Japan in the Second World War

Chair: Alexa Iadarola

Crisis Director: Caroline Peters


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
EsteemedDelegates,

WelcometoVAMUNXXXVIandtheJapaneseWarCouncil:1945.Onbehalfof
theInternationalRelationsOrganizationandthosewhohaveworkedtirelesslytoputon
thisconference,wehopeyouenjoyyourtimeatMr.JeffersonsUniversity,aswellasthe
committeeanddelegateeventswhichhavebeenpreparedforyou.Wearethrilledthat
youwillbejoiningusinthiscrisiscommitteeandlookforwardtorivetingdebate,
conflictresolvingcrises,andcreativeresolutionstotheendoftheSecondWorldWarin
thePacific.
Becausethisisacrisiscommittee,alldelegateswillhavetheopportunityto
communicatewithcrisisstaffviawrittennotesinordertotakeunilateralaction,request
information,orcommunicatewithhistoricalfiguresnotpresentincommittee.Thecrisis
teamwillpresentchallengesbeforethecommitteeinresponsetodelegatesactionsboth
throughcommitteewidedirectivespassedbyasimplemajoritybasedonquorumas
wellaspersonalcrisisnotes.Inthisway,theJapaneseWarCouncilhastheopportunity
toaffectbothAlliedandAxiscoursesofactionduringthefinalsummerofJapanese
involvementintheSecondWorldWar.Inthiscommittee,yourwordsandactions
matterastheyhavethepowertomovemountains,changecircumstances,and
potentiallyalterhistory.
MynameisAlexaIadarolaandIwillbeservingasyourChairthisweekend.Iam
aSecondYearmajoringinForeignAffairs,hopingtostudypublicpolicyatUVAsBatten
School.IhaveparticipatedinModelUNasadelegateforfiveyearsandthereisaspecial
placeinmyheartforparlipro.Mygoalthisweekendistomakeeveryonescommittee
experiencebothinvigoratingandchallenging.Ilovetoseedelegatesunafraidtooperate
outsideoftheircomfortzonesandembracepresentedcrises.
MynameisCarolinePetersandIamextremelyexcitedtoserveasyourCrisis
Director.IamaSecondYearhopingtostudypolitics,globaldevelopment,andpolitical
philosophy.Asadelegate,IhaveparticipatedinModelUNforsixyears,chairingfor
threeofthem.ImostrecentlyservedasAssistantCrisisDirectorduringthispastyears
VAMUNandVICSconferences.Ihopetoprovidecrisesthatmakeyallthinkcritically
creativitywillberewardedasweendeavortoalterhistorytogether.
Positionpapersarerequiredforthiscommittee.Youmaysubmityourpapersvia
emailbeforethebeginningofthefirstcommitteesessiononNovember17,orviahard
copyatthebeginningofthefirstsession.Allpositionpaperswillreceivefeedbackand
willbereturnedbytheendoftheconferencesothatdelegatesmayimprovetheir
positionpaperwritingskills.Welookforwardtomeetingyouallinpersonbutuntil
then,feelfreetoreachouttoeitherofuswithanycomments,questions,orconcerns
regardingthiscommitteeorUVAasawhole.

AlltheBest,

AlexaIadarola
CarolinePeters

Chair
CrisisDirector

ai8bt@virginia.edu
cep4vt@virginia.edu


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
CommitteeOverview
Welcome,esteemeddelegate.Youhavebeencalledtoanongoingemergency
meetingoftheJapaneseWarCouncil.Itisthesummerof1945,andyouhavebeen
summonedtotheTokyoImperialPalacebyEmperorHirohitohimselftoaddressthe
pendingthreatofthebolsteredWesternopposition,humanitariancrisesthroughoutthe
Empire,andemergingdiplomaticroadblocksimpedingcornerstonenegotiationswith
bothWesternandEasternactorsonboththeEuropeanandPacificFronts.This
committeeistaskedwithamonumentalagendainthefaceofoneofthemostsalient
warsinmodernhistory.ImperialforceshavebeenfendingoffAmericantroopsat
OkinawasincethebeginningAprilbothhumanandnaturalresourcescontinueto
dwindle,andtheImperialJapaneseCabinethasimperfectinformation.Still,morale
throughouttheEmpireisstrongandfewgeneralsintheJapaneseImperialArmyare
willingtoacceptdefeat.ItiswellunderstoodthatJapanwillcontinuetofightuntilthe
lastsoldiersdeath.
PresentatCouncilmeetingsarefavoredmembersoftheJapanesepolitical,
economic,andmilitaryelite,thosewhocurrentlysitontheSupremeWarCounciltothe
Emperor,aswellasselectimperialadvisors,analysts,andexpertsinfieldssuchas
domesticagriculture,diplomacy,andartilleryscience.Delegatesarestrongly
encouragedtoworktogethertosolvecrisesaswellasplanforanuncertainbutsurely
tumultuousfuture.TheEmperorhasnotsummonedthisCounciltomanagebattlefield
operations.Instead,hewantsthisbodytocommunicateonJapansbehalfintheglobal
publicsquare.


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
AsanappointeddelegatetotheJapaneseWarCouncil,amidtheseseemingly
inauspicioustimesofstrife,itisimportanttoconsiderhowyourmotiveswillaffectthe
JapanesewareffortandourEmpiresfuture.Communicatingwithbothdomesticand
foreignallieswillprovetobeextremelyvaluableasyoucreatepolicyalternativesforthe
EmperorashestrivestoprotectourEmpireandmaintainthesecurityofourhomeland.
YourpositiononthisCouncilisnottobetakenlightly,asthefutureofJapanisinyour
hands.Asacommittee,youwillbetaskedwithrecommendingacourseofactiontothe
Emperor,whowillbechairingyourcommittee,andwillultimatelydecidewhatisbest
forthepeopleoftheEmpire.Itiswiseandhighlyrecommendedthatdelegatesarriveat
theCouncilmeetingwithextensiveknowledgeregardingthehappeningsoftheSecond
WorldWar,particularlyonthePacificFront,aswellastheuniquechallengesfacedby
theEmpireduringthisdiretime.Throughitsrecommendationsandactions,the
CouncilwillhavetheopportunitytoeitherchangehistoryandsavetheJapaneseEmpire
fromdefeatorrepeatthemistakesofthepast.


JapanintheSecondWorldWar


JapanintheSecondWorldWar

Thecontainedinformationissensitive.
Unauthorizeddistributionofanykindisforbidden.

