Effective Report Writing Skills

Career Development Training
Effective Report Writing Skills

Student Manual
Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this document can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of MHR
Management Institute.
Table of Contents
I: Using a Dictionary........................................................................................................................................1
II: A Guide to Basic Punctuation......................................................................................................................2
III: Traditional Parts of Speech.........................................................................................................................3
IV: Sentence Structure......................................................................................................................................4
V: Mastering Subject Verb Agreement..........................................................................................................5
VI: Becoming a Good Writer...........................................................................................................................6
VII: The Rules of Writing.................................................................................................................................9
The Nine Rules.......................................................................................................................................9
Report Writing Exercise........................................................................................................................10
VIII: The Readability Index...........................................................................................................................19
About the Index.....................................................................................................................................19
Using the Index.....................................................................................................................................21
IX: Paragraphs................................................................................................................................................22
Creating Proper Paragraphs..................................................................................................................22
Topic Sentences and Key Words...........................................................................................................23
X: Emphasis....................................................................................................................................................24
About Emphasis....................................................................................................................................24
De-Emphasizing Bad News..................................................................................................................26
XI: Unity and Coherence................................................................................................................................27
Unity.....................................................................................................................................................27
Coherence.............................................................................................................................................29
XII: Active and Passive Voice........................................................................................................................31
VIII: The Stages of Report Writing................................................................................................................33
XIV: The First Stage Investigation..............................................................................................................34
Gathering Evidence...............................................................................................................................34
Search Strategies...................................................................................................................................36
Citing Sources.......................................................................................................................................37
Bibliography Exercise...........................................................................................................................38
XV: The Second Stage Planning.................................................................................................................39
PAFEO..................................................................................................................................................39
Purpose..................................................................................................................................................40
Audience...............................................................................................................................................42
Format...................................................................................................................................................43
Evidence................................................................................................................................................46
Organization..........................................................................................................................................48
Planning Exercise..................................................................................................................................50
XVI: The Third Stage Writing.....................................................................................................................51
Drafting Your Report............................................................................................................................51
Creating a Report..................................................................................................................................53
XVII: The Fourth Stage Revising................................................................................................................54
XVIII: Formal Reports...................................................................................................................................56
XIX: How to Use Headings............................................................................................................................57
XX: Charts and Graphs..................................................................................................................................58
XXI: The Finishing Touches..........................................................................................................................60
XXII: Practical Application............................................................................................................................64
I: Using a Dictionary
2013 MHR Management Institute
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II: A Guide to Basic Punctuation
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III: Traditional Parts of Speech
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IV: Sentence Structure
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V: Mastering Subject Verb Agreement
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VI: Becoming a Good Writer

Good writers are not born that way. It takes hard work. Remember that good writing is
5% inspiration and 95% perspiration. So, if you want to be a better writer, here are four
things you can do to help yourself:
You must read.
We learn to talk by hearing skilled speakers speak. Likewise, we learn to write by reading
skilled writers. When you read a scientific article or an editorial that you like (one that
speaks to you), analyze why you like it, and seek to understand and copy their style.
You must write.
No matter how many rules we discuss in the workshop, it takes practice to write well.
Realize that your fourth report or proposal will be easier to write than your first.
You should want to write.
Find personal reasons for wanting to write well and for wanting to communicate to
others. Forget your inhibitions and sit down and write. Also, get rid of the notion that you
only need to write about matters at work. Writing is a lifelong skill. Good writers get their
point heard. Poor writers get their work filed away, unread.
You need a feedback system to judge how you are doing, to know if
your writing works.
Often people use negative feedback as good reason to stop writing. Instead, use feedback
as a learning experience, as an opportunity to find better solutions, not just as an
opportunity to correct errors.
The Four Cs
Good writing is good communication. Good writing must be clear, concise, complete,
and correct. Remember these four C's.
Many report writers seem to believe that the purpose of a report is to impress, not to
inform. When reports are written from this point of view, they are filled with pompous
and sometimes incomprehensible jargon. These reports are often totally without
substance, and contain a plethora of unintelligible rubbish, including a propensity to use
words like propensity and plethora.
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Writers of such reports often concentrate on outward appearance. Their reports are often
well-presented, neat, well laid out, and contain all the standard and necessary parts. But
these reports are often lacking in contentthe meat in the pie. Facts are frequently
ignored, and every paragraph is loaded with subjective conclusions that bear no
resemblance to reality. The style is often verbose and florid. Where one sentence would
suffice, the writer has used 16.
Bad reportswordy, incomplete, biased, and incorrectcan be as disastrous to an
organization as bad management.
All business reports are written on a specific subject. Their purpose is to convey
information and ideas, and sometimes to make recommendations. A good report is easy to
understand, always clear, as long as it needs to be and no longer, complete with all
necessary information, and correct.
Clear
If a one syllable word will do, use it!
Stay away from jargon.
Use short, familiar conversational words. Remember, readers hate

pretentiousness. One and two syllable words should account for 80% of your
formal writing.
Remember the readability index.
Make the story easy to read by including effective figures, tables, pictures,
etc.
Concise
Eliminate unnecessary words. For example, use, now instead of at this

point in time.
Don't string together phrases and clauses to create long, complex

sentences.
Good organization of your thoughts is a must for concise writing.
Stick to your hypothesis/theme. Dont go off track on other topics.

Complete
For every minor and major point in your story, answer the questions:
Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
Make a checklist of all the important points you need to cover. Prioritize
them, and check them off as you go.
Empathize with the reader. Have you told the whole story? Does the order
make sense?
Correct
Double check your data for accuracy
Use non-sexist language. Also, avoid using he/she (or her/his) when
referring to authors or those whose gender you know.
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Proofread for grammar, punctuation, spelling, and word usage. This is an

important step on the road to being taken seriously. Never assume that spell check
and grammar check software will do this for you.
Proofreading Tips
Get someone else to proofread for you, preferably someone who has no
knowledge in your topic area.
On your first attempt at proofreading, just read the words one at a time and
ignore the content. Take your time.
On your second pass, proofread for content.
If you need extra help, either read it aloud, or read it backwards.
Buy and use a good dictionary (e.g. Oxford), a good thesaurus (e.g.
Collins), and a good reference manual on punctuation and style. Again, don't rely
on the computer thesaurus to choose the best word for you. No two words mean
exactly the same thing.
VII: The Rules of Writing
The Nine Rules
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Use familiar words

