Motors

and Generators
It was discovered in 1820 that a wire carrying an electric current produces a magnetic field. Almost
immediately, Andre Ampere investigated the force between two parallel current-carrying wires
(conductors). He found that the force experienced by each wire was equal, and created an equation to
calculate the total force experienced. (It can be considered as one of the wires experiencing the force. Do
!

$%& %'

"

not overcomplicate this if questions ask for the force, just use the equation.) It was =

, where:

F is the force between the conductors (N)

is the common length of the conductors (m)
is the magnetic force constant 210/0
2 & 5 are the currents in wire 1 and wire 2 (A)
is the distance that separates the conductors
His observations of the nature of the force (attractive or repulsive) can be explained by the Right-Hand Grip
Rule:
The thumb is the direction of conventional current, and the curl of the fingers is the direction of the
magnetic field.
Conventional current is the direction in which positive charge flows; even though in reality the
negative electrons are the only mobile current, too many rules and understanding have been based
on switch over to actual current. Conventional current is indicated on diagrams by a black arrow: .
(need to fill it in)
The direction of force of a magnetic field is defined as: the direction an isolated (this is purely
conceptual) North Pole will experience a force.
Similarly, the direction of force of an electric field is defined as: the direction a positive charge will
experience a force.
In regards to representing the magnitude of electric and/ or magnetic fields, field lines are used to
indicate these fields. The more lines draw, the greater the strength of the field, and arrows are
drawn onto the lines to indicate the direction.
Furthermore, magnetic fields are often represented as going into (denoted by x think of a
treasure spot) or coming out (denoted by o) of the page. It is to be noted that in either of these
cases, anything drawn normally on the page will always be perpendicular to the magnetic fields.
His observations and equation demonstrate that electric currents create magnetic fields and forces, and that
the generated magnetic fields can interact with each other, producing forces. This is the basis of electrical
motors.
The Motor Effect is the force a current-carrying conductor experiences in the presence of a magnetic field.
This phenomenon occurs for the exact same reasons as the equation above but the force is often more
significant because the intrinsic magnetic field is often stronger than a generated magnetic field. It is
important to note that this force is maximised when the wire and magnetic field are perpendicular, and nonexistent when they are parallel. It is given by = , where:
F is the force acting on the current-carrying conductor
B is the magnetic field strength (T)
I is the current in the conductor (A)
is the length of the current-carrying conductor within the magnetic field (m)
calculates the (vector) component of the (conventional) current that is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, where is the opposite angle to the perpendicular component.

NB: This is equation is a simplification of the first equation, reduced by Amperes Law: 2 =

The direction of force of the Motor Effect can be attained from the Right Hand (Palm) Rule:

=%&
(


The thumb is the direction of conventional current, the fingers are the direction of the magnetic
field, and the palm face indicates the direction of force (move the palm which way it is facing to see
the direction of the force).
Conventional current is the direction in which positive charge flows; even though in reality the
negative electrons are the only mobile current, too many rules and understanding have been based
on switch over to actual current. Conventional current is indicated on diagrams by a black arrow:
(need to fill it in)
Before this knowledge can be applied to motors, it is necessary to learn about Torque. Torque is a measure
of how much force acting on an object is causing that object to rotate. Torque will only occur if the object
rotates around a pivot point, which is an axis of rotation specifically for motors an axle. Torque is given by
= where:
is the torque (Nm)
is the total perpendicular force acting from an end if an identical (constructive) force is acting
from either end, then the torque is doubled.
is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.
It can be seen that when the force acts parallel to the object, no torque (rotational force) occurs, and this is
significant because after a force with fixed direction rotates an object 90, it will no longer rotate this object.
Furthermore, if the object rotates beyond 90, the force will provide negative torque.
Torque applies to motors because motors are typically used to turn wheels on axles. Now if the Motor Effect
is the force causing torque in a motor, the two can be equated, producing = . Accounting for multiple
wires and the relevant (vector) component of the force, the torque on a loop of wire carrying current in a
magnetic field is given by = , where:
is the torque on the body (of wires) (Nm)
is the number of coils/loops of wire
is the magnetic field strength (T)
is the (average) current flowing in the wires (A)
is the area of the coil (m)
resolves the relevant (vector) component of the Motor Effects force that acts perpendicular to
the wire, where is the angle between the plane of the coil and the magnetic field.

