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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
Turkish Land Forces NCO Vocational College, Automotive Sciences Department, 10110 Balikesir, Turkey
Gulhane Military Academy, Ankara, Turkey
c
Balikesir University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 10145 Balikesir, Turkey
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM, USA
b
h i g h l i g h t s
Dieselvegetable oiln-butanol ternary blends were tested in a diesel engine.
Canola, soybean, sunower, corn, olive and hazelnut oils were the vegetable oils.
Ternary blends increased BSFC as compared to diesel fuel between 21.45% and 24.67%.
The ternary blends increased NO emissions as compared to diesel fuel.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 October 2014
Received in revised form 14 January 2015
Accepted 17 January 2015
Available online 27 February 2015
Keywords:
Biofuels
Microemulsication
n-Butanol
Vegetable oil
Diesel engine
a b s t r a c t
In this study, n-butanol (nB) was used as the common solvent and crude canola (Cn), soybean (Sb), sunower (Sf), corn (Cr), olive (Ol), and hazelnut oil (Hn) as the vegetable oil components were used for making microemulsication of diesel fuel (D)-vegetable oil blends. The blend ratios of 70% vol. D, 20% vol.
vegetable oil and 10% vol. nB were determined to increase concentration of biofuels in ternary blends.
Six different ternary blends were prepared via the splash blending method. Engine performance tests
of the ternary blends were carried out on a four-cylinder, four-cycle turbocharged direct-injection diesel
engine at full load with various engine speeds. Test fuels were kept stationary at ambient temperature
and the long-term stabilities were observed at 60 days. There were not any phase separations in the ternary blends. Fuel properties of the test fuels were examined and determined to be in agreement with the
fuel standards. According to engine performance test results of the ternary blends, brake torque, brake
power, brake thermal efciency (BTE), brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) and exhaust gas temperatures decreased while brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC) increased as compared to those of diesel fuel. In terms of basic exhaust gas emissions, ternary blends increased nitric oxide (NO) and carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions while reducing hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as compared to diesel.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Renewable and alternative energy sources are becoming more
demanding and necessary due to increases in crude oil prices and
exhaust gas emissions due to fossil fuels throughout the world.
The demand for fossil based fuels has increased rapidly in recent
years because of worldwide industrialization and the increasing
number of vehicles. Fossil fuels today represent 80% of primary
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 575 8355304; fax: +1 575 8355209.
E-mail addresses: aatmanli@hotmail.com (A. Atmanli), yilmaznadir@yahoo.com
(N. Yilmaz).
1
Tel.: +902662212350; fax: +902662212358.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.071
0306-2619/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
156
the desire to increase biofuel ratio in fuel blends and the European
Union (2003/30/EC) directive on May 8, 2003 that endorsed 20%
share of biofuels by 2020. Test blends were evaluated in a fourcylinder, four-stroke, turbocharged, direct-injection diesel engine
for engine performance characteristics and emissions. Performance
parameters were compared to those of the reference fuel.
2. Experiment and procedure
2.1. Experimental setup
The engine dynamometer coupled to the engine was hydraulictype (BT-190) with a maximum brake power of 119 kW, a maximum engine speed of 7500 rpm and a maximum torque of
745 N m. The load cell capacity was 2500 N and the brake water
pressure was 12 kg/cm2. The schematic of the engine dynamometer setup is seen in Fig. 1. The test engine was a four-cylinder, fourstroke, turbocharged, direct injection, Land Rover 110 diesel
engine. Technical specications of the test engine are given in
Table 1.
Exhaust gas emissions were measured using a Testo 350
exhaust gas analyzer which determines CO, NO, NO2, CO2 and HC
emissions within the ranges of 010000 ppm, 04000 ppm, 0
500 ppm, 050 vol.% and 10040000 ppm, respectively. Uncertainty analyses for engine performance parameters were performed
using the propagation of errors. The overall uncertainty was calculated using Eq. (1).
"
wR
@R
w1
@x1
2
@R
w2
@x2
2
@R
wn
@xn
2 #12
1
1. Fuel tanks.
2. Two-way, hand controlled valve.
3. Fuel meter.
4. Hydraulic dynamometer.
5. Exhaust gas analyzer.
6. Control panel.
7. Cooling water tank.
8. Diesel engine.
9. K-type thermocouple.
10-11. PT-100 temperature sensor.
157
Table 3
Fatty acid composition of vegetable oils (%).
