shall not exceed L/240 of the span irrespective of the fact that the deflection
may be compensated for by camber strips.
c.
The maximum modulus of elasticity, E, for timber shall be 1.6 x 106 psi (11.0 x 103 MPa).
d.
e.
Timber connections shall be designed in accordance with the stress and loads allowed in the National Design
Specification of Wood Construction, as published by the National Forest Products Association except that (1)
reductions in allowable loads required therein for high moisture condition of the lumber and service conditions shall
not apply, and (2) the design value of bolts in two member connections (single shear) when used for falsework bracing
shall be 0.75 of the tabulated design value.
28.6.3.2 Steel
a.
For identified grades of steel, design stresses shall not exceed those specified in Chapter 15 of this Manual.
When the grade of steel cannot be positively identified, design stresses shall not exceed those specified for ASTM
Designation A36.
b.
c.
For all grades of steel, deflections due to the weight of concrete shall not exceed L/240 irrespective of the fact that the
deflection may be compensated for by camber strips.
d.
The modulus of elasticity, E, used for steel shall be 29x106 psi (2.0x103 MPa).
The maximum loadings and deflections used on jacks, brackets, columns, joists and other manufactured devices shall
not exceed the manufacturer's recommendations except that the dead load deflection of such joists used at locations
other than under deck slabs between girders shall not exceed L/240. If requested by the Engineer, the design engineer
shall furnish engineering data from the manufacturer verifying the manufacturer's recommendations or shall perform
tests as necessary to demonstrate the adequacy of any such device proposed for use.
In addition to the minimum requirements specified in Section 28.6.2 falsework over or adjacent to the railroad tracks
which are open to traffic shall be protected from impact by motor vehicles and construction equipment. The falsework
design shall include, but not be limited to, the following minimum provisions:
b.
The vertical load used for design of falsework posts and towers, but not footings, which support the portion of the
falsework over openings, shall be the greater of the following:
(1) 150 percent of the design load calculated in accordance with the provisions for the design load previously
specified but not including any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces, or
(2) The increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces.
c.
Falsework posts adjacent to railroads shall consist of either steel with a minimum section modulus about each axis of
9.5 inches cubed (156,000 mm3) or sound timbers with a minimum section modulus about each axis of 250 inches
cubed (4,100,000 mm3).
8-28-16
Each falsework post adjacent to railroad shall be mechanically connected to its supporting footing at its base, or
otherwise laterally restrained, so as to withstand a force of not less than 2,000 pounds (8.90 kN) applied at the base of
the post in any direction except toward the railroad track. Such posts also shall be mechanically connected to the
falsework cap or stringer. Such mechanical connection shall be capable of resisting a load in any horizontal direction of
not less than 1,000 pounds (4.45 kN).
e.
For falsework spans over railroads all stringers shall be mechanically connected to falsework cap or framing. Such
mechanical connections shall be capable of resisting a load in any direction, including uplift on the stringer, of not less
than 500 pounds (2.22 kN).
f.
When timber members are used to brace falsework bents which are located adjacent to railroads, all connections for
such timber bracing shall be bolted type using 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger bolt.
g.
Falsework bents adjacent to tracks shall have a minimum horizontal clearance of 12 feet (3.7 m) from centerline of
track or as required by the Engineer. Falsework shall be sheathed solid on the side adjacent to track between 3 feet (0.9
m) and 17 feet (5.2 m) above the top of rail elevation. Sheathing shall consist of plywood not less than 5/8 inch (16
mm) thick or lumber not less than one inch thick (25 mm), nominal. Bracing on such bents shall be adequate so that the
bent will resist the required assumed horizontal load or 5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) whichever is greater. Collision posts
and sheathing shall not be required if horizontal clearances to falsework is 18 feet (5.5 m) or greater.
h. A minimum vertical clearance of 22'-6" (6.9 m), or as established by the Railroad, above top of higher rail shall be
maintained at all times.
a.
The falsework shall be constructed to conform to the falsework drawings. The materials used in the falsework
construction shall be of quality necessary to sustain the stress required by the falsework design. The workmanship used
in falsework construction shall be of such quality that the falsework will support the loads imposed on it without
excessive settlement or take-up beyond that shown on the falsework drawings.
b.
Falsework shall be founded on solid footings, safe against undermining, protected from softening, and capable of
supporting the loads imposed on it. When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall demonstrate by suitable load
tests that the soil bearing values assumed for the design of the falsework do not exceed the supporting capacity of the
soil.
c.
When falsework is to be supported on piles, the piles shall be driven until the required pile capacity is obtained as
shown on the falsework drawings.
d.
For falsework over or adjacent railroad tracks, all details of the falsework system which contribute to the horizontal
stability and resistance to impact, except for bolts in bracing, shall be installed at the time each element of the
falsework is erected and shall remain in place until the falsework is removed.
e.
Falsework shall be designed to compensate for falsework deflection, vertical alignment and anticipated structure
deflection.
f.
Contractor shall provide tell-tales attached to the soffit forms and readable from the ground in enough systematically
placed locations to determine the total settlement of the entire portion of the structure where concrete is being placed.
Falsework supporting any span of a simple span concrete bridge shall not be released before 10 days after the last
concrete, excluding concrete above the bridge deck, has been placed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each
adjoining span of a length equal to at least the length of the span where falsework is to be released.
8-28-17
Falsework for cast-in-place prestressed portions of structures shall not be removed until after the prestressing tendons
have been tensioned and released.
c.
Falsework supporting any span of a continuous or rigid frame bridge shall not be removed until all required
prestressing has been completed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each adjoining span for a length equal to at
least the length of the span where falsework is to be removed.
d.
Falsework supporting overhangs, deck slabs between girders and girder stems which slope 45 degrees or more off
vertical shall not be removed before 7 days after the deck concrete has been placed.
e.
In addition to the above requirements, no falsework for bridge spans shall be removed until the supported concrete has
attained a compressive strength of 2,600 pounds per square inch (17.9 MPa) or 80 percent of the specified strength,
whichever is higher.
f.
When falsework piling are used to support falsework within the limits of the railroad right-of-way, such piling within
this area shall be removed to at least 2 feet (0.6 m) below the finished grades or as required by the Engineer.
g. All debris and refuse resulting from the work shall be removed and the premises left in a neat and presentable
condition.
COMMENTARY
C - SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS
C - 28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2015)
C - 28.5.1.1 Restrictions on Use
A cantilever wall derives support from the passive resistance below the excavation line to support the active pressure from the
soil above excavation elevation without an anchorage. Cantilever walls undergo large lateral deflections, and the member
stresses increase rapidly with height. Therefore, it is important to restrict the maximum height of the wall and require good
quality soil below the excavation line that can provide adequate passive resistance.
C - 28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment
The large moment and deflections that need to be resisted in cantilever type walls may require quite large penetration depths.
Penetration depths of 2 or more times the height of the wall may be necessary.
C - 28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment (2002) R(2015)
See Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual, US Steel, 1984, for charts that may be used to obtain preliminary values for the depth of
penetration D and the maximum moment for the case of a cantilever sheet pile wall in homogeneous granular soil and in a
cohesive soil with granular soil behind above the excavation elevation. The D values obtained from the charts should be
increased by 20 percent.
8-28-18
8-28-19
8-28-20
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