Applications of the Motor Effect

Fundamentally, electric motors convert electrical energy into kinetic (mechanical) energy by the Motor
Effect.
All electric motors have a stationary part (stator) and a rotating part (rotor). There are three main types of
electric motors commutator, induction and synchronous motors.



Commutator DC motors essentially consist of 5 parts:
The Stator fixed permanent magnets or electromagnets that generate a strong magnetic field.
The Rotor an armature and coils of wires which are wound around the former and rotate about the
axle.
The current reverser which consists of a split-ring commutator and (conductive) brushes.
The external DC Circuit which is connected to the commutator by the brushes.
The Pivot Point the axle that the rotor (specifically the armature) is attached to and rotates about.

The stator magnets often used curved magnetic pole pieces to create radial magnetic fields. These fields
keep the magnetic field perpendicular to the coil, resulting in a constant, smooth and maximum torque
acting on the coil. These magnets can either be permanent (bar) magnets or electromagnets a type of
magnet that produces its magnetic field by the flow of electrical current. But how does this apply to
multiple coils?

In its simplest form, the rotor consists of a single coil (looped) that experiences torque due to the Motor
Effect. However, in many practical motors, there are many coils which are wrapped around an armature.
These coils are set a slightly different angles to make the turning force more uniform and ensure a steadier
rotation.
The armature is a soft iron core that is attached to the axle, around which the coils are wound. The soft iron
core enhances the magnetic field (which one?) and is laminated to reduce heat loss from eddy currents.
The commutator is a split ring (split into two pieces) metal cylinder that is in (loose) electrical contact with
the rotating coils. The commutator is also connected to the brushes which are connected to the eternal DC
circuit. The commutator therefore provides the current in the rotating coils, but it also reverses their current
as the (rotor) coils pass contact from one commutator ring to another. [This is because if a wire rotated 180
without the direction of the force changing, the torque on the wire would be in the opposite rotational
direction, opposing the original momentum of the wire. Therefore, it is necessary for the motor to be a
useful source of mechanical (kinetic) energy that every half rotation of the (rotor) coils their current is
reversed,] so that the torque always acts in the same rotational direction.
The brushes are fine flexible metal wires which maintain smooth electrical contact between the commutator
rings and the external DC circuit, effectively allowing current to flow into the rotating coils.

The Galvanometer is another application of the Motor Effect that is the basis for most meters both
ammeters and voltmeters; it can be calibrated to measure either current or voltage.
The external current/voltage is measured by the movement of the needle, which rotates on a coil. A small
proportion of the external current passes through the coil, which is suspended in the radial magnetic field of
the small curved permanent magnets. As by the Motor Effect, the coil experiences a constant torque


through its rotation that is proportional to the external current. The rotation of the coil is opposed by a small
spring, which allows the measuring scale to differentiate between higher and lower currents.

The Motor effect is utilised in a loudspeaker to produce amplified sound from an audio frequency electrical
signal. An alternating current signal passes through a coil which is suspended in the magnetic field of a
permanent magnet. As by the Motor Effect, the coil vibrates at the same frequency of the input signal, as the
force on the coil is proportional to the audio frequency signal. The speaker cone, which is attached the coil,
vibrates the surrounding air at the same frequency, producing amplified sound waves of the original audio
signal.

Induction and generators

In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre Marie Ampere discovered that an electric current produces a
magnetic field. In 1831, Faraday demonstrated that a moving magnetic field produced an electric current. He
had two wires retain loose contact with a rotating copper disc that was between the poles of permanent
magnets. When the disc spun, the magnetic field, relative to the wires, moved, and it induced a continuous
direct current. This marked the invention of the first electric generator.
The investigation to test this involved moving a magnet through a solenoid which was attached to an
ammeter.
The investigation needed to verify the effect when:
The distance between the coil and magnet was varied the further away the magnet was from the
coil when it was moved, the smaller the measured of generated current
The strength of the magnet was varied stronger magnets generated a greater measured current
when moved in the same way as weaker magnets were
The relative motion between the coil and magnet was varied faster movement generated a greater
measured current. Additionally, reversing the direction of the relative motion or the polarity of the
magnet generated a current in the reverse direction (the needle pointed in the opposite direction).