Background
PreWorldWarIIDomesticEconomy
Thepostwaryearsoftheearly1920sgiftedJapanwithgreatwealthand
prosperity.TheEmpireanditsresourceswereabletosupplypreviously
BritishdominatedmarketsacrosstheworldwhiletheeconomiesofWesternEurope
5


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
nursedthemselvesbacktohealthattheconclusionoftheGreatWarin1918.While
Japanhadhistoricallyreliedheavilyoncontinentaltrade,withinaperiodoffiveyears
theEmpiretransformeditseconomyfromarudimentaryselfservientsystemintoone
oftheleadingcentersofproductionintheeasternhemisphere.1
However,despiteconsistenteconomicgrowthduringaperiodofratherstrong
governmentoversight,Japanwasplaguedbyeconomicdepressionin1926aheadofa
pressurizedWesternEuropeaneconomy.
2

Thedepressionseffectswere

significantlyamplifiedandlargelycaused
byincreasingdegreesofWesterntrade
manipulationaftermajoreconomies
successfullyrecoveredfromtheFirst
WorldWarandenteredperiodsof
sustainedinnovationandincreased
manufacturing.By1930,imperative
tradingpartnersandmarketplace
providers,suchastheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain,adoptedsomeofthemost
protectionisteconomicpoliciesinmodernhistory.BritishcoloniesinAsiaalsoclosed
theirborderstointernationaltrade.SuchmeasureshadsignificanteffectsonJapanese
communitiesthathadbecomeheavilydependentonforeigntrade,oftenboastingtrade
deficitsashighas75percent.Infact,forevery$12.85ofcapitalexported(in1931US
1

JapansQuestforPowerandSecondWorldWarinAsia,ColumbiaUniversity,2009,
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1900_power.htm.
2
Ibid.


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
dollars),Japanimportedanaverageof$15.25inresourcesandcapital.3 Bythe
mid1930s,theeconomybegantorecoverthankstoheavyhandedfiscalpolicies
maintainedbytheDietofJapan,rapidmilitarization,andintenseindustrialization.War
wagedontheeasternshoresofManchuriakepttheJapanesemanufacturingindustry
relativelystabledespiteitssharpexclusionfromtheworldeconomy.TheEmperor
fondlyrecallsthesedaysinwhichterritorialwarsparkedtheenginesoftheJapanese
economyablazeandhispeoplefed.
BeforeJapaneseinvolvementintheSecondWorldWar,itsmaintrading
partners,inorderofvalueasaportionoftotalJapaneseimports,weretheUnited
States,Manchukuo,theJapaneseerectedstateinoccupiedManchuria,theWang
JingweiGovernmentinareorganizedChina,Mengchiang,Chineseoccupiedlands,
India,theUnitedKingdomandtheDutchIndies.Japansprimarytradingpartner
remainedtheUnitedStates,whichreceivedatotalof32percentofJapaneseexportsas
ofDecember1939.4Thus,trendsofprotectionistfiscalpoliciesareparticularly
worrisomeforJapanandareopenlyaddressedasaggressiveactsofhostilitytowardthe
Empirebecauseofthelimitedavailabilityofnaturalresourcesandcapitalinthe
domesticmarket.AddressingtheEmpiresneedfornaturalresources,Japaneseforces
establishedimperialcoloniesinTaiwanin1895,Koreain1910,andoccupiedManchuria
in1931,wherehightariffswereestablishedinordertolimittheChineseimportationof
AmericanandEuropeanindustrialgoods,thusbothafflictingtheeconomiesof

3
4

Alperovitz,GarTheDecisiontoUsetheAtomicBomb(NewYork:VintageBooks,1995)
Hunter,Janet,JapaneseEconomicHistory19301960(London:OxfordUniversityPress,2000),p.10


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
threateningnationsandsecuringresourcesforJapansexclusiveuse.5 Inaperiodof
fourdecades,EmperorHirohitooversawthebeginningofJapaneseascensiontothetop
oftheregionseconomicandpoliticalhierarchy.In1940,Japanspearheadedthe
creationoftheGreatEastAsiaCoProsperitySphereinanattempttocreatea
JapaneseledselfsufficientblocofAsiannationsfreeofWesterninfluence.6 The
EmperorandhispeopleseektocontinueimperialeffortsuntiltheEmpirefulfillsdivine
intentionandtheEmperorstandsastheworldsleadingsovereign..
ColoniesestablishedinKorea,Taiwan,andManchuriaprovedtobefruitful
assetsintheirabilitytosupplynaturalresourcesaswellashumancapitaltomaintain
rapidlyexpandingmanufacturing
industriesthroughouttheEmpire.
Hightariffslimitedimportsof
AmericanandEuropeanindustrial
goods,whileaccelerated
manufacturingendeavorsenabled
JapantofloodthemarketsofEast
AsiaandtheUnitedStateswith
goodsbyundercuttingpricesof
theirAmericanandBritishcounterparts.7Colonialholdingsprovidedsemiskilled
humancapitaltoworkatnominalwagesonetenthofthosepaidintheUnitedStates,

JapansQuestforPowerandSecondWorldWarinAsia,ColumbiaUniversity,2009,
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1900_power.htm.
6
Dower,John,WarWithoutMercy:RaceandPowerinthePacific(NewYork:PantheonBooks),1986
7
JapansQuestforPowerandSecondWorldWarinAsia,ColumbiaUniversity,2009,
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1900_power.htm.


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
despiteaJapanesepricelevel44percentthatoftheUS.8Effectively,theJapanese
emergedfromdepressionintheearly1930sbyusingtheeconomictoolspreviously
employedbyWesternactorsagainstthem.
Despitesuchsuccesses,theinsatiabledemandforoil,drivenbyextensivemilitary
operationsandexpansionaryeffortsinManchuriaandtheNorth,keptJapanfrom
boastingselfsufficiencyandresourceindependence.Stabletraderelationswiththe
UnitedStatesandGreatBritainwereimperativetoensurethatJapancouldimportoil,
rubber,andothermaterialsessentialforthedesiredmilitaryescalationintheWest.
However,boththeUnitedStates,whichsuppliedthevastmajorityofJapaneseoil,and
GreatBritain,whosecolonyofMalayasourcedJapansrubber,resistedsuchrapid
territorialexpansion.9 In1929,PresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltterminateda1911
commercialtreatywithJapanandpushedtheExportControlActthroughCongress,
authorizingRooseveltspersonalmonitoringandprohibitionoftheexportofessential
defensematerials.Thispermittedhimin1931tobothfreezeallJapaneseassetsinthe
UnitedStates,whichamountedtomorethanonethirdofJapaneseexports,andplace
anembargoonoilexportstoJapanafterthefirstwaveofoperationsinManchuria,
leavingJapanwithonlyasixmonthsofoilreservesforanarmyengagedinwhatwould
becomeoneofthemostquintessentialholyconquestsinJapanesehistory.10 Tothe
Empire,theU..embargowasmorethanapolicyfolly.ItwasanattackonJapanese