Prefer short, simple words
Use concrete words
Prefer active to passive verbs
Avoid camouflaged verbs
Arrange sentences for emphasis and clarity
Keep sentences short
Ensure modifying words and phrases relate to nouns and pronouns
Use words economically
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Report Writing Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences and phrases to conform with the writing techniques
shown in the headings.
Use familiar words
The preponderance of businessmen we consulted envision signs of improvement from the
current siege of economic stagnation.
If liquidation becomes mandatory, we shall dispose of these assets first.
Mr. Casey terminated Johns employment as a consequence of his ineffectual

performance.
Prefer short, simple words

The most operative assembly line configuration is a unidirectional flow.
Business has an inordinate influence on governmental operations.
It is imperative that the consumer be unrestrained in determining his preferences.
Our expectations are that there will be increments in commodity value.
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Use concrete words

We have found that young men are best for this work.
He makes good grades.
John lost a fortune in the stock market.
If we dont receive the goods seen we will cancel.
Profits last year were exorbitant.
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Prefer active to passive verbs

Our action is based on the assumption that the competition will be taken by surprise.
It is believed by the typical union member that their welfare is not considered to be
important by management.
We are serviced by the Bratton Company.
Our safety is the responsibility of management.
You were directed by your supervisor to complete this assignment by noon.
It is recommended that the machines be purchased by our company.
Because of our policy, the proper thing is being done by us for excellent jobs performed
by any and all of our employees.
Issuance of a supplement to the report was undertaken.
The above-mentioned report that we are approving is enclosed.
Your thoughtful suggestions are graciously accepted. Hopefully, forthcoming

recommendations are being given the same sort of careful consideration by you.
Avoid camouflaged verbs

It was my duty to make a determination of the damages.
We will make her give an accounting of her activities.
We will ask him to bring about a change in his work routine.
This new equipment will result in a saving in maintenance.
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Arrange sentences for emphasis and clarity
The main building was inspected on October 1. Mr. George Wills inspected the building.
Mr. Wills is vice president of the company. He found that the building has 6,500 square
feet of floor space. He also found that it has 2,400 square feet of storage space. The new
store must have a minimum of 6,000 square feet of floor space. It must have 2,000 square
feet of storage space. Thus, the main building exceeds the space requirements for the new
store. Therefore, Mr. Wills concluded that the main building is adequate for the
companys needs.
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Keep sentences short
The Consumer Education Committee is assigned the duties of keeping informed of the
qualities of all consumer goods and services, especially of their strengths and
shortcomings, of gathering all pertinent information on dealers sales practices, with
emphasis on practices involving honest and reasonable fairness, and of publicizing any of
the information collected which may be helpful in educating the consumer.
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Ensure modifying words and phrases relate to nouns and pronouns

Miss DuClerq is only a secretary to Mr. Grossmeyer.
Report any other defects or mechanical damage to the supervisor in the finished product.
Loose blouses which some women wear around punch presses are hazardous.
Arriving early for my interview the Personnel Office was not open.
Swearing thunderously the office almost shook with the bosss anger.
Driving cautiously the dangerous intersection was approached.
Jackson has opposed often giving praise to the workers.
Smith stated late in the week the production was behind schedule.
Use words economically

In view of the fact that we financed the experiment, we were entitled to some profit.
We will deliver the goods in the near future.
Mr. Watts outlined his development plans on the occasion of his acceptance of the
presidency.
I will talk to him with regards to the new policy.
The candidates which had the most money won.
There are many obligations which we must meet.
We purchased coats which are lined with wolf fur.
Mary is of the conviction that service has improved.
Sales can be determined to have improved over last year.
It is essential that we take the actions that are necessary to correct the problem.
VIII: The Readability Index
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About the Index

Sometimes we make writing difficult for our readers. That may not be our intention, but
if we use unfamiliar words, use jargon or terms they dont understand, and write long,
complicated sentences, the reader must work harder to understand your message, and
sometimes they just dont bother.
To figure out how readable your writing is, apply the readability test, sometimes called
the Gunning Fog Index, to a sample of your own writing.
1) Count out a sample of 100 words. Count to the end of the sentence nearest to the
100-word total. Record that number. (Example: 104 words)
2) Count the number of sentences in your sample. Record that number. (Example: 7
sentences)
3) Divide the number of words in the sample by the number of sentences. This will
give you the average sentence length. (Example: 104 divided by 7 gives an average
sentence length of approximately 15 words)
4) Go back through this sample and count/circle all words of three or more syllables
(polysyllabic words). Do not include proper nouns, compound words made up of
short, easy words (like bookkeeper) or words that made polysyllabic by an es,
ed, or ing added to the end of the word (such as adapted). (Example: 14
words of three syllables or more)
5) Divide the number of polysyllabic words by the total words in the sample, and then
multiply the answer by 100 to find the percentage of words that are polysyllabic.
(Example: 14 divided by 104 multiplied by 100 equals approximately 13.5% of the
words are polysyllabic.)
6) Add the average sentence length (15) and the number of polysyllabic or hard
words per hundred (14) together. (Example: 14 plus 15 equals 29)
7) Multiply this by the Fog Factor (0.4) to learn your Readability or Fog Index.
(Example: 29 multiplied by 0.4 equals 11.6)
What does this mean? Very approximately, it means the number of years of schooling
people would need in order to read your writing. For most instances, a score between 8
and 12 is good. For some readers you will want to have a lower readability index and
occasionally you may be writing for readers who will be comfortable with a higher
readability index. As a point of comparison, here is how some well-known publications
stack up against the readability index.
Publication
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Index Score
The Economist
13 (difficult)
The Wall Street Journal
11
The New York Times
10
MacLeans
10
Readers Digest
USA Today
People Magazine
Tabloid Newspapers
6 (easy)
Robert Gunning, who designed this popular test, has said, The Fog Index is a handy
means for judging readability. It is not a formula for how to write.
When you are using Microsoft Word, you can set it to measure your readability score
with a slightly different tool. Here is how you would set it up. (These steps may be
slightly different depending on the version you are using.)
On your menu bar select Tools
Select Options
Select the Spelling and Grammar tab
Under the Grammar section check the box Show Readability Statistics
Select OK
You can then go through your document and after spelling and grammar has been
checked, you can get a readability score. For example, this document scores at a 9.3 level.
Using the Index
Number of words in sample

Number of sentences in sample
Number of words divided by number of
sentences=Average Sentence Length
Number of polysyllabic words divided by
total words, multiplied by 100
Average Sentence Length multiplied by
percentage of polysyllabic words
Figure above multiplied by 0.4
Why is it so high, since it had very few large words in it?
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IX: Paragraphs
Creating Proper Paragraphs