Model
Fatty acids
Bore (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Volume (cm3)
Compression ratio
Maximum torque (N m)
Maximum power (kW)
Engine rpm (Neutral)
Maximum engine rpm
Fuel injection system
Static injection timing (CA
BTDC)
Injector type
Injection pressure (bar)
Initial pressure
Secondary pressure
Injection pump type
90.47
97.00
2495
19.5:1
235 @ 2200 rpm
82 kW @ 3800 rpm
720
4400 (+40, 20)
Turbocharged direct injection (TDI)
15
Myristic
Palmitic
Stearic
Arachidic
Behenic
Lignoseric
Palmitoleic
Oleic
Linoleic
Linolenic
Acid number
Cooling system
(C14:0)
(C16:0)
(C18:0)
(C20:0)
(C22:0)
(C24:0)
(C16:1)
(C18:1)
(C18:2)
(C18:3)
(% m/m)
Cn
Sb
Sf
Cr
Ol
Hn
0.11
6.45
2.54
0.42
0.33
0.30
0.27
53.36
29.81
5.63
0.10
0.10
10.26
3.52
0.23
0.26
0.27
0.11
26.55
51.04
7.06
0.39
0.08
5.33
3.45
0.16
0.65
0.14
0.12
37.13
52.01
0.13
0.14
0.09
11.17
2.20
0.40
0.16
0.16
0.15
31.80
52.36
0.91
2.75
0.30
11.66
2.44
0.49
0.30
0.31
0.50
55.06
26.57
0.73
2.61
0.04
5.50
2.00
0.04
0.04
0.08
77.15
14.86
0.04
0.08
The vegetable oils chosen for this study are typical and grown in
Turkey: Cn, Sb, Sf, Cr, Ol and Hn. n-Butanol was 99% pure and all
the fuels were obtained from local industries.
Agilent Technologies 6850 Network GC System was used to
measure the fatty acid compositions of the vegetable oils that were
used in the study. HP-88 column (60 m long, 0.25 mm and 0.2 lm
lm thickness) was used. Helium, thoroughly dried and with an
oxygen content of less than 10 mg/kg, was the carrier gas. The temperature program was held at 165 C for 25 min, increased to
190 C at a rate of 5 C min1 and held at 190 C for 25 min. The
injector and detector temperatures were 200 C and 250 C, respectively. One sample was analyzed each time and the injection volume was 1.0 lL. The measured fatty acid compositions (%) are
given in Table 3.
Three methods were used to blend the biofuels: splash-blending, mixing in the fuel tank and mixing through the fuel line
[28,29]. The splash-blending method is regarded as the most effective, efcient and widely used method [11,2830].
In order to increase the biofuel share in the blends and to follow
the European Union (2003/30/EC) directive endorsing 20% share of
biofuels by 2020, the blend of 70% D, 20% vegetable oil and 10% nB
was determined as an alternative fuel.
Ternary blends were prepared via the splash-blending method
by mixing diesel fuel and vegetable oils and using n-butanol as
the solvent to create microemulsion. Prepared blends are named
as: DnBCn, DnBSb, DnBSf, DnBCr, DnBOl and DnBHn.
Since fuel components were easily miscible within the chosen
concentrations, no additional energy or external mixing was provided. The ternary blends were kept at room temperature for
60 days and examined on the 5th, 10th, 15th, 30th, 45th and
60th days under polarized light and no separation was observed.
Fig. 2 shows the physical appearance of the ternary blends stored
at room temperature after 60 days.
Table 2
Accuracy and uncertainty values of measured and calculated quantities.
Measured quantity
Accuracy
Calculated quantity
Uncertainty (%)
Load
Speed
Time
Temperature
Humidity
CO
NO
CO2
HC
0.03%
1 rpm
1%
1 C
3 RH%
10 ppm
5 ppm
0.3 vol.%
10 ppm
Brake torque
Brake power
BSFC
BTE
0.57
0.48
1
1.14
qb
3
X
xi qi
i1
Hub
3
3
X
X
xi qi Hui = xi qi
i1
i1
where Hub is the lower heating value of the blend in terms of MJ/kg
and Hui is the known lower heating value of each fuel component.
Eq. (4) was used in order to calculate the cetane numbers of the
blends.
CNb
3
X
xi CNi
i1
where CNb is the cetane number of the blend and CNi is the known
cetane number of each fuel component.
Eq. (5) was used in order to calculate the kinematic viscosities
of the blends according to Arrhenius Mixing rule.
ln gb
3
X
xi ln gi
i1
The next step was to calculate the VBI of the blend (VBIb), using
Eq. (7):
VBIb
3
X
xi VBIi
i1
158
Fig. 2. Physical appearance of the ternary blends stored at room temperature after 60 days.