Ma,Debin,RealGDPinPreWarEastAsia:A193436BenchmarkPurchasingPowerParityComparisonwiththeU.S.(Tokyo,2007).
UnitedStatespassesExportControlAct,History.com,http://www.history.com/thisdayinhistory/unitedstatespassesexportcontrolact
10
JapansQuestforPowerandSecondWorldWarinAsia,ColumbiaUniversity,2009,
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1900_power.htm.
9


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
culture,religion,andsovereignty.Mostimportantly,itwasanattackonEmperor
Hirohitohimself.
TherearethusaplethoraofeconomicpressuresfacingtheEmpirein1945.Not
onlydidthequestforresourcesaccelerateJapanswholeheartedpursuitofterritorial
expansionbeforeitenteredtheSecondWorldWar,butitalsograntedtheEmpirean
opportunitytowagetheholywarofthecenturyinthenameoftheEmperorwiththe
hopeofestablishingaworldwideJapaneseEmpire.Thepolitical,ideological,and
culturalmotivationsthatdefinetheEmpireassuchaformidableforceonthePacific
Frontofthiswararethuspartlyduetoourunifieddependenceuponsturdytrade
relationships,andintheirabsence,ourunifiedcommitmenttowar.

PreWorldWarIIDomesticPoliticalStructures
Adichotomyexistedinprewar
Japanesepolitics.Thelate1920sserved
asatimeofincreaseddemocratization
throughouttheEmpire.Universal
suffragewasintroducedforallmenover
theageoftwentyfiveofJapanese
descentacrossthehomeland,increasing
theelectoratebyfourfold.11 Labor

11

TheGovernmentofModernJapan:JapansElectoralSystem,ColumbiaUniversity,2002,
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/at/jp_electproc/govjep01.html

10


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
unionrestraintswereeasedandanationalhealthinsuranceschemewasimplemented
forallthoseworkinginthenameoftheEmperor.12 Changeswerealsomadetothe
electoralprocessofmanyhighlevelpositionswithintheImperialCabinet.In1925,the
Diet,theJapaneseparliament,wasgrantedtheabilitytoelectthePrimeMinister,a
positionwhichiscurrentlyheldbyKantarSuzuki13 oftheImperialRuleAssistance
Association,thelargestparafascistuykodantai,orrightwingpoliticalorganization,in
theEmpire.14 ThesedemocratizingreformswereimplementedjustasEmperorHirohito
tookthethronein1926.15 However,soonafterward,theoverallstrengthandinfluenceof
politicalpartieswithinJapandramatically
increased.suffrageledtothedevelopmentnew
partiesandideologicallystratifiedtheDiet.
Competitionbetweenleftandrightextremists
withinthepoliticalsystemledtotheenforcement
ofaPeacePreservationLawthroughoutthe
Empire.16Thecurtailmentofvoguepolitical
freedomsisnecessaryinordertopreservethe
Empireandcombatanythreatagainstit,beit
domesticallyorforeignborn..Inrecentyears,the
DiethasfrequentlyreferencedPeacePreservation

12

SecondWorldWarinthePacific,UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum,2016,
https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155
13
SuzukiCabinetofthePotsdamDeclarationSilence,EndoftheWar,Geocities.jp,2006,
http://www.geocities.jp/torikai007/war/1945/suzuki.html
14
TheYokusanSystem,ModernJapaninArchives:PoliticalHistoryfromtheOpningoftheCountrytoPostWar,2010,
http://www.ndl.go.jp/modern/e/cha4/description15.html
15
HirohitoBiography,Biography.com,2016,http://www.biography.com/people/hirohito37173
16
Paur,Erich,JapansWarEconomy(NewYork:Routledge),1999.

11


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Lawinordertofurtherthewareffortandtomaintainpeacethroughoutthehomeland
amiddiretimesofstrifeattheedgesofagrowingEmpire.
TheorganicpoliticalstructureoftheImperialgovernmentiscurrentlyamodified
versionoftheMeijierasystemthatwasdevelopedinthelate1930s.Thechoiceto
pursueimperialexpansionwithsuchzealousaggressionwasmadeinpartduetothe
domesticpoliticalstructuresattheheadoftheJapanesegovernmentsurroundingthe
ImperialHousehold.JapaneseoccupationofManchuriain1931markeda
transformativemoment:theascensionofmilitaryofficialstothehighestranksof
Japaneseadministration.TheManchuriancampaignusheredinthebeginningof
militarycontrolovertheimperialgovernment,subjecttonoauthoritybutthatofthe
Emperorhimself.Militaryofficialsoftenactunilaterallybothonthebattlefieldandin
therealmofdomesticpolitics,defendedbytheircommitmenttothemostholyand
righteousofoccupations:chariotinginaneweraofJapaneseexpansionandempire.
However,thisseeminglynonbindingrelationshipbetweengeneralsonthefrontlines
andtheEmperorsmosttrustedadvisors,includingmembersofthisbody,hasmadefor
neitherthemostefficientnorthemosteffectivewarstrategy.Imperfectinformationhas
proventobedangerous,asgeneralswithintheImperialArmyhavehistoricallybeen
untruthfulinrelayingtheirsuccessesandfailuresinthePacificforfearoflosthonor.
Themilitaryisincompletecontrolovertheinformationwhichreachesourchambers,
andforthisreason,itisimperativethatthisCouncilcriticallyanalyzeallinformation
receivedfromthefrontlinesandfactorpotentialobfuscationsintoitsdecisionmaking
process.

12


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Currently,theEmpireisinastateoftotalwar,allowingthemilitarytogain
influencewithintheimperialgovernment,amovefacilitatedbyPrimeMinisterGeneral
HidekiTj.17escalationsandtheincreasedinfluenceoftheImperialArmyover
domesticproceedingsoftencontradicttheEmperorsmessageofadesireforpeace.
Consequently,thephrasereignwithoutrulecontinuestocirculatediplomatictables
aroundtheworld,threateningtheJapaneseeffortatregionaldominationandglobal
empire.

PreWorldWarTwoJapaneseIdeology
WhileJapaneseinvolvementintheSecondWorldWardidnotformallybegin
until1941,wehavebeenengagedinholywarsince1931,whenimperialforcesoccupied
Manchuria.Japanscurrentinvolvementisanextensionofthisengagement.Japanese
soldiersfightforimperialexpansioninthenameoftheiremperor.Itisboththeirtask
anddutyaspeopleofJapan,wholivesolelytoservetheEmperor,todestroyallthose
standinginthewayofJapansimperial
purpose.
AsthesymbolicheadoftheShinto
religion,EmperorHirohitoisbelievedtobea
descendentofthegodsandwillassumehis
divinestateupondeath.Theentiretyof
Japaneseculturerevolvesnotonlyaroundhis
17

Sims,Richard,JapanesePoliticalHistorySincetheMeijiRestoration18682000,(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan),2001.