In dialogue, each speech is a paragraph. Ordinarily, however, a paragraph is defined as a
collection of sentences developing one topic. They may introduce, conclude, connect, and
develop some part of an idea.
Paragraphs have a beginning (a statement of the theme), a middle (clearly and logically
develops the theme), and an end (concludes the discussion and sometimes provides a link
to the next paragraph).
When we travel, we first buy a ticket on which our starting point and destination are
shown. When we write or speak a paragraph, it is wise to start with a topic sentence that
makes clear exactly what we are going to talk about. A topic sentence is just a brief
statement of the subject of the paragraph. Usually this sentence is placed at or near the
beginning of a paragraph, although it may occasionally be placed near the end of the
paragraph for emphasis.
In this pair of sentences, which one is a good guide to the person writing the
paragraph?
Canoe tilting is a good sport.
Canoe tilting is a good sport because it takes nerve, strength, and

endurance to play the sport.
Limit each paragraph to one idea, unless you are linking related thoughts. If you are
comparing the old and the new, for example, it makes sense to bring them together in one
paragraph.
Ordering the middle of a paragraph is a challenge for many writers. However, ordering
may be chronological, in order of importance, move from general to specific (or vice
versa), move from simple to complex, from pro to con, or from question to answer.
Complicated information, or a discussion of several ideas, generally needs to be broken
up into separate paragraphs to be easily understood.
Paragraphs vary widely in lengths from the short ones to the occasional long one of 250
or 300 words. A good length for ordinary report writing is 100 to 150 words. Paragraph
length, of course, depends on content. Some topics are short, some are long, and others
are in between. A good rule to follow is to question the unity of paragraphs over 12 lines.
An average length of 9 lines makes for good readability.
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Topic Sentences and Key Words

Identify the key sentence and key word in each paragraph below.
Paragraph One
The character of the police dog is complex. My best pal is one of those half-wild
creatures and from constant companionship I have discovered that he really has a dual
personality. At night he slinks along with the stealthy tread of the world, nostrils
quivering as he warily follows an imaginary scent. His eyes gleam like two phosphorus
lights through the darkness. The ingrown fear of the unknown shows in the strained poise
of his body or the suspicious turn of his head. But with the coming of daylight, all the
eerie illusions that are the companions of darkness vanish and the police dog becomes a
domesticated animal again, relying on man for the very substance of his life.
Paragraph Two
Next has a variety of meanings. To the small child sitting in the waiting room of the
dentists office, that word means that his hour of torture has come. How different the
customer feels in a crowded store, when the next is meant for her. Generally she heaves
a great sigh of relief. In the classroom that monosyllable always causes the unprepared
student to have inward qualms, while the prepared student is more anxious to prove shes
done her homework. To the person seeking a position, next may have one of two
meanings. To the person who has already been interviewed the word sounds rather
uncaring and rejecting. To the next candidate waiting to be interviewed, the words cause
his spirit to raise and his heart to pound. What pictures are called up by the word Next!
Paragraph Three
My dog, Peggy, is most unusual. As playthings she uses nails, bolts, and tennis balls. She
sleeps in an old clothes basket, which no one dares to touch. Peggy will not eat her meals
unless they are cut up and served on a plate. When she wants something to eat, she has a
way of putting out her tongue, and she begs very prettily to win strangers hearts and their
cake. Peggy is just a common dog but oh how temperamental!
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X: Emphasis
About Emphasis
Emphasis requires that significant matter stands out and unimportant details stay in the
background. The beginning and the ending of a paragraph, story, report, or proposal are
especially important. First impressions are lasting and the ending is longest remembered.
To emphasize an idea in your reports, use one of the following devices:
Underlining
Italics and boldface
Font changes
All caps
Dashes
Tabs
What are some other ways of making important points stand out?
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We can also emphasize through carefully chosen words. For example:
General
Emphatic
Companies surveyed use a number of selling

techniques.
Roses Toiletries uses face-to-face selling

techniques.
The client said he wanted the contract returned

soon.
Mr. Jones wants the contract back by Friday.
Explore the possibility of leasing a site, but also

hire a business consultant.
Explore the possibility of leasing a site but first

hire a business consultant.
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De-Emphasizing Bad News

Sometimes we want to de-emphasize bad news by using general words or burying the bad
news in the middle of a sentence or a dependent clause.
What are some other ways to convey bad news?
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XI: Unity and Coherence
Unity
Unity means oneness. A paragraph has unity if it sticks to one subject. While planning a
paragraph, ask yourself frequently, Is this on the subject? If it isnt, cross out the detail
or example. When you have finished a paragraph ask yourself if you have kept to the one
topic throughout.
Perform the following tasks with each paragraph below.
On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being no unity and 5 being very unified, how

unified would you say each paragraph is?
Identify the topic sentence and key word in each sentence.
Rewrite each paragraph so it will be more unified.

Paragraph One
My favorite sport is baseball. Every fair Saturday about a dozen of us go out to Forest
Park and have a lively game. We knock the ball all over the lot, field it, run bases, and
argue until the sun goes down. Then we head home to our families. I work for a mining
company and we seem to always be behind the eight-ball when it comes to work.
Unity Rating: ______________________________
Topic Sentence: ____________________________
Key word: _________________________________
Rewrite:
Paragraph Two
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Methods of travel in this area have certainly improved in the last few years. In the old
days the transportation was pretty poor. People had to travel by horse and carriage or
walk. If they wanted to go to Europe they had to travel by sailing vessels that depended
on wind for motion. Therefore a trip to England for example was long and tedious. As
time passed, methods became better and better until the steam engine was invented and
put into practical use. A little later the steamship was invented and used. But motorized
vehicles were yet to be improved. Now we come to todays travel and we have so many
vehicles on the road that it is still difficult to get around.
Unity Rating: ______________________________
Topic Sentence: ____________________________
Key word: _________________________________
Rewrite:
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Coherence
Coherence means sticking together. When referring to paragraphs, it includes the proper
arrangement of ideas so they fit together. The different sentences that compose a
paragraph should follow one another in natural and logical order. If they do not, the
reader can become distracted and find it hard to keep the threads of the topic together.
Bridging words can help readers see the order in your sentences. When the thoughts are
very closely related, no connective or joining words are required.
Useful bridges include: this, that, these, those, such, same, personal pronouns, repeated
nouns, and for example.
To add ideas, we can use: and, moreover, further, furthermore, also, likewise, similarly,
too, in like manner, again, in the same way, besides. These words are plus signs.
To introduce statements opposing, negative or limiting the preceding statements in some
way, use: but, nevertheless, otherwise, on the other hand, conversely, on the contrary,
however, yet, still. These words are minus signs.
For each of the following bridging or connecting words, write a
sentence you might use in one of your reports:
To show time relation, use: then, now, somewhat later, presently, thereupon,
thereafter, eventually, at the same time, meanwhile.
To indicate order, use: next, in the second place, to begin with, finally, secondly, in
conclusion, first.
To show space relation, use: to the right, in the distant future, straight ahead, at the
left.
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To introduce illustrations, use: for instance, for example.
To indicate a consequence or conclusion, use: hence, consequently, thus, so, for this
reason, accordingly, therefore, as a result, it follows that.
To indicate the repetition of an idea, use: briefly, that is to say, in fact, indeed, in
other words.
To compare, use: similarly, likewise.
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XII: Active and Passive Voice