3. Results
In this study, the effect of ternary blends of diesel, n-butanol
and vegetable oils on diesel engine performance and emissions
was investigated. Findings as a function of engine speed were
reported and discussed in detail for brake torque, brake power,
BSFC, BTE, exhaust gas temperature and exhaust emissions of
NO, CO, HC and CO2.
3.1. Engine performance characteristics
Figs. 3 and 4 show brake torque and brake power of the engine
running on diesel fuel and ternary blends of diesel, n-butanol and
vegetable oils. Brake torque was maximum at 2200 rpm and
decreased as the engine speed increased afterwards. As seen in
Figs. 3 and 4 especially at 3800 rpm, the ternary blends except DnBCr
showed different brake torque and brake power behaviors at
3800 rpm as compared to the other engine speeds. At 3800 rpm, as
compared to diesel fuel, the ternary blends of DnBCn, DnBSb, DnBSf,
Table 4
Properties of the test fuels.
Fuel
Density
(g/ml)
Measured
Diesel
0.820
n2.23
Lower heating
value (MJ/kg)
Cetane
number
Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s) @ 40 C
43.38
Butanol
55.5
0.810
2.21
33.10
17
49.55
49.35
48.75
48.95
49.95
50.35
Arrhenius
mixing rule
3.85
3.77
3.80
3.81
3.69
3.54
Refutas
equation
3.26
3.22
3.25
3.24
3.18
3.11
Calculated
DnBCn
DnBSb
DnBSf
DnBCr
DnBOl
DnBHn
0.838
0.838
0.837
0.838
0.836
0.836
41.27
41.37
41.33
41.35
41.57
41.39
DnBOl and DnBHn increased brake torque for 3.57%, 1.87%, 1.74%,
2.00% and 1.34% while DnBCr showed a brake torque decrease of
1.07%. When the average over the entire engine speeds is considered,
DnBCn, DnBSb, DnBSf, DnBCr, DnBOl and DnBHn decreased brake
torque for 0.76%, 0.81%, 1.32%, 2.37%, 0.88% and 1.62%. The reason
for lower brake torque with the ternary blends as compared to diesel
is higher viscosity, lower heating value and lower cetane number of
the ternary blends.
Higher viscosity makes fuel injection more difcult and causes
poorer atomization [12]. In addition, existence of oxygen molecules in the ternary blends due to n-butanol and vegetable oils
reduces the heating value of the blends. Lower heating value causes lower energy release due to combustion and lower effective
pressure on piston causing less useful work.
The reason for lower brake torque for DnBCr as compared to the
other ternary blends (2.37%) is that corn oil has a higher percentage (52.36%) of lineloic (18:2) fatty acid than the other vegetable
oils (see Table 3). Increase of the double bonds decreases the chain
length and cetane number of the fuel. Many researchers have indicated the negative impact of low cetane number on combustion
[37,38].
Fig. 5 shows BSFC of diesel fuel and the ternary blends as a function of engine speed. BSFCs for DnBCn, DnBSb, DnBSf, DnBCr,
DnBOl and DnBHn increased 22.68%, 21.45%, 22.21%, 24.67%,
21.93% and 21.47% as compared to diesel fuel.
159
160
161
4. Conclusions
In this study, ternary blends of diesel, vegetable oils and n-butanol were considered as alternatives for use in a diesel engine
without any modication. Microemulsion method, a cheap and
an effective technique, was used to mix diesel fuel and vegetable
oils with n-butanol as a solvent. Microemulsion technique as well
as engine performance and exhaust emission characteristics of the
ternary blends of diesel, n-butanol and vegetable oils showed that
n-butanol and vegetable oils can be used as alternatives to diesel.
n-Butanol and vegetable oils lower the heating value of the
ternary blends due to their oxygen contents. Thus, the ternary
blends showed lower brake torque, brake power, BTE and exhaust
gas temperature while resulting in higher BSFC as compared to diesel fuel. Overall, n-butanol addition to diesel-vegetable oil mixtures increased NO and CO emissions while decreasing HC and
CO2 emissions.
When the fatty acid compositions and properties of the fuels are
considered, Hn and Ol seem to be advantageous as cetane number
enhances due to their lower double bond numbers. If the six different vegetable oils are compared to one another, the ternary blends
containing Hn resulted in lower exhaust gas emissions due to its
lower kinematic viscosity and higher cetane number. Thus, Hn
could be considered for alternative fuel production especially in
Turkey since Turkey is the largest hazelnut producer in the world
providing approximately 80% of the demand.
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