13


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
willbutalsohisveryexistence,atraditionthatbeganduringtheMeijiRestorationin
ordertounifyJapanagainstexternalenemies.18Commonpeopleareforbiddenfrom
speakingthenameoftheEmperorandmayneverlayeyesonhim.Neitherhisvoicenor
hisimagehasbeenuniversallybroadcastedtodate,yethemaintainsthetrustand
ultimatedevotionofallhissubjects.Heisnotonlyanationalsymbol,butalsoasacred
livingidolforwhomeveryJapanesesubjectisexpectedtomaketheultimatesacrifice.A
humanlifeistrivialwhilethereisalivingdeityinourmidst.Thus,anyonewhodenies
theEmperorsinfallibility,orthatofhismosttrustedadministrators,isanenemyofthe
stateandhasmadeadeclarationofwaragainsttheJapanesepeople.This
ultranationalismisprevalentthroughoutthemainlandandisthemostdefining
characteristicofJapaneseculture,unifyingpeopleoftheEmpiremorestronglythan
history,religion,orblood.
Wellintotheearly1940s,themajorityofJapanesesoldiersfightingonboththe
PacificfrontandtheWesternimperialbordercametoTokyofromruralareasofJapan,
deeplyafflictedbysystemicpovertyand
hunger.Inadditiontotheculturalandspiritual
reasonsforchampioningJapansholywar,
soldiersactivelyfoughtonbehalfofthe
motherlandinordertobringgreatprosperity
andwealthtoJapan.Theyhelpedconquer
territoriesandseizecolonialholdingsfor

18

Sims,Richard,JapanesePoliticalHistorySincetheMeijiRestoration18682000,(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan),2001.

14


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
resourceandcapitalextractionandwerecommittedtoimperialexpansionbecausetheir
owndireeconomicsituationsrequiredit.AllofJapanhungersforeconomicsecurity
amidthesetimesofpervasivedepressionandstarvation.Theideologicalcampaignfor
expansionwasinstilledthroughoutmilitaryranksaswellasthegeneralpopulation.The
culturalfoundationofJapanandthesacrednessoftheEmperormakesmasseducation
andpropagandadistributionrelativelyeasyandtremendouslyeffective.Theeaseof
mobilizationallowsformassiveindustrializationandmilitarizationofthemainlandas
wellasstrictconscriptionpolicies.Alargedomesticfocusonsucheffortsandprograms
permitsultranationalismtoflourishacrossthehomeland,engagingthepeopleofJapan
notonlyinthewareffort,butalsointhegreatergoal:trueempire.

TheBuildingofanEmpire
ItisJapan'smissiontobesupreme
inAsia,theSouthSeasand
eventuallythefourcornersofthe
world.GeneralSadaoAraki
Theculturallyorientednationalism
whichhasguidedJapaneselifesincethe
MeijiRestorationwasformallycodifiedinto
lawduringaperiodknownastheNational
SpiritualMobilizationMovement.A

15


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
NationalMobilizationLawwasfirstlegislatedbyPrimeMinisterFumimaroKonoein
March1938inordertofosterawartimemindsetinthepeopleoftheEmpireandbuild
uponaculturalfoundationinordertoconstructwhatwilleventuallybecomethe
guidingprinciplesforaglobalJapaneseempire.19Theimmediatepurposeofthelaw,
however,wastodirectJapantowardawartimeeconomyattheonsetoftheSecond
SinoJapaneseWar. 20Currently,therearestrictgovernmentcontrolsovercivilian
organizations,includingspiritualgroups,laborunions,businesscorporations,and
civilianleagues.EssentialorganizationshavebeenincorporatedintotheCentral
LeagueoftheSpiritualMobilizationMovementandareunderthedirectsurveillance
andcontroloftheNaimusho,theMinistryofHomeAffairs,andtheMombusho,the
MinistryofEducation.21TheNationalMobilizationLawalsopermitstheadministration
oftheEconomicPlanningAgencytoestablishstrictsurveillanceandcontrolsystems
overtheJapaneseeconomy,closelymonitoringgrowthandcalculatingresourceneeds.
Toolsattheagencysdisposalincludepricecontrols,thenationalizationofwar
industries,therationingofresources,andsubsidizationforwarproduction.Allwere
embracedbytheimperialgovernmentduringtheearly1940s,leadingtoaperiodof
unprecedentedmobilization.Tofurtherthemobilizationmovement,theNationalLabor
ServiceMobilizationLawwasenacted,whichpermittedandcreatedasystembywhich
theimperialgovernmentmaydraftworkersforcertainindustries,includingweapons

19

Buckley,Sandra,EncyclopediaofContemporaryJapaneseCulture,(NewYork:Routledge),2001.
Ibid.
21
Ibid.
20

16


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
manufacturing,thecanningofgoods,andprinting.UndertheLaw,1.6millionJapanese
weremovedthroughouttheEmpire.22
ByNovember1936,theimperialgovernmentnationalizednewsmediawiththe
establishmentoftheCabinetInformationCommittee,whichpublishedaweekly
newspaperreportformassdistributioncalledtheShhandaphotographicmagazine
depictinghappeningsonthewarfrontcalledtheShashinShh.23 Committeemembers
areunderstrictsurveillancebytheEmperors
advisoryboardandaretaskedwithchoosing
informationtobedisseminatedtothepeopleof
Japan,acruciallyimportantassignmentinthe
efforttomaintainahypernationalisticwartime
attitude.Theadvertisedgoalofbothpublications
istoensurethatgovernmentpolicies,considering
thenotablerapiditywithwhichtheychangein
timesofwar,arebothwidelyandeasilydistributedandarecompletelyunderstoodby
all.
In1939,undertheleadershipofGeneralSadaoAraki,aleadingmemberofa
rightwingfactionwithinthepoliticizedImperialArmy,theNationalSpiritual
MobilizationMovementintensifiedwiththegoalofreachingeverycornerofthe
JapaneseEmpireandevolvedtoincludegovernmentsponsoredralliesandotherforms
ofpropagandasuchasradiobroadcasts,liveperformances,andposters,allofwhichare

22
23

Buckley,Sandra,EncyclopediaofContemporaryJapaneseCulture,(NewYork:Routledge),2001.
Ibid.