Active verbs are strong verbs that indicate action and energy. They keep writing from
sounding dull and boring. However, sometimes we will want to use the passive voice (for
example, when we want to de-emphasize our message).
In sentences with active voice verbs, the subject is the doer of the action. In passive voice
verbs, the subject is acted upon. Most writers prefer action verbs because such verbs tell
the reader clearly who or what is performing the action.
On the other hand, passive voice can be employed to perform certain necessary functions.
They are helpful in at least three situations.
Emphasizing an action or the recipient of an action. (You have been

selected to represent us.)
De-emphasizing negative news. (Your watch has not been repaired.)
Concealing the doer of the action. (A major error was made in the
estimate.)
Turn these sentences with their passive verbs into action oriented
sentences with an active verb.
The new process is believed to be superior by the investigators.
The office will be inspected by Mr. Hall.
An appointment was made for January 12.
A complete reorganization was affected by the president.
In response to your order, the documents are being sent today.
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This letter is being written to help you understand more about our personal
computers.
A check is being made about your order, and upon its completion, a full analysis will
be sent to you.
The letter was typed by Brian.
It was felt by most readers that the report was too long and complex to be read by
them.
The tax return was completed before the April 30th deadline.
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VIII: The Stages of Report Writing

There are four stages involved in the production of a report:
In each of the stages, every effort should be made to ensure that the report is clear,
concise, complete, and correct.
Following these guidelines will ensure that your reports are effective.
Collect your evidence before you write by observing, interviewing, and

doing library research.
Organize your evidence.
Keep in mind the rules of evidence before you draw conclusions.
Be alert to the common fallacies that can easily undermine the logic of
your sequence.
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XIV: The First Stage Investigation
Gathering Evidence
As we explained above, there are four very concrete stages in report writing. Lets
start with the first stage: gathering your information, your evidence. How will you
do that?
Where and how you investigate is determined by the purpose or objective of the study or
report. Before beginning the investigation, you should clarify the purpose by writing it
down, preferably in one sentence. Then proceed to gather all the relevant facts. It almost
goes without saying that facts should also be accurate, but it still needs to be said.
Evidence
Unless youre an authority on your subject, your opinions carry only as much weight as
the evidence you can marshal to support them. The more evidence you can collect before
writing, the easier your writing task will be.
Evidence consists of the facts and information you gather in three ways:
Through careful observation
Through intelligent fieldwork (talking to the appropriate person)
Through library research
Ask yourself, What information do I need and where do I get it? This is your starting
point for compiling the information that will become your evidence. Sometimes your
memory and the files will provide all you need. In more extensive reports, however, you
may use library research, observation, and field work that may include experiments or
surveys. Remember that the kind of evidence you need is going to depend a great deal on
your purpose and audience.
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Search Strategies
What sources might you use for each of these report topics?
360 degree performance reviews
How much succession planning New England farmers have done
Efficiency of different types of project management software
Alternative energy sources that your company could use
Safety issues in your workplace
Trends in the shipping industry
Citing Sources
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If you use data from secondary sources, the data must be documented; that is, you must
indicate where the data originated. Using the ideas of someone else without giving credit
is plagiarism and is unethical.
Even if you paraphrase, and put the information in your own words, the ideas must be
documented. In citing sources, you should use direct quotations sparingly. Good writers
use the exact words of another writer to emphasize opinions because of the authors
status as an expert; duplicate the exact wording before criticizing; or repeat identical
phrasing because of its precision, clarity, or aptness.
Citing sources strengthens your argument as a writer, and shields you from charges of
plagiarism.
These are the four most popular styles of documentation.
MLA (Modern Language Association). This style is used in literature and

most of the humanities.
The APA (American Psychological Association), which is generally used

in the social sciences
The CBE (Council of Biology Editors) is used in biology and many other
sciences.
The Chicago Manual of Style which actually has two styles it favors.
Most styles ask that references be listed on a page by themselves, alphabetically by
author, and includes all the references you used to produce your report. This list is called
References, Works Cited, Cited References, or References, depending on the style you
have used. (Chicago Style uses the titles Bibliography, Selected Bibliography, and Works
Cited.)
The list for any given paper or report may include a variety of sources. A source is
anything you draw information from, and in your report you should list every source you
use.
Every bibliography entry is created from a number of standard components. The most
basic three are author, title, and publication information. The elements are separated by
periods.
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Here is a list of each element you might find in a bibliography entry for a book or part of
a book:
The author or authors names (or the editor or editors names if you are
referring to a collection). This part of the entry comes first, since a bibliography is
in most cases an alphabetical listing by author of material used in writing a book
or report.
The title of the work.
The name of the collection you found the work in.
The editor or editors names (if the work appears in a collection), or

translator or compiler, if one is used.
The edition number for works other than a first edition
The number(s) of the volume(s) used.
Publication data: the place of publication, followed by the publishers

name, and in MLA, the date of the publication.
The page numbers of the work, if the work is part of a collection.
Bibliography Exercise
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XV: The Second Stage Planning
PAFEO
Once you have your information gathered, you can move onto stage two: planning.
Every report should be planned in a logical way. The basic structure of a report is:
Introduction
Body or Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations (if you have any)

Most of the unclear writing we read results from unclear thinking, but it is also true that
the habits of clear writing help you to think clearly. When a writer gets his or her
thoughts in order and defines the purpose and goal, what he or she wants to say may no
longer be exactly the same as it was originally. Whatever the case, the work done before
the first draft in the prewriting process, and after the draft in the revising process, is often
the difference between successful communication and time-wasting confusion.
The Planning Sequence
The planning sequence for writing a report can be remembered by the acronym
PAFEO.
P stands for purpose
A stands for the audience
F stands for format
E stands for evidence
O stands for organization
In most studies, you will gather masses of information and you must be selective about
what goes into your report. Your selection should be based on:
The purpose of your report.
What it is meant to achieve.
The people to whom it is directed (the reader or readers). You have to

