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Scale effects of round-crested weir flow

a

Oscar Castro-Orgaz & Willi H. Hager

(IAHR Member), Professor, University of Cordoba, Campus Rabanales, Leonardo Da Vinci

Building, E-14071 Cordoba, Spain
b

(IAHR Honorary Member), Professor, VAW, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zrich, Switzerland.
Published online: 30 Jul 2014.

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Hydraulic Research, 52:5, 653-665, DOI: 10.1080/00221686.2014.910277
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Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014), pp. 653665

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221686.2014.910277
2014 International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research

Research paper

Scale eects of round-crested weir ow

Downloaded by [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] at 07:08 18 December 2014

OSCAR CASTRO-ORGAZ (IAHR Member), Professor, University of Cordoba, Campus Rabanales, Leonardo Da Vinci Building,
E-14071 Cordoba, Spain.
Email: oscarcastro@ias.csic.es; ag2caoro@uco.es (author for correspondence)
WILLI H. HAGER (IAHR Honorary Member), Professor, VAW, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zrich, Switzerland.
Email: hager@vaw.baug.ethz.ch
ABSTRACT
Scale eects of round-crested weir ow originate from viscosity and surface tension. No general weir ow equation accounting for these is available in
the literature. In this work an equation is developed accounting for scale eects. Given the lack of knowledge on the laminar boundary layer development
for these ows, detailed two-dimensional and integral laminar boundary layer solutions were obtained, from which an analytical solution results. The
surface tension eect is included by allowing for high streamline curvature eects, as is typical for ow over very small weir models. The developments
were used to successfully predict the discharge characteristics of circular weirs of small crest radius of curvature. The research indicates a minimum
of R = 0.01 m. Provided that 0.01 m < R < 0.30 m, a minimum overow head of 0.04 m keeps the discharge curve free from signicant scale eects.
The equations are also applied to the broad-crested weir using a ow analogy for the separation bubble.

Keywords: Experimentation; scale eects; surface tension; viscosity; weir ow

1

in an IAHR monograph (Kolkman 1994). However, none of

these two succeeded in proposing generalized equations for scale
eects of round-crested weirs. Only isolated studies are currently available. Experimental works of Lakshmana Rao and
Jagannadha Rao (1973) or Varshney (1977) revealed that the
boundary layer of round-crested weir ow is laminar at laboratory scale. Maxwell and Weggel (1969) or Sarginson (1972,
1984) specically observed the importance of viscosity at low
heads. Matthew (1963) found an analytical solution for the laminar boundary layer thickness prole, yet his solution was never
veried. Isaacs (1981) made the only study on the computation of
laminar boundary layers in weir models. He numerically solved
the integral laminar boundary layer equations using Thwaites
method for a broad-crested weir. However, no two-dimensional
(2D) or one-dimensional (1D) solution of the laminar boundary
layer development for round-crested weirs is available. Thus,
its physical behaviour remains unknown, despite its importance
for the discharge features, thereby avoiding a general approach
for scale eects due to viscosity. A major contradiction from
the current approach stems by using the laminar boundary layer
equations of the at plate (Naudascher 1987, 1991). This method
is against basic ow features of weir ow encompassing accelerating ow and favourable pressure gradients. Additionally, no

Introduction

Physical modelling in hydraulic engineering suers from socalled scale eects, distorting a modelprototype relationship.
Heller (2011) presented a comprehensive review of scale eects
in hydraulic engineering. The present work deals with scale
eects in the discharge characteristics of the round-crested weir,
used as important overow structure of high dams (Cassidy
1965, Naudascher 1987, Montes 1998), or as ow measuring device (Hager 1993, Ramamurthy and Vo 1993a, 1993b).
Fuentes-Aguilar and Acua (1971), and Ramamurthy et al.
(1994) reported very thin boundary layers over round-crested
weirs and excellent performance of the ideal uid ow theory if
the crest curvature radius R is large enough to avoid signicant
scale eects. The two major sources of scale eects originate
from surface tension and viscosity (Sarginson 1984, Naudascher
1987). Whereas the head losses related to boundary layers are
small in the discharge characteristics of prototype structures
(Naudascher 1987, Montes 1998), laboratory models are of
smaller scale so that these may result in signicant alterations of
the discharge equation (Varshney 1977, Isaacs 1981, Naudascher
1987). Scale eects in control structures were specically tackled
in an IAHR symposium (Kolkman 1984) and further addressed

Received 6 January 2014; accepted 25 March 2014/Open for discussion until 30 April 2015.
ISSN 0022-1686 print/ISSN 1814-2079 online
http://www.tandfonline.com
653