17


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
obligatorilyandactivelypromotedbymemberorganizationsoftheCentralLeagueof
theSpiritualMobilizationMovement.TheCentralLeagueisalsoresponsiblefor
Empirewideeducationprogramscreatedbytheimperialgovernmentinordertoinstill
theproperJapanesevalueofkokutai,orcitizenry.ChildrenoftheEmpirearerequired
toattendschoolprogrammingpromotingnationhood,frugality,thevalueofhardwork,
andgoodhygiene.24The1940susheredinaneweducationalcurriculumofImperial
JapanwhichemphasizesEmperorworship,stateloyalty,andtheimportanceof
maintainingancientmilitaryvirtue.25

1931:ThePacificationofManchukuo
Throughoutthe1920s,theKwantungArmy,adivisionoftheImperialJapanese
Armyledbysomeofthemostpowerfulmembersofthemilitary,andeventuallycivic
personnelinJapan(suchasChiefsofStaffSeishirItagakiandHidekiTj),directly
violatedordersfromthemainlandinthenameofprotectingtheEmperorand
advancingJapaneseholdings.IntheHuanggutunIncidentof1928,agroupofjunior
officerswithintheKwantungArmy
assassinatedbytheManchurian
warlordChangTsolin.Inoneofthe
mostconsequentialgenokujs,or
rogueimperialmilitaryendeavors,in
Japanesehistory,theSecondDivision
24
25

Buckley,Sandra,EncyclopediaofContemporaryJapaneseCulture,(NewYork:Routledge),2001.
Ibid.

18


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
oftheKwantungArmyinitiatedaninvasionofManchuria,followedbyapprovalfrom
theImperialGeneralHeadquartersoftheJapaneseArmy.Thusbegantheoperationto
pacifyManchuriaandestablishthestateofManchukuoaftermonthsofdisputebetween
ChinaandJapan.26
CommandingofficersoftheKwantungArmythenillicitlyformedthe39thMixed
Brigadeofthe20thInfantryDivision,aforceassembledwithoutimperialapprovalwith
thesolegoalofseizingManchuria.27 Continuedadvancementsintothecontinentbythe
39thMixedBrigadeweresomeofthemostextensiveandaggressiveactsofmilitary
insubordinationTokyohadseeninthemodernera,asgeneralstookituponthemselves
topursueimperialexpansionintotheEastAsiancontinentinthenameoftheEmpire.
ThedivisionseizedcontrolofthemainChineseKoreanraillineandoccupied
Hsiungyueh,Changtu,Liaoyang,Tungliao,Tiaonan,Kirin,Chiaoho,Huangkutun,and
HsinminbeforetheEmperorreceivedwordoftheirexploits.Ultimately,theEmperor
wasadvisedtosendthreeadditionalinfantrydivisionstothelinesinManchuriato
assisttheroguebrigadeintheinterestsofmaintainingastableimperialgovernmentin
TokyowiththefullsupportoftheJapaneseImperialArmyandNavy,bothofwhichhad
alreadydecidedtopursueManchuria.TheHsinganReclamationArmywasraisedin
occupiedprovincesandinthelatermonthsof1931,Manchurianprovincesbeganto
declareindependencefromChinainexchangeforJapanesesupportandmilitary
resources.TheJapaneseImperialArmyandalliedforcesinChinafoughttheirwayboth
northandsouthacrossManchuriaagainsttheAntiJapaneseVolunteerArmies.Inthe
26

Young,Louise,JapansTotalEmpire:ManchuriaandtheCultureofWartimeImperialism,TheJournalofJapaneseStudies,1974,Online
Archive.https://www.jstor.org/stable/133419?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
27
Ibid.

19


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
JinzhouOperationofNovember1931,JapanseizedsouthernManchuriauptotheGreat
WallofChina,andbyFebruary4,1932,thelastmajorChineseforceinnorthern
Manchuriawasdefeated.TheJapaneseImperialArmyoversawthecreationofthe
ManchukuogovernmentinthestateofManchuria.irectedfromTokyo,thisgovernment
wasanofficialextensionoftheImperialEmpireofJapan.28
TheoccupationofManchuriareceivedsignificantbacklashfromtheinternational
communityasmostcountries,includingGreatBritainandtheUnitedStates,twoof
Japansmostcrucialtradingpartners,declaredthatJapanhadviolatedthesovereignty
oftheChinesestateanddemandedthattheImperialArmywithdrawfromtheterritory.
TheEmpirewithdrewitsdelegationfromthepowerlessLeagueofNationsandplunged
intoisolationism,forgoingsoundtraderelationshipsforthedomesticpermissionto
continueimperialexpansionandwageholywaragainstallopposition.

July1937:ImpetusoftheSecondSinoJapaneseWar
AsecondwarwiththeRepublicofChinasNationalRevolutionaryArmy,backed
bysupportfromboththeSovietUnionandGermany,followedtheoccupationof
ManchuriaandthecreationoftheManchukuogovernmentin1937attheLugouqiao,or
MarcoPoloBridge,alonganimportantaccessroutetoBeijing.Withintwomonths,both
thecrucialportcityofTianjinandBeijingfelltotheJapaneseImperialArmy,launching
aJapanesefullscaleinvasionofChina.29Japanthusacquiredaccesstooneofthe
28

Young,Louise,JapansTotalEmpire:ManchuriaandtheCultureofWartimeImperialism,TheJournalofJapaneseStudies,1974,Online
Archive.https://www.jstor.org/stable/133419?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
29
DonaldKagan,StevenOzment,FrankM.Turner,TheWesternHeritageSince1300,9thed.(UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:Pearson
Education,Inc.,2007),pages93876.

20


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
primaryarteriesofChinesetrade,gainingwidespreadaccesstothenaturalresourcesof
southernChina.Totalwarthenrequiredacommitmentofover200,000Japanese
troops,vessels,andaircraftstotakethecityofShanghai,aseizurewhichmarkeda
turningpointinfavoroftheImperialArmy.30 InDecemberof1937,over350,000
JapanesetroopstookthecapitalofNankingandNorthernShanxi.31(Note:thisatrocity
isoftenreferredtoastheRapeofNanking,aruthlesspillageduringwhichover
300,000ChineseciviliansweretorturedandmurderedbysoldiersoftheImperial
Army).Throughout1938,Japaninitiatedmassiveairraidsonciviliantargets
throughoutunoccupiedChinainanattempttohaltChineseresistance.32 TheJapanese
occupationofIndochinainSeptember1940markedagreatvictoryfortheEmpire.By
1941,JapansecuredmostoftheeasterncoastofChinaandVietnam(seefig.A1).
However,progresswasslowandcostlytotheImperialArmyandterritorialacquisitions
seemedsmallintheshadowofHitlersEuropeancampaign. InApril1941,Sovietaidto
ChinesetroopshaltedwiththesigningoftheJapaneseSovietNonaggressionPact.The
SovietUnionsoughttomaintainitsfocusandresourcesintheEuropeanTheatreofthe
SecondWorldWarafterthefallofParistotheNazis.Japaneseleadershipagreedtoits
termsinfavoroffocusingeffortsonmaintainingthepuppetstateofManchukuoin
Manchuriaandpacifyingapotentialfuturetradepartneramidtenuousdebatewiththe
UnitedStatesregardingManchurianoccupation.33