Magnetic field strength, B, is measured in T (Teslas). If a magnetic field is thought of as involving a number of
invisible magnetic flux lines (with the direction that an isolated north pole would experience a force), then
magnetic field strength can be considered as magnetic flux density.
Magnetic flux density defined as the measure of the number of magnetic flux lines passing through 1m of
B

area. Therefore, magnetic field strength/ flux density is quantitatively given as: = , where:
C

is magnetic field strength/ flux density (T)

is magnetic flux density (Webers, Wb)
A is the relevant area (m)
From Michael Faradays observations, he contrived Faradays Law. Faradays law states that an
ElectroMotive Force (emf) will be induced in a conductor that experiences a change in magnetic flux (over
time). The emf, or generated potential difference, creates an electric current in the conductor. The induced
emf is quantitatively given as =

H
I

,where:

is the induced emf (V)

N is the number of relevant coils in the conductor
H
I

is the change in magnetic flux over the change in time (Wb/s)

It is to be noted that when the magnetic flux is parallel to a flat object, practically no emf will be induced,
and that magnetic flux is maximised when it is perpendicular to the largest area of the conductor.
Lenzs Law, which is an extension of Faradays Law, states that the emf will be induced such as to oppose the
change in magnetic flux (it represents the negative sign in Faradays Law.
Lenzs Law is derived from the Law of Conservation of Energy; if the emf was induced such as to increase
then the emf would further increase and further increase

H
I

H
I

, generating a theoretically infinite amount of

electrical from a small amount of mechanical energy. This would violate the Law of Conservation of Energy,
and thus the emf must be induced such as to oppose the change in magnetic flux.
Electric motors utilise this aspect of Faradays Law to generate back emf, which opposes the supply emf
that rotates the motor. This is to prevent the motor from going into overdrive and burning out at a high
speed. As the coils in the motor rotate at an increasing rate,

H
I

of the coils increase, inducing an increase

back emf in the coils. The net emf, which is given by eventually reaches 0, and the
motor is now self-regulating at its terminal rotational velocity.
Additionally, small rotational speeds are also dangerous, as there is a large net current due to the lack of
back emf. This is countered by placing a starting resistance/load which is gradually removed as the back emf
increases.
An eddy current is a circular current that flows in a bulk/large/solid conductor, such as an iron core. In the
case of a solid conductor being moved right into a magnetic field, the right side is first to experience a
change in magnetic flux, and as by Faraday and Lenzs Law, an emf will be induced such as to oppose the
change in magnetic flux. This produces a current through the right side of the conductor, causing a net
charge on the right side. Therefore current flows in the whole conductor in a circular motion. lacks a
specific case too vague
Eddy currents have been utilised in induction cooktops and electromagnetic braking.
Induction cooktops use coils beneath a glass-ceramic cooktop to heat the pan. Alternating currents in the
coils create an oscillating magnetic field, which induces eddy currents in the metal pan. Because of the
resistance in the metal, the electrical energy is converted into heat energy, heating the pan. It is efficient
because almost all of the heat goes into the pan, not the cooktop which traditionally is heated so as to heat
the pan.
The principle of electromagnetic braking relies on Faraday and Lenzs law to induce eddy currents that
oppose a change in magnet flux. When a bulk conductor with a velocity experiences the magnetic flux of a
magnet, eddy currents are induced to repel the conductor away from where it was. However, the conductor


probably doesnt give a fuck, so as it leaves the magnetic flux of the magnet, eddy currents are induced in
the opposite direction to attract the conductor back to where it was. This reduced the velocity of the
conductor, and additionally the braking effect is proportional to the velocity, producing smooth braking. This
forms the basis for many free-fall amusement park rides.