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654

O. Castro-Orgaz and W.H. Hager

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

general weir ow equation accounting for real uid ow eects,

i.e. surface tension and viscosity, is currently available.
The rst step herein is to develop a general round-crested
weir ow equation accounting for real uid ow eects originating from viscosity and surface tension. This equation accounts
for surface tension eects at high heads, given its dependence
on streamline curvature. The second major objective of this
work is to depict the laminar boundary layer development of
round-crested weir ow by using detailed 2D, and integral 1D
laminar boundary layer solutions. These are employed to present
an approximate analytical model used as predictor of viscosity
eects in the general weir ow equation. The prediction of the
discharge characteristics is veried with a set of experimental
data. The theory proposed is also used to predict the discharge
features of broad-crested weirs using a separation bubble. A ow
analogy between the separation bubble and a round-crested weir
is developed, in which the shear layer above the bubble and
the surface tension at the free surface are accounted for. The
present theory is also used to evaluate the minimum overow
head necessary to avoid signicant scale eects in laboratory
experimentation.
2
2.1

Real uid eects in weir ow

Eect of surface tension

No general weir ow equation appears to be available for roundcrested weirs accounting for real uid ow eects. Thus, consider
the ow of a partially developed real uid over a weir of arbitrary
bed prole zb (x) (Fig. 1). The free surface energy head is
H = zb + h +

ps
V2
+ s = const

2g

(1)

Here H is the total energy head; Vs the free surface velocity; ps

the free surface pressure; the specic uid weight and h the
ow depth. The value of ps is dierent from zero due to surface
tension, producing with the surface tension coecient and
the free surface radius of curvature Rs the boundary condition
(Liggett 1994)
ps =

Rs

(2)

To unveil surface tension, the boundary layer displacement thickness is temporarily overlooked. The eects of curvilinear ow
are accounted for by the coecient = Vs /(q/h), where q is the
unit discharge (Wilkinson 1974). The weir discharge coecient
Cd is dened with E as the specic energy head at the weir crest
as (Montes 1998)
q = Cd (gE 3 )1/2

Figure 1

Denition sketch for real uid ow over round-crested weir

where Co = 1/2 , and with subscripts indicating ordinary

dierentiation with respect to x
1/2



3 1/2
3 hxx + zxx
= 1+
C = 1 +


ERs
E 1 + h2 3/2
x

(5)

In developing Eq. (4) h/E = 2/3 was used. Its application

to weir ow requires knowledge of both Co and C . Coecient Co accounts for curvilinear ow of an ideal uid under
irrotational motion. It is determined numerically solving the
Laplace equation (Cassidy 1965, Fuentes-Aguilar and Acua
1971, Montes 1992) or by approximate theories of curvilinear
ow (Fawer 1937, Jaeger 1956, Matthew 1963, 1991, Lenau
1967, Montes 1970, Hager 1985, Montes 1998). All these yield
results quite close, so that the coecient from a third-order
Boussinesq type equation is adopted as (Matthew 1991)
 2
E
E
Co = 1 + 0.271 0.045
R
R

(6)

The term C is a surface tension correction coecient. Its magnitude depends on the boundary radius of curvature, zxx = 1/R,
as well as on the crest derivatives of the ow depth, hx and hxx . A
theoretical equation for C results from the weakly curved relations h2x = h/(3R), (1 + h2x )3/2 1 and hxx = (4/9)R1 (Matthew
1963, Hager 1985). However, a small weir under high head may
have surface tension eects in which non-linear contributions
and higher order terms in hx and hxx become relevant. Therefore, more accurate predictors of similar mathematical validity
to Eq. (6) are (Matthew 1991)
h2x



2E
236 E
=
1
,
9R
729 R



4
4783 E
hxx =
1+
9R
16038 R

(7)

Combining Eqs. (6) and (7) with Eq. (5), the discharge characteristics of a weir subjected to scale eects due to surface tension
are thus modelled.

(3)
2.2

Eect of viscosity

Combining Eqs. (1)(3) results in the weir ow equation

 3/2
2
Co C
Cd =
3

(4)

The viscous eect of weir ow is accounted for by using the

boundary layer theory. The theoretical inclusion of this eect is
known and described by Ackers et al. (1978). The weir discharge

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Scale eects of round-crested weir ow

q is reduced as compared to potential ow by accounting for by a

correction coecient due to viscosity C with c as the boundary
layer displacement thickness at the weir crest as


3/2
C = 1 c
E

(8)

Downloaded by [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] at 07:08 18 December 2014