30

FuJinghui,AnIntroductionofChineseandForeignHistoryofWar,(Tokyo:Banten),2003,pp.10911.
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
31

21


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
TheDecisiontoEntertheSecondWorldWar
InbombingPearlHarborandenteringformalallianceswithbothGermanyand
Italy,theEmpiretransformedwhathadpreviouslybeenasinglefrontwaragainst
Chinaintoamultifronttotalwarofunprecedentedproportionsagainstthelargestand
mostadvancedmilitariestheworldhadeverseen.InordertobestadviseEmperor
HirohitoastheWarcontinues,itisessentialtounderstandwhyJapaneseleadersmade
thecrucialchoiceswhichledtoJapansactiveinvolvementinthewaragainsttheUnited
StatesandGreatBritainonthePacific.

TheBeginnings:TheEuropeanFront
NearlytwentyyearsafterthesigningoftheTreatyofVersaillesendingWorld
WarOne,whichwasthoughttobethewartoendallwars,theSecondWorldWar
quicklybecameoneofthegreatestclashesofideologiestheworldhadeverseen.
DemocraciesandtheirSovietallieswerepittedagainstmilitaristic,nationalistic,
authoritarian,andtotalitarianstatesinbothEuropeandAsia,markingaperiodof
mutualradicalizationandthecultivationofextreme,fascistregimes.Neverbeforehad
theworldseensuchcomprehensivetotalwardemandingthefullestexploitationofboth
humanandnaturalresourcesorsuchintensivebombingsofciviliantargets.
Globaldepressioncharacterizedthe1930s.InGermany,thehyperinflationof
1923wasmostlyattributedtothereparationssettlementincludedintheVersailles
Treatyof1919.Severeeconomicreparations,inadditiontotargetedlimitationson

22


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Germanysabilitytoraisemilitaryforces,facilitatedtheriseofAdolfHitlerthroughthe
ranksoftheWeimarRepublic,eventuallyleadingtohisappointmentasChancellorin
1933.HitlerattributedGermanyssocialandeconomicillstotheVersaillesTreatyand
thenewworldorderestablishedbyGreatBritain,theUnitedStates,France,andtheir
allies.By1936,HitlerjoinedBenitoMussoliniinwhatbecametheRomeBerlinAxis.In
thefaceofaweakandpowerlessLeagueofNations,Mussoliniledaninvasionof
Ethiopia,followedbyaGermanremilitarizationoftheRhinelandinthenameof
Lebensraum,breachingtheVersaillesTreatyandtheLocarnoAgreementsof1925and
precipitatingtheBritishandFrenchpoliciesofappeasement.
TheAnschluss,orunionofGermanyandAustria,furtherbreachedtheVersailles
Treatyin1938whenGermantroopsoccupiedVienna.Thatinvasionwassoonfollowed
bytheoccupationoftheCzechoslovakianSudetenland,markingthefallofyetanother
majorbulwarkofFrenchsecuritytoHitler.GermanoccupationoftheSudetenlandwas
officiallyrecognizedbytheleadersofGreatBritain,France,andItalyatMunichin
Septemberofthatsameyearasafinaldesperateattempttoavoidwar.Tothisday,the
MunichConferenceisoneofthestarkestsymbolsofappeasementinmodernhistory.
TheMolotovRibbentropPact,aNaziSovietnonaggressionpactinwhich
GermanyandtheSovietUnionagreedtopartitionPoland,wassignedthefollowing
year,markingStalinsdecisiontofollowtheThirdReichsexampleinanticipationof
dominatingEasternEurope,particularlytheBalticStates.InSeptember1939,both
HitlerandStalininvadedPoland.By1940,theBalticstatesbecamepuppetregimes
underSovietcontrol.Thismarkedthefirstoperationinwhathadformallycometobe

23


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
knownasBlitzkrieg,anewformoflightningwarfareimplementedbyHitler,calling
forfastmoving,massedarmoreddivisionssupportedbyairpower.Germantactics
allowedfortheswiftoccupationofBelgium,theNetherlands,Luxembourg,andfinally
thecircumventionoftheMaginotLinein1940,allowingfortheoccupationofFrance.
WinstonChurchillsappointmentasBritishPrimeMinisterbroughtininahardlined
Britishresponse.TheBattleofBritainbecameatwomonthairbattlebetweenthe
GermanLuftwaffeandtheBritishRoyalAirForceoverthestreetsofLondon.
In1941,despitehavingsignednonaggressionpact,HitlerlaunchedOperation
Barbarossa,aninvasionoftheSovietUnioninthefaceofrapidSovietexpansion,which
graduallydevolvedfromanearlysuccessfulBlitzkriegintoanexhaustivewarofattrition
intheRussiancountrysideresultinginGermanretreat.34

TheTripartitePactandAttackonPearlHarbor
OnSeptember27,1940SaburKurususignedtheTripartitePactonbehalfofthe
EmpirealongwithGermanyandItaly,formallyestablishingamilitaryalliancebetween
thethreestates,unifiedintheefforttolaunchacooperativeoffensiveagainsttheUnited
StatesandGreatBritain.35 ThechoicetoformallyallywithHitlerwasneitheroneof
ideologynormilitarystrategyinEurope.Rather,itwasadecisionmadeduringaperiod
ofstrainedresourcesandcompoundingdomesticpressures,coupledwiththeashared
hatredfortheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain,bothwhichstoodindirectoppositionto

34

DonaldKagan,StevenOzment,FrankM.Turner,TheWesternHeritageSince1300,9thed.(UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:Pearson
Education,Inc.,2007),pages93876).
35
Bn,Andrs.HungarianBritishDiplomacy,19381941:TheAttempttoMaintainRelations(London:FrankCass,2004)

24


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Japaneseregionaldomination.TheUnitedStates,GreatBritain,andVichyFranceall
maintainedterritorialholdingsinthePacificandwouldeventuallyfacethewrathofthe
JapaneseImperialArmyinthequesttoexpandtheEmpire.Consideringthatmanyof
theImperialArmysresourceswerealready,
andremaintobe,expendedinwarineastern
China,amilitaryalliancewithGermanyand
Italymadetheprospectoftakingontwo
globalmilitarypowersexceedinglypalatable.
ByjoiningGermanyandItaly,Japanensured
thattheUnitedStates,uponinevitablewar
withJapan,wouldbeequallythreatenedby
powerfulstatesinEurope.
TheUSoilembargoandseizureofJapaneseassetsintheUnitedStatesinJulyof
1941,inresponsetoJapansroleintheSecondSinoJapaneseWarinChina,presented
theEmperorwithlittlechoice.Withoilreservesdwindlinganddemandsfor
militarizationincreasing,onDecember1,1941aJapaneseenvoynotifiedHitlerof
JapansintentionstogotowarwiththeUnitedStates.Thefollowingday,onDecember
2,themainlandpressedbothGermanyandItalytointerprettheTripartitePactasa
commitmenttojoint,cooperativemilitaryoperationsagainstU.S.holdingsinthe
Pacific.OnDecember8(UTC+09:00)allthreestatesagreedtoengagetheUnitedStates
inwarandprosecuteitjointly.36Thatverymorning(UTC+10:00Hawaii),Japanese

36

Bn,Andrs.HungarianBritishDiplomacy,19381941:TheAttempttoMaintainRelations(London:FrankCass,2004).