decide what the readers already know and what they need to know.
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Purpose
Put the question to yourself, Why am I writing this? (Because I have to, is not a
sufficient answer!) This writing youre going to do must aim at accomplishing
something; you must be seeking a particular response from your reader. In other words,
you should have your purpose clearly in mind.
Write it out in one sentence. Pin it down. Make it as precise as you can. You will save
yourself a good deal of grief in the writing process by getting as clear a focus as you can
on your purpose. Youll know better what to include and what to omit. The many choices
that combine to form the writing process will be made easier because you have taken the
time and the thought to determine the exact reason you have for writing this
communication.
When youre writing a report, you can make things easier for yourself and your reader by
making a clear statement of the central idea youre trying to develop. This is your thesis.
To be most helpful, it must be a complete sentence, not just the subject of a sentence.
Disappointing results may be the subject youre writing about, but it is not a thesis.
Stating it that way wont help you organize the information in your report. But if you
really say something specific about disappointing results you will have a thesis that
will provide a framework for development. For example: Disappointing results may be
attributed to insufficient preparation, poor selection of team members, and inadequate
time lines to complete a project.
Purpose and Problem
The first letter of PAFEO stands for purpose, but in report writing it can also be a
reminder of the need to define the problem. Purpose and problem need to be considered
in two ways:
To write a useful report, you have to understand how it will be used. Find
out what purpose management had in mind in ordering the report. Is the report to
be informative (limited to findings) or evaluative (including your conclusions and
recommendations)?
To clarify your own purpose in writing, you need to define the problem as
precisely as you can. Write it down in one sentence.
Defining the key problem to which the report is addressed is crucial to success, but it is
not always easy. When you talk to people as a part of your research, you will find they
often confuse description and evaluation. One says, The problem is that we need new
machines. The ones we have are always breaking down. Another says, The problem is
that the new employees dont do their jobs properly.
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People use language loosely, but report writers cant. These problems are evaluations,
not descriptions.
This series of questions can help you describe the dimensions of a problem.
What is the problem?
Where is the problem?
When is the problem?
What is the extent of the problem?
Not all of these questions apply with equal effectiveness to every situation, but they will
help you to stay on target.
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Audience
Most of the report writing the average person does is aimed at a specific reader or group
of readers. Having a limited audience can be an advantage. It enables the writer to
analyze the reader and shape the writing so that it effectively achieves the purpose for
that particular reader or group of readers.
Here are some questions that will help you communicate with the reader:
How much background do I need to give this reader, considering his or her
position, attitude toward this subject, and experience with the subject?
What does the reader need to know and how can I best provide this
information?
How is my credibility with this reader? Must I build credibility gradually

as I proceed, or can I assume that he or she will accept certain judgments based on
my interpretations?
Is the reader likely to agree or disagree with my position? What tone

would be most appropriate in view of this agreement of disagreement?
Can you answer each of these questions?

The fourth question is very important. It implies that the writer will try to see the readers
point of view, and will make every effort to look at the subject the way the reader will
probably look at it. That isnt easy to do. Doing it takes both imagination and some
understanding of psychology, but it is worth the considerable effort it involves. It is a
gateway to true communication.
Since reports vary considerably in kind, the audience varies also. Generally, the more
formal the report, the more people are likely to see it. That doesnt mean they will all read
it. A curious characteristic of reports is that they are not read, at least not in entirety.
People are likely to read only the parts that interest or pertain to them. The higher the
report travels up the corporate ladder, the less it gets read. The person at the top may read
only the summary. The report then finds a comfortable home in the files until someone
digs it out months or years later. The irony is that the most careful perusal of a report may
take place years after it is written. Often as not, the careful reader may be another report
writer researching the files for evidence.
Although reports are written primarily for the persons assigning them, they are often
reproduced and circulated to other interested persons. The fact that a report may have
different readers who have different interests in it has strong implication for the format
and organization of the report.
For your primary reader, you want to write text that will be interesting and clear. For your
secondary readers, you want headings, graphs, and chartsdevices to enable them to find
what theyre looking for.
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Format
Using the Correct Format
Having thought about your purpose and your audience, carefully consider the appropriate
format for this particular communication you are writing. Of course the range of choice
may be limited by company procedures, but even the usual business formats allow some
room for the writer to use ingenuity and intelligence. The key that unlocks this ingenuity
is making the format, as well as the words, work toward achieving your purpose. You can
call attention to important points by the way you arrange your material on the page.
External signals such as headings, underlining, and numbered lists are ways of giving the
reader a quick preview. Use them when they are appropriate to the presentation of your
material.
There are many ways to highlight your material.
Bullets
Bold
Italics
Headings
Sub headings
Dont be afraid of using white space as a way of drawing attention to key ideas.
Overburdened executives are always looking for shortcuts through the sea of paper. Many
admit that they cannot possibly read every report. They scan, they skip, and they look for
summaries. A good format identifies the main points quickly and gives an idea of the
organizational structure and content.
If the format looks logical and interesting, readers may be lured into spending more time
on your ideas. Youve taken the trouble to separate the important from the unimportant,
thus saving them time. The clear format holds promise of a clear analysis, and what
manager can be too busy for that?
There are two basic formats or approaches to writing reports:
The direct approach
The indirect approach
The Direct Approach
The direct approach, in which recommendations come first, is the up-front or

psychological approach. This format is often used in short reports and when
recommendations are more-or-less straightforward.
An example of the format for the direct approach is shown below.
Synopsis
Statement of the problem

Scope and limitations
General findings
Purpose
Recommendations
List in order of importance
Body/Discussion
Background
Methods used
Results obtained
Analysis of results
Summary
State the theme of each section

Link themes together
Conclusions
Relate to recommendations
Support recommendations
Use the same order as

recommendations
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The Indirect Approach
The indirect approach, in which detailed recommendations come last, presents the
evidence in a more logical way. This approach is used when it is necessary to build your
case, leading to more-or-less controversial recommendations. A synopsis or executive
summary is often used to highlight principal recommendations at the beginning of the
report.
An example of the format for the indirect approach is shown below.
Executive Summary
Major result/findings
Principal recommendations
Introduction
Statement of the problem

Purpose of the report
Background
Methods used
Organization of the report
Body/Discussion
Results/findings
Analysis of results
Alternative solutions
Conclusions
Relate to body
Most important first
Recommendations
List in order of importance
The most important consideration in deciding on the basic approach and on the
organization of your material within the basic approach is the reader.
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Evidence
Readers of reports want an objective basis for decision-making. Avoid jumping to
conclusions based on your own preconceptions. Be careful to distinguish for yourself and
for your reader which statements are facts, which are opinions, and which are
assumptions.
Many reports founder on facts. Readers complain that the report is rich in subsidiary
material, but the important points are either missed or drowned in waves of detail.
Sufficient attention to purpose, audience, and format should help you to single out the
important things you want to report to your reader. Your job as writer is to show the
significance of your facts to the problem. Your reader is interested in causes, effects,
trends, and comparisons. Dont just give your reader isolated facts and force him or her to
figure out what they mean. Turn facts into evidence.
The Rules of Evidence
In presenting your findings, use the following rules:

Rule 1: Look at the evidence and follow where it leads.
The trick here is not to let your own bias lead you into selecting only the evidence you
agree with. If you arent careful, you can unconsciously start forcing the evidence to fit
the design that seems to be emerging. When fact A and fact B both point toward the same
conclusion, there is always the temptation to make fact C fit.
Rule 2: Look for the simplest explanation that accounts for all the evidence.
When the lights in the room go out, the sudden darkness might be taken as evidence of a
power failure. But a quick investigation turns up other evidence that must be accounted
for: the streetlights are still on and the refrigerator is still functioning. So a simpler
explanation may exist, and a check of the circuit breakers or fuse box would be
appropriate.
Rule 3: Look at all likely alternatives.
Likely alternatives in the example just discussed would include such things as burned-out
bulbs, loose plugs, and defective outlets, so all alternatives should be examined in the
investigation stage. During the writing stage, however, do not overload the reader with a
detailed examination or eight or ten alternatives. If there are more than three, reduce the
number for discussion to three, or perhaps four, alternatives. The others can usually be
discussed and dismissed in one brief paragraph.
Examining alternatives has two other major advantages: it saves the reader raising the
question in his or her mind, Didnt the writer of this report look at anything else?, and it
gains credibility for the writers objectivity.
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Rule 4: Beware of absolute statements.