Thus, the general weir ow equation accounting for scale eects

is nally
 3/2
2
Co C C
(9)
Cd =
3
This generalized weir ow equation for the round-crested weir is
similar to that of the round-nosed broad-crested weir, for which
Co = C = 1. Determining C requires computing c using the
boundary layer theory, as given by Craya and Delleur (1952),
Delleur (1955, 1957), Hall (1962), Harrison (1967a, 1967b), and
Vierhout (1973). For broad-crested weirs, the boundary layer is
turbulent so that the initial laminar ow portion is neglected, due
to the weak ow acceleration that, in turn, allows for parallelstreamlined ow (Co = C = 1). For round-crested weir ow
this is quite dierent.
Accelerating ow over the weir is shown in Fig. 1. At the
upstream weir portion, the free surface is only slightly converging, so that the ow acceleration is weak and the bed velocity
Ue remains essentially constant. An increasing boundary layer
thickness prole similar to the laminar at plate is therefore
expected. As the ow approaches the weir crest, it accelerates
within a short distance from the upstream to the crest velocity,
thereby increasing Ue , and inhibiting boundary layer development, producing a decreasing thickness (x). Accordingly,
the boundary layer of round-crested weirs, which is laminar
upstream, is likely to remain laminar along the crest, as veried experimentally by Lakshmana Rao and Jagannadha Rao
(1973). Matthew (1963) assumed laminar ow and produced an
approximate expression for (x). However, his approach and the
corresponding boundary layer predictions were not veried with
1D or 2D laminar boundary layer ow computations. Further, no
general verication of the accuracy for Cd is available. Whereas
Matthew (1963) advocated the importance of accelerating ow
towards a round-crested weir, Naudascher (1987) proposed to
use the laminar at plate equations to account for the boundary
layer correction at a weir crest, based on a limited study of two
spillway models, in which the eects of surface tension were not
accounted for. Both proposals are opposite and contradictory,
given that the at plate equations fully neglect the existence of
ow acceleration. The approach of Naudascher (1987) was also
included in an IAHR design monograph (Naudascher 1991), but
the use of any of the two theories remains doubtful.
The viscous eect in Froude models with curvilinear ow
appear mainly at low weir heads (Maxwell and Weggel 1969),
thereby controlling scale eects. In contrast, surface tension may
also play an important role at higher heads. Sarginson (1972) used
only an empirical equation to account for viscous eects at low

655

heads. The relevance of viscosity in Froude models was further

veried experimentally by Varshney (1977), who found a dependence of Cd on the Reynolds number. He also veried that the
boundary layer was laminar. In summary, several works reveal
that the importance of viscosity is predominant in weir ow models at low heads, and that the boundary layer remains laminar as
the ow passes along the crest. However, there is no systematic
study producing 1D and 2D laminar boundary layer computations to predict (x). This information should also reveal if the
at plate equations apply, which appears contra-dictionary to the
physics of accelerating weir ow. To use Eq. (9) a study of the
laminar boundary layer development of round-crested weirs is
therefore required.
The dierence between ideal uid ow and the present theory including surface tension and viscosity eects may not be
attributed only to scale eects, since the prototype ow behaviour
is not ideal either. However, under normal operational conditions, the Reynolds number R of prototype weir ow is high
(Matthew 1963, Montes 1970), i.e. R , so that the Navier
Stokes equations are approximated by the Euler equations (White
1991). Further, the amount of scale eects may largely be casedependent (laminar or turbulent boundary layer in prototype
and/or scale model). Consider here the most frequent case of
laminar boundary layer in the model.
3

Boundary layer development

3.1

2D potential ow solution

The ow over a round-crested weir model is treated by using

Prandtls boundary layer approximation (de Oliveira Lemos
1965). The ow is divided into an outer potential ow zone and
a thin viscous layer attached to the solid wall (White 1991). The
potential ow solution provides the outer ow velocity Ue (s),
where s is the curvilinear coordinate along the solid wall. For
the potential ow computations, the x method (Montes 1992,
1994) is used, with the stream function. The Laplace equation
for the free surface elevation z is expressed with (, x) as
2z
x2

2


 2 
z
2 z z z
2z
1
+

2
=0
+
2
x
x x
(10)

Its solution for ow over control structures like weirs or drops is

described by Montes (1992, 1994), Dey (2002) and Castro-Orgaz
(2013). To avoid repetitions, no further details are given. Note
that any other method for potential ow computations applies,
including that of Cassidy (1965), or by Fuentes-Aguilar and
Acua (1971).
3.2

2D laminar boundary layer solution

The viscous ow within the boundary layer is modelled using

the system of continuity and momentum equations (White 1991,

656

O. Castro-Orgaz and W.H. Hager

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Schlichting and Gersten 2000)

u v
+
=0
s
y
u

u
dUe
u
2u
+v
= Ue
+ 2
s
y
ds
y

are computed, displacement and momentum thickness proles

are obtained by numerical evaluation of the integrals
(11)

(s) =


0

(12)
(s) =

Downloaded by [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] at 07:08 18 December 2014