25


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
leadership,withthetimidapprovaloftheEmperor,launchedOperationAl,a
carrierbasedairstrikeonPearlHarbor,U.S.A.intendedtocrippletheU.S.navyand
provideawindowofopportunityfortheImperialNavyofJapantoseizeterritoryinthe
Pacific.Sixaircraftcarrierslaunched353fighter
planes,bombers,andtorpedoplanesintwo
waves,successfullysinkingfourUSbattleships,
damaginganotherfour,sinkingthreecruisers,
threedestroyers,andaminelayer,anddestroying
188aircrafts.ThousandsofAmericanswere
killedintheoperation,whiletherewerefew
imperialcasualties.37
OnDecember8,1941,JapandeclaredwaragainsttheUnitedStates.On
December11,severaldaysaftertheUnitedStatesissuedadeclarationofwaragainstthe
JapaneseEmpire(seefig.A2),bothGermanyandItalymadethesamedeclarationand
thethreepowerssignedanagreementbarringanyseparatepeacewiththeUnited
States.ItwasatthismomentthatJapaneseleadershipformallycommittedtothe
SecondWorldWar,bringingitsstrugglesinChinaalongwithit.

CommittingtoWar:ExpandingintoEastAsia
TheSecondSinoJapaneseWarandJapanseffortstoacquireterritorydeveloped
intothePacificTheatreoftheSecondWorldWar.InDecemberof1941,Chinajoinedthe
37

UnitedStatesDeclaresWar,AbileneReporterNews.1941,http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67910.

26


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
AlliesandformallydeclaredwaragainstJapan,Germany,andItaly,welcomingmilitary
suppliesfromtheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain.TheAlliedforces,alreadystrained
fromoperationsinEuropeandNorthAfrica,didlittletohelptheChinesecombat
Japaneseinvasion.TheImperialNavyeffectivelyacquiredbothThailandandHong
KongbytheendofDecember1941.Soonafter,ImperialNavalforcessecuredGuamand
WakeIslandfromtheUnitedStates.ByFebruary1942,JapanoccupiedBurma,the
DutchEastIndies,NewGuinea,theSolomonIslands,Manila,KualaLumpur,Rabaul,
andSingaporeandcapturedover200,000Alliedsoldiersandciviliansasprisonersof
war(seefig.A3).38 ThePhilippinesdidnotfalltoJapanuntilMay1942whenU.S.
GeneralDouglasMacArthur,SupremeAlliedCommanderoftheSouthWestPacific,
withdrewhistroopstoAustralia.

AnExposedMainlandandRetribution
OnApril18,1942,theUnitedStateslaunchedanairraidagainsttheJapanese
mainland.KnowntoAmericansastheDoolittleRaid,16U.S.bombersattackedthe
mainislandofJapanwithminimalphysicaldamageandlandedinChina.TheJapanese
ImperialArmyoperatinginChinasuccessfullycapturedwhatisbelievedtobethe
majorityoftheU.S.airmenasprisonersofwar.ThiswasthefirstAmericanattack
sustainedonthehomeland,anditforcedtheEmperorshandinlaunchinganattack
againstAmericanPortMoresby.

38

DAlbas,Andrieu.DeathofaNavy:JapaneseNavalActioninWorldWarII(NewYork:1965).

27


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Imperialnavalforcesweresurprisedwhentheymetafullyprepareddivisionof
theU..NavyinwhatisknownastheBattleoftheCoralSea.TheEmpirelostanaircraft
carrier,Shoho,andsufferedgreatdamagetobothShoakuandZuikaku,twoother
carriers.ThefollycausedirreparabledamagetobothJapaneseartilleryaswellasits
strategicposition,losingnavalpositionintheSouthPacificandthreateningpending
planstooccupyMidwayAtoll.MarshalAdmiralIsorokuYamamotowasthusleftwith
onlyfouroperationalcarriersandseverelydepletedartillery.Despitethemassive
damageandcompromisedpositionthatresultedfromtheCoralSea,withdrawalwasnot
anoptionl,andhecarriedforwardtoMidwayAtollwithsignificantlyreducedfirepower.
InJuneofthatyear,ahorrifyinglossatMidwaymarkedthefirstJapanesenavalloss
sincetheBattleofShimonosekiStraitsin1836.

ContinuedWarinthePacific
ThelossatMidwayAtollshiftedJapanesestrategy,callingformoredefensive
measuresthroughoutanalreadymainlyJapanesePacific.Duringthemiddlemonthsof
1942,forcesbeganbuildinganairfieldatGuadalcanal,whichwasmetinAugustby
16,000Alliedinfantry.TheBattleofGuadalcanaldemandednearlyalloftheImperial
ArmyandNavysstrength.Itwasastatisticallycostlywarofattritionandtheresupply
oftroopswasaconstantnecessity.InFebruary1943,imperialforceswithdrewfrom
Guadalcanal,unabletoresupplylosttroopsandartillery.Onceagain,theEmpirewas