In the complexity of the real world, it is seldom possible to marshal sufficient evidence to
permit an absolute generalization. Be wary of writing general statements using words like
all, never, or always. Sometimes these words can be effectively implied rather than
stated.
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Organization
Using a Summary
Reports are designed for the readers convenience. Given the reading practices discussed
under Audience, the summary takes on special importance. It is likely to be the most-read
section, and therefore demands your most careful attention.
The synopsis or executive summary is a report in miniature. It tells your reader what you
set out to do and what your findings, conclusions, and recommendations are.
The advantages of beginning the report with a well-constructed summary include:
You get quickly to the point, arousing the readers interest in what you
have to say.
A well-organized summary sets up a framework that helps the reader

follow your line of thinking in the entire report.
Even if your summary is only one page, use headings to divide and clarify each part, as
shown here.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Purpose and Scope

Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
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Organizing the Report
The introduction comes next. It prepares the reader for the report to follow, by giving
background on the subject, explaining the method by which you arrived at your findings,
defining technical terms if necessary, and/or explaining limitations. Generally, the more
widely a report is to be circulated, the more lengthy an introduction it will require.
The body of the report will contain your findings. The way you organize the sequence of
ideas will, of course, depend on the subject and your purpose. If you review the patterns
of organization, you will probably find one that is appropriate. Longer reports may
require a combination of methods.
The report ends with conclusions and recommendations. In shorter reports, these are
sometimes combined. In longer reports, the ending may also contain a summary. It is
often useful, expedient, and effective to combine summary and conclusions. In this case,
recommendations should stand alone as a separate section.
Organizing your Research
Experienced writers often use file cards/post-it notes when they collect information.
These can be easily arranged and rearranged. By arranging them in piles, you can create
and organize information into a plan. Here are some tips for this strategy:
Write only one point on each card.
Arrange the cards/notes into piles, putting all closely related points
together. All evidence related to marketing goes in one pile, all evidence related to
product development goes in another pile, and so on.
Arrange the piles of cards/notes in one of the following basic ways. (The
choice of sequence will depend largely on the logic of the subject matter and the
needs of your audience.)
o Time: From past to present to future, or background, present status, future
prospects.
o Place: By location.
o Factor: Depends on the topic and factors selected.
o Problem-analysis-solution: Description of problem, why it exists, what to
do about it.
o Order of importance: From least important to most important or viceversa.
Go through each pile and arrange the notes in an understandable sequence

within your basic plan. Which points need to precede others in order to present a
clear picture?
Write out your organization plan (outline) and use it as your road map
while you write the report.
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Planning Exercise
Working in small teams, think of a topic well-suited to each of the ways of arranging or
sequencing material. Provide an example for each method.
Time
Place
Factor
Problem-analysis-solution
Order of importance
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XVI: The Third Stage Writing
Drafting Your Report

Once the report outline is complete, the next step is to present all your information in a
clear and comprehensible form.
Few people can write even a short, informal report in one draft. Always write a rough
draft, starting with the part of the report that seems easiest. Usually thats the section in
which you describe your findings. But you may be just burning to write your
recommendations first, or the introduction. It really doesnt matter.
The concept of a controlled stream of consciousness works very well here. The idea is
simple. First, review your problem/purpose statement. If its well written (clear and
concise), your problem/purpose statement should give you a clear focus on what you
want to accomplish. Its your destination. Then, review your report outline. Thats your
road map to point the way to your destination, with checkpoints (major headings) along
the way. After that, concentrate on getting your ideas down on paper, not on the niceties
of style.
Once you have completed your first draft, go over it carefully, penciling in
improvements. Then use the Checklist for Revision shown in the next session and write a
polished draft.
Whether the style should be informal, using first and second person (I and you), or
formal, using third person (he, she, they), depends on the reader. The complexity and
length of a report tend to push you in the direction of more formality also: the longer the
report, the more formal. Be sensitive about the choice of style. It has a lot to do with the
way the reader will receive your report. Being overly familiar in a report to the president
can be seen as obnoxious. Being too formal with Joe, the supervisor you work with every
day, can arouse resentment and make you look like a stuffed shirt.
A final word on pre-testing your polished draft: before you go to print with the final copy,
test it on a knowledgeable and candid colleague, one who will tell it like it is. If you can
pretest your report on someone like the primary reader(s) (or even the reader himself (if
thats possible to do on an informal basis), you have a chance to correct problems before
they can embarrass you later.
The better you can make the report before its final submission, the better for you in the
long run. Dont let the prospect of another rewrite deter you from seeking reactions. On
the other hand, remember thats its your report, not someone elses. You can seek a
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reaction, but ultimately you yourself must decide whether that reaction is valid enough to
require a revision.
Here are some tips for making your writing as readable as possible.
Cement your ideas together with words. Use simple words, and put them
together in short sentences: language that communicates.
Dont write to impress. Write to inform the people who are going to read
your report.
When it comes to layout, use plenty of space; dont cramp your writing so
that is gives your reader a headache to look atnever mind to read.
Use headings that tell the reader, in a very few words, what the next
section of the report is about. Headings should grab the readers attention.
The first paragraph in each section or sub-section should extend and

expand the heading. Make subsequent paragraphs short, crisp, and readable.
State your facts clearly. Describe your sources and methods. Facts should
be presented in an objective way, without bias. Once the facts have been analyzed
and interpreted, then you can draw conclusions. Its a writers privilege to draw
his or her own conclusions, but the facts must be given in a straightforward and
objective way.
When it comes to graphics and illustrations, a good picture can be worth a

thousand words, provided that the graphic is integrated with the text and given a
caption to explain it.
Remember; communicate clearly with language and layout. Use language

that is simple and strong so that you get all the information from your head into
the readers head.
Creating a Report
An employer for whom you worked last year regards you highly and values your
opinion as an employee. You no longer work there. However, this employer has
contacted you for your opinion on how to hire and retain good employees. What
advice can you offer?
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XVII: The Fourth Stage Revising