Here, is the kinematic viscosity, u and v velocities in the s- and

y-directions, and y curvilinear coordinate normal to s. The boundary conditions for no wall slip are u = 0 and v = 0, whereas to
match the outer potential ow to viscous ow close to the wall
u = Ue along the boundary layer thickness. The system of equations (11) and (12) implies that the pressure is constant within the
boundary layer in the y-direction and, therefore, it is prescribed
by the outer potential ow. Accordingly, the ratio of boundary
layer thickness to boundary radius of curvature R must be
small, as is typical for ow over round-crested weirs (de Oliveira
Lemos 1965). To solve Eqs. (11) and (12) a numerical method is
required. The full NavierStokes equations are elliptic and must
be simultaneously solved in the entire computational domain. In
contrast, Eqs. (11) and (12) are parabolic and the numerical solution is space-marching, i.e. computations start at a given position
s for which the proles (u, v) along y are prescribed, and computations progress to a new position s to compute the velocity
proles. An implicit nite-dierence model described by White
(1991) was adopted for the numerical solution. The technique is
described in detail, so that only the main aspects are discussed
herein. A rectangular nite-dierence mesh with N and M computational nodes in the s- and y-directions is dened. At each
computational node, forward and central nite dierences were
used for u/x and u/y, respectively. The term 2 u/y2 was
discretized using a three-point central nite dierence at the next
position s. Thus, the momentum equation produces an algebraic
system of (M 2) equations for the unknowns u(i + 1, j) for
each y-node at the target s coordinate as
u(i + 1, j + 1) + (1 + 2)u(i + 1, j) u(i + 1, j 1)
= u(i, j) [u(i, j + 1) u(i, j 1)]
+

Ue2 (i + 1) Ue2 (i)

2u(i, j)

ymax

(13)

Here (i, j) are the node indices in the s- and y-directions,

= (x)/[u(i, j)y2 ] and = [v(i, j)x]/[2u(i, j)y]. The
matrix associated to the system given by Eq. (13) is tridiagonal
and its inversion is simple using the Thomas algorithm. Note
that at node j = M the velocity is u = Ue (s), whereas at the wall
u = 0. For solving the momentum equation, values of v(s, y) at
the actual position are needed. These are obtained at each position
using the nite-dierence form of the continuity equation, once
u is computed. The starting section is selected upstream of the
weir where the ow is nearly parallel. The corresponding boundary layer thickness is set = 0 so that the velocity proles are
u(s, y) = Ue (s) and v(s, y) = 0. Once velocity proles u(s, y)

ymax

u(s, y)
dy,
Ue (s)

u(s, y)
u(s, y)
1
dy
Ue (s)
Ue (s)
1

(14)

Here is the momentum thickness and ymax the upper limit of

computational grid in y-direction. To verify that the boundary
layer remains laminar along the entire computational domain the
following approximate condition with Rs = U (s)s/ was used
(White 1991)
U (s) (s)
< 2.9R0.4
s

(15)

Equation (15) implies that the local Reynolds number based

on the computed must not reach Michels transition line for
turbulent ow.
3.3

Integral solution: Thwaites method

This method was used by Isaacs (1981) to estimate the boundary layer development in accelerated ow at the exit drop of a
small-scale broad-crested weir. He found that the method produced satisfactory results of boundary layers in accelerating ow.
However, the necessity for further verication of his method was
stated. Given the good results of Isaacs (1981) using Thwaites
method in a slope break, it was decided to apply it to roundcrested weir ow, and test its accuracy using the 2D solution.
The integral form of the boundary layer equations (11) and (12) is
given by the von Krmn equation, reduced for a laminar boundary layer by Thwaites to (White 1991, Schlichting and Gersten
2000)
 s
2
2
= o + aUeb
Ueb1 ds
(16)

so
Here o refers to the upstream section at which computations start,
and the empirical parameters are a = 0.45 and b = 6. Using the
outer potential velocity distribution Ue (s) the integral in Eq. (16)
is evaluated numerically and the prole (s) thereby computed.
The prole (s) is then determined using the shape factor S
involving a correlation polynomial developed by White (1991).
3.4

Matthews theory

Matthew (1963) assumed that the potential bed velocity distribution in the upstream weir portion follows the exponential
function
Ue = Uc exp[s(2RE)1/2 ]

(17)

For parallel streamlines, the crest velocity at s = 0 is Uc =

[(2/3)gE]1/2 under critical ow. Using Eq. (17), the exact
Goldstein solution of the laminar boundary layer applies. An

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Scale eects of round-crested weir ow

exponential type prole for the boundary layer thickness is then

(Matthew 1963)
= 0.7 1/2

3R
g

1/4

exp

s
2(2RE)1/2

s = 0, and using the shape factor S at that position to transform

c to c , the crest displacement thickness nally is

c = (o2 + a2 )1/2

(18)