28


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
plaguedbyanissueofresourcescarcity,whichcostittheGuadalcanalairfieldand
severelydamagedJapanesepride.
Tablesturnedinmid1944whenJapaneseImperialHeadquartersinitiated
OperationIchiGo,mobilizingover500,000troopsinthelargestoffensiveinChinato
date.39Whileover100,000Japanesesoldierswerelost,greatprogresswasmadein
pushingtheboundariesofJapanesecontrolledterritorytowardFrenchoccupied
Indochina.ChineseexpeditionaryforcesfinallystoppedtheoffensiveatGuangxi.
However,summativegainswerelacklusterandChineseforceswereabletoresecurethe
majorityoflostterritoryinthefollowingmonths.
AsimilarattemptatexpandingJapaneseterritoryontheAsianmainlandcameto
fruitioninMarch1944,whenLieutenantGeneralRenyaMutaguchiledOperationUGo
intoBurma,whichultimatelyfacedthesamefateasOperationIchiGo,expendingvital
andnumberedresourcesonacampaignyieldingfewterritorialgains.Over50,000
JapanesetroopsdiedfromeitherstarvationordiseaseintheBurmaCampaign,and
TokyopulledMutaguchisdivisioninJuly1944,anactwhichwouldhavebeen
unthinkablelessthanthreeyearsprior.
ByOctober1944,Japanesetroopshadfewerfunctioningaircraftsthan
Americanshadseavessels.Thousandsoftroopswerelosttostarvationanddisease
throughouttheEmpire.TheAmericancampaignwasoneofresourcesqueezing,
initiatedbyanattackontheshoreofLeyteIsland,intheJapaneseoccupiedPhilippines,
launchingthemostextensivenavalbattleofthewar.NearlyalloftheEmperorsforces

39

Davidson,John.ThePacificWar:DaybyDay(St.Paul,MN:ZenithPress,2004),37.

29


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
weremobilizedinattempttokeeptheGulf,acrucialstrategicpoint.IntheBattleof
LeyteGulf,roughly12,500Japanesetroopswerelostalongwith27vesselsandroughly
300planes.TheAmericanoccupationofLeytecutoffoneofJapansfewremaining
sourcesofoil.40 FollowingLeyte,ManilaandLuzon,twootherPhilippineislands,fellto
theUnitedStatesinJanuaryof1945.InFebruary,theislandofIwoJimafell.Over
20,000menwerekilledand25,000werewoundedinoneofthebloodiestbattlesofthe
warthusfar.41

PresentSituations
TheChinaFront
JapanesepresenceinChina,aftermorethansevenyearsofwar,iscurrently
dwindling.WhileOperationIchiGowastechnicallysuccessful,ChineseNationalist
forceshaveregroupedandseektotakeadvantageofthefactthatJapanisfightinga
multifrontwar.SmallterritorialgainsmadeinChinahavefallensusceptibleto
communistguerillaleadershipamidapowervacuumbroughtonbystrainsonJapanese
resourcesandtroopplacements.TheChinesehavealsoreceivedincreasingmilitary
supportandhaveestablishedsoundsupplychainswithAmericanforces.Afteragrave
lossintheBattleofWestHunaninApril,ChineseforceshavedescendeduponGuangxi
andarebeginningasiegeuponthelastmajorJapanesestrongholdinSouthChina.
Furthermore,theSovietUnionhasmobilizedtroopsontheManchurianborder.

40
41

Cutler,ThomasJ.TheBattleofLeyteGulf(NewYork,NY:HarperCollins,1994)
Ibid.

30


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
TheBattleofOkinawa
AmericantroopshaverecentlyinvadedtheislandofOkinawaandhavebeen
positionedonitsshoressincethebeginningofAprilofthisyear.ImperialForcesmust
notallowtheislandtofalltoAmericantroops,asitisacrucialvantagepointtoensure
securityofthemainland,only550kilometersoffitsshores.42Civilianshavereferredto
theoperationastetsunoame,orrainofsteel.Imperialcommandhasorderedanew
waveofkamikazeattacksontheeasterncoastoftheAmericanfronttojointhe67,000
32ndArmyand9,000navaltroopsstationedthere.39,000localRyukyuanmenhave
alsobeendraftedtoaidintheislandsdefense.Sevenkamikazeattackshavealready
beensuccessfullycarriedout.Giventhatoilsuppliesarelowandthattroopsneedtobe
replenished,thesituationisdire.Youngboysontheislandhavebeenrecruitedto
conductsuicidemissionsattheofficialrequestofMinistryoftheArmy.Theseservices
arecalledtekketsukinnotai,ortheIronandBloodImperialCorps.43

QuestionstoConsider
Whilethecontentofthisbriefingisdesignedtofurtheryourunderstandingofthe
nuancesbehindthemonumentaltaskbeforethisWarCouncil,thebestdelegateswill
cometoTokyopreparedwithadditionalresearch,knowledge,andideas.Youhavebeen
summonedforbothyourexpertiseanddedicationtotheEmpire.Asyouprepareforour
firstmeeting,belowaresomequestionstoconsider:

42

Pike,John,BattleofOkinawa,Globalsecurity.org.http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/okinawabattle.htm.
Ibid.

43

31


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
1. WhatcapitaldoestheEmpirehaveatitsdisposalasofMay1945?Consider
humancapital,naturalresources,andcommercialindustry.Whatinstitutions
alreadyexisttoorganizetheseresources?Arethoseinstitutionseffective?Ifnot,
howshouldtheEmperorseektomodifythem?
2. WhatwereJapansprimarymotivationsforsigningtheTripartitePactwithNazi
GermanyandItaly?Howhavemotivationschangedsinceenteringthewar?
3. ConsidertheeconomicimpetusforwarinEurope.Howdidcontinentaleconomic
depressionaffecttheJapaneseEmpire?Areanyeconomicconcernsofthelate
1930sstillrelevantinMayof1945?
4. WhatdoesJapanhavetoreapfromitscolonialholdings?Aresomeholdings
moreimportantthanothers?Considertheircontributiontoimperialsecurity,the
procurementofnaturalresources,andthefortificationofJapanesemorale.
5. TwoatomicbombsweredroppedonJapanesesoilatHiroshimaandNagasakion
August6andAugust9,1945.Over120,000civilianswerekilledinstantly,
followedbyhundredsofthousandsintheaftermath.Consideringthatthe
immediacyofsuchdevastationacceleratedJapanesesurrender,whatactionscan
thisCounciltaketoensurethatsuchanatrocitydoesnotbefalltheJapanese
people?
6. ShouldtheCouncilentertaintheprospectofpeacenegotiations?Whyorwhy
not?

GuidelinestoResearch
TheDecisiontoUsetheAtomicBomb,byGarAlperovitz
TheFallofJapan,byWilliamCraig
TheNationalWorldWarTwoMuseumatNewOrleans,OnlineArchive:
http://www.nationalww2museum.org/learn/education/forstudents/ww2histor
y/?referrer=https://www.google.com/

32


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
TheUSNationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration:
http://www.archives.gov/
TheInternetHistorySourcebooksProject,FordhamUniversity:
http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/index.asp
TheAvalonProject,DocumentsinLaw,History,andDiplomacy,YaleSchoolof
Law:http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/wwii.asp
Internetresourcesendingin.jpareJapaneseinoriginandcouldpotentiallybe
helpfulresourcesforthiscommittee

33


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
APPENDIXA
Fig.A1

34


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Fig.A2

35


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
Fig.A3

36


JapanintheSecondWorldWar
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40

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