Once the report is written, put it aside for a period of time. Give yourself a breather. In
the revision stage, your objective is to ensure that your report measures up to the four Cs
of business writing. This means that your report should be clear, complete, concise, and
correct.
Your report is clear if it is fully understood at first reading. By concise, we mean that all
information is down to an intelligent and intelligible minimum. Your report is complete
when every piece of essential information has been included. Finally, your report is
correct when all information is both accurate and verifiable.
Checklist for Revision
Before you go into the final draft, review your first draft with the following points in
mind.
Check the Facts
Its embarrassing (and possibly fatal to your reputation) to build a whole case on incorrect
facts or figures. Be careful not to treat an assumption as a fact.
Check the Length
Should you cut or add? A report is too long if it tells the readers more than they want to
know. It is too short if it misses important evidence or fails to draw obvious conclusions.
Make sure you've given your readers the details and examples they need to see your point
and accept it. But dont make the frequent mistake of assuming that readers are interested
in a blow-by-blow account; you can smother the important points in too much detail. Not
every bit of information uncovered in your research needs to be included.
Check the Organizational Structure
Your report ought to have a beginning, middle, and an end, and each part should do its
job effectively. The beginning should make it clear what the communication is about. The
middle should develop and support the main idea with specifics: details, figures,
examples, quotations. The ending should summarize, reinforce the point, and perhaps
make recommendations.
Check each paragraph for unity and coherence. Unity means that only one idea is
developed in each paragraph. Coherence means that each sentence in the paragraph
logically hooks onto the preceding sentence and leads into the following one. Look at
your paragraphs: can you identify a topic sentence in each (a sentence that states the main
idea which the rest of the paragraph develops)? If not, the paragraph may be a candidate
for deletion or rewriting.
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Your goal is to make clear that each paragraph relates to the main idea (your thesis), that
each grows out of the preceding paragraph, and that each leads into the following one. A
paragraph should begin with something that links it to the one before it. That something
may be a key word repeated, a pronoun whose antecedent is in the previous paragraph, or
a transitional word bridging a gap in thought.
Check the Style
In general, be on the lookout for lengthy, obscure sentences; wordiness; pretentiousness;
overuse of the passive voice; and imprecise language. Read your work aloud, noting the
parts where you stumble or misread and the parts that sound dull and boring, even to you.
Pump more energy into those parts by substituting action verbs and concrete nouns.
Then, use this three step process to tighten up the style:
Cut. Eliminate words or phrases that dont pull their weight.
Rearrange. Put the ideas you want to emphasize at the beginning or the
end of sentences, the places of natural emphasis.
Rewrite. If cutting and rearranging dont work, take more drastic action:
scrap the sentence and try it again. Imagine your reader confronting you with,
What are you trying to tell me here? and then write your answer to that question
as directly as you can.
Apply these remedies to every swollen section or infected sentence. All you need is a red
pen. Cross out words and phrases that dont say anything. Draw arrows to rearrange
words or sentences. Cut out sections that contain irrelevant information. If you dont have
a word processor, use scissors to cut out the whole paragraphs and use scotch tape to put
them in a different order. Rewrite only when the first two medicines are not strong
enough for a cure.
Check the Spelling, Grammar, and Punctuation

Look up the spelling of words you habitually misspell and check if you are doubtful. Be
alert to possible problems in agreement or the placement of modifiers; be sure every
pronoun has a clear reference. See that your punctuation is both correct and appropriate.
Remember that you can spoil an otherwise good piece of writing by a blatant, distracting
error. Since it is very difficult to see your own errors, dont be afraid to have someone
else read the piece over, looking specifically for errors in spelling, punctuation, and
grammar.
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XVIII: Formal Reports
Typically, the longer, more formal report has the following parts:
Cover
Includes the name of the organization and division

and the title of the report.
Letter of Transmittal
Explains how, why, and under what circumstances

the report was prepared.
Title Page
Title of the report, who the report was prepared for

(name and title of recipient), authors name, and
date.
Synopsis or Executive Summary
An informative summary covering the purpose of

the report as well as key findings, conclusions, and
recommendations.
Table of Contents
Contains main divisions with page numbers.
List of Illustrations
Needed only if there are many illustrations and

graphs.
Introduction
Includes whatever the reader needs in order to

understand the report (background, scope and
limitations, details about your approach or method,
criteria used in making your evaluation).
Body/Discussion
The meat of the report.
Summary
Tells your reader what you set out to do and what

your findings are.
Conclusions
Summarizes the facts in the report and spells out the

conclusions.
Recommendations
Offers recommendations based on the conclusions.
Appendix
May include statistics, tables, and other information

of interest to some readers that would not be
appropriate in the body of the report.
References
Very extensive reports may also contain footnotes

and a bibliography.
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XIX: How to Use Headings

Headings in a report help both the reader and the writer. Obviously the use of headings
for each topic is a convenience to readers, helping them find the information theyre most
interested in and showing them how the report is organized. What is less apparent is the
help they give to you, the writer.
They force you to plan your organization and outline your material. Before you can make
logical divisions and show relationships to the reader, you have to clarify them for
yourself, and that means making some kind of outline.
To be effective, headings should be as descriptive as possible. They should describe what
comes next and help make the transition from one subject to another.
The headings in your report come directly from the topic headings in your outline, with
only a slight variation for typographical purposes.
The following headings will serve most purposes.
MAJOR HEADING (centered, all capitals, bold)
MAJOR SUB-HEADING (flush left to margin, all capitals, bold)
Minor Sub-Heading (flush left to margin, initial capitals, underlined)
Secondary Minor Sub-Heading. (flush left, initial capitals, bold, period after subheadings, type that follows begins on the same line)
Go back to your assignment. Did you include any headings? Could you, now that
youve had an opportunity to think about it?
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XX: Charts and Graphs