Downloaded by [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] at 07:08 18 December 2014

c = 0.7 1/2

3R
g

(22)

Here o = So , and the acceleration contribution is

Equation (18) was never tested against 2D or 1D numerical solutions of the boundary layer equations, a task made below. At
the crest section, Eq. (18) yields as the relevant expression for
discharge computations


657

 1/4

1/2

3R
aS 2
7 E
1/2
exp
b1
g
27 R

 1/4

3R
7 E
= l 1/2
exp
g
27 R

a =

1/4
(19)

(23)

Using a = 0.45, b = 6 and S = 2.3, produces l = 0.69 in

Eq. (23), i.e. close to 0.7 as in Matthews equation.

3.5 Analytical solution

The usefulness of the analytical equation (19) is that it can be
directly inserted into Eq. (8) to produce an analytical solution
for Cd , which is of practical relevance to study modelprototype
relationships. During the test of Eq. (19) it was noted that Eq. (17)
allows for an analytical solution of Thwaites equation (16).
Although the exponential behaviour of Ue may be reasonably
close to the weir crest, the value used for Uc may not be accurate for high E/R. Thus, the crest bed velocity is more generally
given by the potential ow equations using the weakly curved
relation hxx = (4/9)R1 as (Castro-Orgaz et al. 2008)




1/2

hhxx
14 E
2
Uc = Vs exp hzxx
exp

gE
(20)
2
3
27 R
Inserting Eq. (17) into Eq. (16), and using Eq. (20), provides the
analytical solution for the momentum thickness prole


2
2
a(2RE)1/2
= o +
exp (2RE)1/2 s

Uc (b 1)




b1
1 exp
(so s)
(2RE)1/2

(21)

The last term containing the ow development length (so s) is

of small magnitude and is neglected. Taking values at the crest

3.6

Results

Potential ow over a round-crested weir of bed prole zb =

20 exp[0.5(x/24)2 ] is considered as a test case, shown in Fig. 2
for operational heads of E/R = 0.516 and 0.253, respectively.
Free surface and bottom pressure predictions are compared with
the experimental data of Sivakumaran et al. (1983), resulting in
good agreement. As indicated above, no further details of the
potential ow solution are described here, as this is detailed by
Montes (1992, 1994) and Castro-Orgaz (2013).
The potential ow simulations were used to obtain the potential bed velocity Ue , plotted in Fig. 3 for comparative purposes
with Eq. (17) using Uc = [(2/3)gE]1/2 (Matthew 1963), and
Eq. (20) for improved crest velocity predictions (analytical
solution). Note that the exponential function provides excellent bed velocity predictions close to the crest. Deviations
from Matthews theory are therefore attributed to the use of
Uc = [(2/3)gE]1/2 . Far from the crest, the exponential function
deviates from the 2D potential velocity distribution. However,
deviations are in a zone of low ow velocity. Given the good
agreement near the crest, good predictions are expected close
to the crest if Eq. (17) coupled with Eq. (20) are used to predict
Ue (s).
The laminar boundary layer displacement thickness proles
from the 2D and 1D models are presented in Fig. 4 for a weir of

Figure 2 Potential ow solution for round-crested weirs with E/R = (a) 0.516 and (b) 0.253. Variables are normalized using critical ow conditions
(z/hc , zb /hc , pb /( hc ), Ue /Uc , x/hc ), with hc = (q2 /g)1/3

658

O. Castro-Orgaz and W.H. Hager

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(a)

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

(b)

Figure 3

Comparison of relative potential bed velocity Ue /(gE)1/2 [s/E] for E/R = (a) 0.516 and (b) 0.253

Figure 4

Comparison of boundary layer displacement thickness proles ( /E) 103 [s/E] for E/R = 0.516 and R = (a) 0.288 m and (b) 0.025 m

Figure 5

Comparison of boundary layer displacement thickness proles for E/R = 0.253 and R = (a) 0.288 m and (b) 0.025 m

R = 0.288 m. The computational mesh used in the 2D model typically included 4500 points in the s-direction, and 800 points in
the y-direction. Computational time was only a few seconds and it
was veried that further subdivisions of the mesh did not alter the
results. The good agreement of the 1D method of Thwaites with
the 2D solution supports its use for computing laminar boundary layers in weir models, thereby generalizing the earlier study
of Thwaites equation applied to the broad-crested weir (Isaacs

1981). The gure includes also Matthews equation (18), which

is close neither to 1D nor 2D models, except near the weir crest.
Computations for E/R = 0.516 and a weir of R = 0.025 m are
shown in Fig. 4b, resulting in larger boundary layer thickness,
further supporting the accuracy of Thwaites method.
The results for E/R = 0.253 and weir scales of R = 0.288 m
and R = 0.025 m are shown in Fig. 5. The boundary layer is
thicker under this smaller head for identical R. Results conrm