Generators
While a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy using the Motor Effect, generators convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy using induction.
The fundamental structure of a generator is very similar to that of an electric/ DC motor, although its
function is reversed.
The mechanical device that drives a generator is called a prime mover; often turbines that are driven by
steam. It contains:
A rotor (consisting of an armature and rotor coils)
Permanent or electromagnets to generate the magnetic field (stator)
Pivot point an axle that the rotor rotates about
For AC generators, slip rings and brushes that are connected to a load- these do not change the
direction of current into the load; the voltage output is a normal sine wave.
For DC generators, a split-ring commutator and brushes that are connected to a load these change
the direction of current every half-rotation; the voltage output is always positive.
AC generators have surpassed DC generators in modern-day applications, primarily due to their slip-ring
contact to the rotor.
The main disadvantage of DC generators is their split-ring contact with the rotor; the brushes must spark and
will wear out as the commutator revolves. This is both inefficient in the transfer of electricity to the external
circuit, and causes maintenance issues.
However, AC generators slip-rings involve much less sparking and less wearing on the brushes, making
them more reliable and require less maintenance than DC generators. Most commercial generators are AC.
Additionally, while DC generators must induce current in the rotor, the roles of the rotor and stator can be
reverse in AC generators. Typically in power stations, and other high-current applications, AC generators are
used as their magnets can rotated, rather than the coils, which does not require slip-rings and brushes,
making it a simpler and more efficient transfer of electricity to the power grid.
Energy loses occur in transmission lines from the generator to the consumer, primarily due to the conversion
of electrical energy to heat energy. Power lost is given by = or = 5 ; it is clear that there is a direct
relationship between high resistance in the wires and greater power loss. Moreover, a high current results in
a much greater power loss than a high voltage; doubling the current quadruples the power lost, but doubling
voltage doubles power lost.
Over long distances, high voltage transmissions are therefore necessary in order to save power, but for
shorter distances voltages are lower for practicality, as the energy loses are less substantial.
AC electricity is typically transmitted through power lines, due to the ease of varying its voltage and current
with transformers, compared to Dc electricity. However, advances in solid-state technology mean that DC
voltage and current is becoming increasingly easier to manipulate, and as such is increasingly being used for
long distance power transmission.
Further energy loss occurs in transformers iron cores, where induced eddy currents produce heat. These
loses can be reduced by laminating the core.
The development of AC generators has had a significant positive outcome for society, but has had both
positive and negative implications for the environment. The use of AC generators has allowed for efficient
power transmission over long distances, allowing power stations to be located long distances away from


consumers. This had reduced the noise and air pollution in cities, while still allowing widespread access to
electricity, access to which is increasingly imperative in modern-day society.
Another positive outcome is that AC generators can efficiently harness renewable energy sources, reducing
pollution in the environment and decreasing the contribution to global warming. However, most AC
generators still rely on the burning of coal, and this has had a huge negative impact on the environment,
both from the mining of the coil destroying the environment, and the released greenhouse gases
contributing to global warming. Additionally, the burning of coal releases sulphur-dioxide, which can
produce acid rain, which can destroy vegetation and ruin aquatic environments.
The war of the currents was between Westinghouse, who supported the distribution of Teslas AC
electricity, and Edison, the prolific inventor who had installed lighting systems powered by DC. Initially,
Edisons distribution company were highly successful in distributing electricity which led to the rapid
development of electric power generation and distribution. However, Edisons DC electricity required
multiple generators within cities to efficiently distribute electricity, due to the power losses suffered over
long-range transmission.
The American engineer George Westinghouse developed an alternative system for generation and
distribution using AC electricity, using patent rights of Ac pioneer Nikola Tesla. The advantages of
Westinghouses distribution was that it could be generated and transmitted from a much longer distance,
due to high-voltage transmission, with less power loss. However, in order to maintain his monopoly, Edison
began a scare-campaign that attempted to convince the public that AC electricity was dangerous due to its
high-voltage; in 1887 he held a public demonstration in which he used AC current to execute a dozen live
animals.
In the same year, an offer of $100,000 was made for anyone would could design a system for utilising the
power of the Niagara River, and transmit it 30km to Buffalo. Both Edison and Westinghouse competed for
the prize, but after multiple successful distributions of AC electricity in Paris, London and Germany,
Westinghouses AC electricity was chosen in 1893. In 1896 the first distribution of power for Niagara Falls to
Buffalo took place, and AC has been widely implemented since.
How are transmission lines insulated from supporting structures and protected from lightning strikes

Transformers
The domestic supply voltage in Australia is 240V, but many domestic and industrial appliances contain
components that require much lower voltages, and some like televisions, require much higher voltages.
Therefore it is common for a step-up or step-down transformer to be built into appliances as part of their
power supply.
Transformers work on the principle of electromagnetic induction, which is most efficient and simple with AC;
transformers cannot efficiently operate on DC. Transformers consist of two coils of wire; the primary and the
secondary, which are wrapped around a soft iron core that magnetically links the two. An AC supply is
connected to the primary coil, and this creates a changing magnetic field, which is intensified and
concentrated by the iron core. The changing magnetic flux through the secondary coil induces an emf in it.
Transformers are used because of their ability to alter the voltage/current of AC. Step-up transformers have
more turns in the secondary coil than the primary and as such increase the voltage (and proportionally
decrease the current). Step-down transformers have more turns in the primary than the secondary and
decrease the voltage.
UV
UW

XV
XW

Transformers have had a significant impact on society; they are imperative for reducing power loss during
energy transmission, and are critical for many appliances to operate.
Lamination of the soft-iron core reduces heat loss due to eddy currents.