Since the report exists to communicate information in the most precise and meaningful
way, tables and graphs may be important supplements to the narrative. To be effective,
they must be well-designed and clearly executed. They should also be carefully integrated
with the text of the report.
There are five basic kinds of statistical graphs, each with advantages and disadvantages.
The trick is to match the proper graph to the kind of data you wish to present.
Area Graph (Pie Chart)
Simplest breakdown of percentages.
Bar Graph
Versatile; easy comparison of amounts, subdivisions,

relations.
Column Graph
Useful for comparison of related items having two

different measurement units (such as profits, years).
Curve
Most flexible for graphing and comparing trends.
Surface
Useful for special emphasis on a particular feature within a

trend.
How to Use Graphic Aids
Graphic aids in the form of charts, tables, and lists command attention; unless, of course,
you have overused them. Correctly used, they give the report a different way of seeing
information.
Use graphics in your report:
If your data is complex and using a table or chart will help the reader
understand your point.
If compiling the data in a table or chart will save the reader time.
If a list, chart, or table will conveniently collect information the reader

may want to refer to later.
Put illustrations near the appropriate text. If you talk about a table or chart, make sure the
reader can find it by placing it near the discussion of the point it is to illustrate. To be sure
that your graphic aids help the reader, let each chart illustrate only one point. Also, since
the reader shouldnt be expected to interpret the data for himself, make sure you point out
what the table showscall attention to trends, relationships, totals, increases, and so on.
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Points to Remember About Graphic Aids
If the text is crystal clear without the chart, question your decision to use it. Maybe its
not necessary. If the text is incomprehensible without the chart, perhaps you are
expecting the chart or table to do your work for you. The visual cannot make your point;
it can only help you illustrate it.
Be sure to lead the reader into and out of your list, chart, or table by introducing it and
concluding it in the text itself. In most cases, if there is an illustration, there should be an
explanation, and both should be clear enough to serve the writers purpose in meeting
what he considers to be the needs of his reader.
Here are some other tips:
Put long, complicated graphics in the appendix. Use bite-size tables and
charts in the text.
Keep tables and charts as brief a possible.
Signal the reader when a table or chart is coming up.
Label graphics clearly and specifically.
Number tables and charts consecutively throughout the report. Do not,

however, mix the two.
Use a graphic only if it will help the reader understand your point.
Dont interrupt the text with a graphic; lead the reader into it and out of it.
Point out the significance of the table or chart to the reader.
Keep the graphic as simple as possible.
Use white space and labeling to make your graphics attractive; make the
reader want to look at them.
Consider using tables and charts in the appendix as a way to compile and
present all your significant data in convenient form.
Usually both the title and caption are centered above the chart, but any consistently
followed method will do.
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XXI: The Finishing Touches
The Acid Test
Ask yourself these questions:
Does the reader know me?
Does the reader like me?
Does the reader want to do business with me?

If you have answered No to any of the above questions you will have to do some
persuading to do in your report.
Steps in the Persuasion Process
There are many ways to persuade others, although you will probably be most successful
using a combination of several. Consider all approaches before you actually set the
wheels in motion to go about persuading someone. Social psychologist William McGuire
lists six such steps: presenting, attending, comprehending, yielding, retaining the new
position, and acting.
Presenting
You cant persuade anyone of anything unless he or she is in the right place, at the right
time, to perceive the message. If the person doesnt read the proposal or hear your
presentation, your message is not going to penetrate and persuade that message at all.
Attending
The person may be in the right place at the right time to read your proposal or see your
presentation, but not pay any attention to it. He/she might be thinking of something else.
The person must attend or pay attention to the message if you are to have any hope of
persuading him/her.
Comprehending
If the person cant understand your message, there isnt much chance that he/she will be
persuaded. The point is, you have to use message symbols your audience can
comprehend. If you dont, your message may be technically perfect, but it will fail to
communicate, and thus fail to comprehend.
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Yielding
If the person got the message, and understood it, but remains unmoved from his or her
previous position, communication has occurred but persuasion has not.
Retaining the new position
If your message has successfully persuaded someone to change their position, but has not
been successful enough to make that person retain their new attitude over a period of
time, for all practical purposes this attempt at persuasion has failed. It is not enough to get
the message through. That message has to be retained long enough for the desired action
to occur.
Acting
Assume your message was remembered, and you actually were persuasive enough for
someone to retain a particular attitude. However, it was not successful or persuasive
enough to get any action. You have been partially successful, but you may not have
achieved what you set out to do.
To be successful, persuasion must accomplish all six of these steps:
1) You must get your message to the audience.
2) You must get someone to pay attention to it.
3) The message must be understandable. People are more likely to read things they
can understand. They wont come over to your side if they dont understand what
your side is.
4) Your arguments must be convincing.
5) The audience must be willing to give in or to yield.
6) They must remember their new attitude and be willing to act.
Designing Your Message
Design your message to take advantage of any helpful qualities your organization, your
department, or you have.
Credibility is an important quality. Usually, the more credible a source, the more
persuasive it is. The best way to be credible is to tell the truth, even when it hurts.
Honesty and accuracy build credibility. What you write must also correspond to your
organizations action. Management cant represent one thing while you write something
else.
Credibility has two major elements: expertise and objectivity. People are more likely to
believe you if they think you know what you are talking about, but they must also believe
you are telling the truth.
Being liked helps make persuasion more successful. So does being similar to audience
members in some way. If you can find common ground between you and your audience,
you are more likely to persuade them to your position.
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Perceived power is another characteristic that leads to effective persuasion. If you have
any power over your audience, then you are more apt to be successful in persuading them
to see your point of view.
Audiences tend to believe people who know more than they dobut not too much more!
Can you think of any additional helpful characteristics to develop in your

proposals?
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Dealing with Tough Questions
When you are writing a message, there are several fundamental but difficult questions
you will likely have to answer.
Should you only give one side of the story in your message?
Generally speaking, no. If you can identify objections or the other persons side of the
story first, you have gone a long way toward potentially defusing any objections that may
exist.
Which side should you give first?
If you feel the other side has some strong arguments in their favor, get them out of the
way first by bringing them up one by one and building your case against them. If you
think the group will be largely in favor of your proposal, then you might get away with
just mentioning them after youve swung the group to your way of thinking.
Should you make conclusions specific or let the audience draw its own conclusions?
It depends on the audience, their knowledge of the subject under discussion, and the
manner in which you make conclusions. No group will want to be talked down to or
patronized. On the other hand if this is a group that is in unknown territory, you can help
them draw their own conclusions.
Do fear techniques work?
Usually they may work short term but not long term, and they will then not only fear you
but resent you.
Is it better to use an emotional or a factual argument?

Your best bet is to feel passionate about the facts.
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XXII: Practical Application
Task
Check the facts.
Item
Are the facts correct?
Are there any assumptions?
Check the length.
Does it tell readers more than they want to know?

Does it miss important evidence?
Check the structure.
Does it have a beginning that makes it clear what the

report is about?
Does the middle develop and support the main idea?
Does the ending summarize, reinforce the point, and
make recommendations?
Is each paragraph unified and coherent?
Does each paragraph relate to the main thesis?
Does each paragraph relate to the paragraph before and
after it?
Check the style.
Be on the lookout for lengthy, obscure sentences;

wordiness; pretentiousness; overuse of the passive voice;
and imprecise language.
Read the report out loud and circle parts where you
stumble or you find yourself bored.
Cut, rearrange, and rewrite.
Check for errors.
Check spelling and grammar.
Check punctuation.

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