Downloaded by [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] at 07:08 18 December 2014

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Figure 6

659

Comparison of crest boundary layer displacement thickness for E/R = (a) 0.516 and (b) 0.253

the excellent performance of Thwaites method for the entire

computational domain, although the peaks are slightly overpredicted. Matthews method is only reliable near the crest.
Computations for other heads and weir scales yield the same
conclusions.
For discharge prediction, the quantity of main interest is the
displacement thickness at the weir crest. Simulations for heads
of E/R = 0.516 and 0.253 and dierent weir scales using the
1D and 2D models were done. The results for c /E are plotted
in Fig. 6. The prediction using the analytical solution given by
Eq. (23) is also shown. It is in good agreement with both the 1D
and 2D models, thereby conrming its usefulness as predictor.
Matthews equation (19) is further compared with 1D and 2D
models in Fig. 6, but it yields less precise predictions.

Scale eects of round-crested weir ow

Evaluation of discharge coecient

The discharge coecient Cd given by Eq. (9) is evaluated by

using Eq. (6) for Co , Eq. (5) for C combined with Eq. (7) and
Eq. (8) for C using Eq. (22) for c /E combined with Eq. (23)
for a /E. Figure 7 compares the present approach with data of
Matthew (1963) for a circular-crested weir of R = 0.0254 m and
uid temperature of 10 C. Matthews experimental set-up consisted of a half cylinder mounted with vertical walls (inset of
Fig. 7), for which the boundary layer displacement thickness
at the starting point a of the boundary layer was taken zero.
Hence, its eect on the crest point b originates from the ow
acceleration from a to b. Figure 7 indicates that the predictions agree well with test data. The ideal uid ow line is given
by Cd = (2/3)3/2 Co . Note the small deviations in this test from
Matthews equation
 3/2 
 1/4
 2
E
2
3
E
Cd =
1 + 0.271 0.045
1.05
3
R
R
g
 
  


R

1/2 3/4 R
R
0.833
(24)
2
E
R
E

Figure 7 Discharge coecient Cd [E/R] of circular weir of

R = 0.0254 m

This indicates that the estimation of c /E given by Matthews

equation is adequate for discharge computation in this test case.
The good agreement of predictions conrms that o = 0 at point
a, and permits to avoid a consideration of the boundary layer
development along the vertical weir face.
The present theory predicts the eects of viscosity and surface
tension in the model well. Assuming that the prototype operates
at R , then the dierence between the ideal curve and the
present theory would represent the scale eect. However, since
the prototype suers viscous eects as well, this corresponds to
the largest possible amount of scale eect if viscous eects were
negligibly small in the prototype.
The experimental set-up was further used to check the
at plate approach for scale eects originating from viscosity
(Naudascher 1987, 1991)
c

Uc L
= 1.73L

1/2
(25)

Here the ow development length L between points a and

b is L = R/2 and Uc = [(2/3)gE]1/2 . Results using Eq. (25)

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660

O. Castro-Orgaz and W.H. Hager

Figure 8 Discharge coecient of circular weir with R = (a) 0.005 m

and (b) 0.010 m

are plotted in Fig. 7, thereby indicating an overestimation of

scale eects. Thus, the at plate equations do not account for the
boundary layer behaviour of the accelerating ow over a weir.
The present theory is compared in Fig. 8a with the 3D numerical simulations by Pster et al. (2013) for R = 0.005 m. The
numerical results were obtained by solving the Reynolds equations for turbulent ow using the commercial code Flow3D. Note
that the current analytical theory agrees well with the 3D numerical data. Predictions according to Eq. (24) are also included, in
which scale eects are over-predicted, as noted by Pster et al.
(2013). The improved predictions of the present theory stem from
the improved treatment of surface tension eects at high normalized heads E/R. Predictions of the present theory are again
compared with the 3D simulations of Pster et al. (2013) for
R = 0.010 m (Fig. 8b). Again, the theory agrees well with the
numerical data, and also improves predictions as compared with
Eq. (24).
Experiments conducted by Montes at the University of Tasmania in 1991 (Chanson and Montes 1997) are considered
in Fig. 9. The experimental set-up consisted of full cylinders mounted on a thin plate (inset of Fig. 9a). This is not
a practical weir set-up for prototypes, but applies for laboratory studies. Only a circular weir of R = 0.029 m is considered
here, because scale eects were then detected. A rst data
check indicates smaller values of Cd at high normalized heads
(E/R = 2.5 3) than predicted by the ideal uid ow theory. A comparison of these experimental values Cd (E/R) with
another data set of Montes (Chanson and Montes 1997) using
the same R and an upstream ramp indicates the same trend at
high E/R. The circular weir with an upstream ramp was also
tested by Ramamurthy and Vo (1993a, 1993b). They found that
the ow was essentially irrotational, with a very thin boundary layer. Their discharge data were in excellent agreement with
ideal uid ow computations. Montes (1970) states that the
crest ow conditions at a circular weir are essentially irrotational under high E/R. For these conditions a close agreement
between the ideal uid ow theory and experiments of circular weir ow is reported (Fawer 1937, Ramamurthy and Vo
1993a, 1993b, Ramamurthy et al. 1994). The experimental error

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Figure 9 Discharge coecient Cd [E/R] of circular weir ow with

R = 0.029 m for predictions (a) without and (b) with initial boundary
layer

in discharge was within 4% (Chanson and Montes 1997). Corrected data in Fig. 9a indicate an excellent agreement with
the ideal uid ow theory for high normalized heads. This
correction hardly aects the low-head data, for which the
kinetic energy head is small. This is the ow zone of interest for the present study, where scale eects are present. Note
the appreciable drop in Cd originating from real uid ow
features.
The present theory was then compared with observations in
Fig. 9a, resulting in a clear under-prediction of scale eects
for uid temperature of 20 C. The reason is at rst glance not
evident: Why did the theory work so well in the former test cases,
and so poorly in this case? A re-examination of the experimental
set-up suggests that the particular design may induce additional
scale eects. In the half cylinder mounted with vertical walls the
ow accelerates towards the weir crest, where the boundary layer
starts. For a full cylinder mounted on a thin plate, the ow in the
half submerged cylinder portion is close to stagnation. However,
the ow development there may provoke a boundary layer development from a to b (inset of Fig. 9a), so that at point b
the starting o  = 0, in contrast to the former set-up. Thus, the
hypothesis of additionally induced scale eects by this set-up
was tested by inclusion of the boundary layer development from
points a to b. Neglecting acceleration eects between the two
points, Thwaites equation yields for the momentum thickness
at point b
o2
= aUeb

so
0

Ueb1 ds aUo1 so

(26)

Inserting Eq. (26) into Eq. (21) the displacement thickness at

point c is predicted, if so and Uo are prescribed. Using the exponential bed velocity, Uo = Uc exp[R(2RE)1/2 ] was adopted.
The starting point a of the boundary layer is unknown. It
was assumed so = 0.5R. Computations were performed with the
predictions presented in Fig. 9b. The adopted value of so produces an almost perfect prediction of Cd for the smaller heads,
also producing reasonable predictions for the remaining portion. Computations thus support the hypothesis that the circular

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Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

cylinder mounted on a thin plate induces additional scale eects

related to the boundary layer at the starting point b of the overow crest. The present theory accounts for this eect and yields a
reasonable prediction of the discharge characteristics accounting
for scale eects.
Sarginson (1972, 1984) conducted experiments using full
cylinders mounted on thin plates, like in the previous case. His
experimental data set was used to further check the present
theory. Predictions are compared with experimental data for
R = 0.0125, 0.0065 and 0.003 m in Fig. 10 at uid temperature of
20 C. The agreement in all cases is good, thereby supporting the
approximate theory proposed. Note the large deviations of ideal
uid ow from the present theory for the smallest R = 0.003 m
operating at high head. This case is an extreme deserving more
consideration. First, the limits need to be stated for the theory
proposed. On inspecting h2x in Eq. (7) observe that its physical
meaning ceases at E/R 3, for which h2x 0. The Co coecient given by Eq. (6) works well up to this limit, so that it is
adopted as limit of validity of the current method. The Cd prediction of Eq. (24) is included in Fig. 10c to highlight its validity
limit. First, this relationship implicitly contains Eq. (6) as the
basis of potential ow conditions with curvilinear ow (CastroOrgaz 2012). The eect of viscosity is dominant at low E/R,
and its eect is normally small for high E/R, so that the scale
eect dominating at high operational heads E/R is surface tension, if R is very small (Fig. 10c). Reconsider surface tension
eects in Eq. (24), which is based on the weakly curved relations h2x = h/(3R), (1 + h2x )3/2 1 and hxx = (4/9)R1 (Hager
1985), from which C = [1 (5/3)/( RE)]1/2 . The weakly
curved relations used are limited to E/R < 1. Surface tension
eects fully depend on curvilinear ow, so that the eects of surface tension in Eq. (24) cannot be expected to be well accounted
for beyond that upper bound. In short, the inclusion of streamline curvature is contradictory in Eq. (24); it is large relative to
Co , but weak for surface tension eects. Accordingly, Eq. (24)
appears to be not precise far from E/R = 1, which is highlighted with the improved performance of the current theory in
Fig. 10c.

Round-crested weir ow analogy

Weir ow in the vicinity of the upstream corner of a broad-crested

weir is related to a free streamline separation from the crest. The
free streamline provokes a recirculating ow zone. According to
Moss (1972), this separation pocket is essentially recirculating,
with a shear layer above it. Moss proposed a simplied model,
involving a stagnant bubble and an irrotational stream passing
above it. The shear layer can be approximated by a thin boundary
layer, which was overlooked by Moss. His treatment is based on
an idea of Hunter Rouse in the 1930s, essentially assuming that a
small spillway prole is added to the upstream broad-crested weir
corner. The discharge characteristics of the broad-crested weir
are then determined using these of round-crested weirs, with sM

Scale eects of round-crested weir ow

661

Figure 10 Discharge coecient of circular weir Cd [E/R] for R = (a)

0.0125 m, (b) 0.0065 m and (c) 0.003 m

as the maximum separation thickness of the corner bubble and

Ho as the upstream head over the broad-crested weir (inset of
Fig. 11b).
The discharge equation of the broad-crested weir is with CD
= discharge coecient (Hager and Schwalt 1994)

1/2
q = CD gHo3

(27)

The separation bubble is assumed to be solid, guiding an external

irrotational stream (Moss 1972). Using the ow analogy, the
specic energy at the virtual round-crested weir is E = Ho
sM . Combining Eqs. (27) and (3) with CD as a function of the
discharge coecient of the round-crested weir Cd results in

CD = Cd

Ho s
Ho

3/2
(28)

Consider rst irrotational ow without surface tension at the

water surface and a shear layer above the bubble. Experimental data indicate that R = 1.2Ho (Hager and Schwalt 1994). The
value of sM was determined by Moss (1972) as 0.15Ho , whereas
Hager and Schwalts (1994) laboratory data indicate 0.2Ho .
A value sM = 0.185Ho was considered, so that E/R = 0.679,
Cd = (2/3)3/2 Co = 0.633 and, thus, CD = 0.466. This value
remarkably agrees with the accepted value of 0.463. Thus, the
round-crested weir ow analogy allows for a realistic prediction
of CD . The broad-crested weir coecient for ideal uid ow
without a separation bubble originating from Blangers critical

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662

O. Castro-Orgaz and W.H. Hager

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Figure 11 Broad-crested weir ow using round-crested weir ow analogy, comparison of theory with (a) data of Hager and Schwalt (1994) and (b)
several data sets

ow condition is (2/3)3/2 = 0.544, so that the reduction of 0.544

to 0.466 is due to ow separation.
Laboratory data of Hager and Schwalt (1994) are plotted in
Fig. 11a versus Ho /L. The eects of surface tension and viscosity
were then accounted for using Eq. (9). This automatically admits
the existence of the shear layer above the bubble, a feature so far
overlooked. The CD curve of the present theory using the approximate values of R and sM varies only with the absolute head Ho .
The weir length L = 0.5 m was used to scale the results, with the
theoretical prediction compared with the data in Fig. 11a. Note
that the present theory predicts a drop in CD as Ho /L reduces, in
agreement with the data, provoked by the inclusion of the eects
of viscosity and surface tension, i.e. the scale eects related to
the existence of a shear layer above the separation bubble and
surface tension at the weir surface. Figure 11a states a good prediction if 0.1 < Ho /L < 0.4. The data sets of Bazin (1896) and
Tison (1950) are further compared with the present theory in
Fig. 11b, resulting in an overall agreement for the broad-crested
weir range. In the long-crested weir domain, Ho /L < 0.1, the
experimental data indicate a reduction of CD sooner than predicted by the theory. This issue needs further research, yet the
present simplied model describes the order of magnitude of CD
in this domain.
6

Design of round-crested weirs without signicant scale

eects

Given a weir model of crest radius R, what is the minimum

overow head Emin to avoid signicant scale eects? This basic
question is answered by applying the theory developed. For
a given R the curve Cd (E/R) is determined from the present
theory. Dene the ideal uid ow curve by Cdi = (2/3)3/2 Co .
Accepting a drop in Cd due to scale eects, say Cd /Cdi = 0.98,
the value of E/R at which this occurs is determined. Multiplying it by R results in Emin . This computation was done for
0.006 < R < 0.3 m. Figure 12a, based on the present theory,
indicates that Emin /R is high for small R, which is the domain

where Matthews Eq. (24) is inaccurate. For comparative purposes, Emin was then determined using Eq. (24), with the results
in Fig. 12b. There is a divergence between Matthews and the
present theory for small R (Fig. 12c). 3D numerical data of Pster
et al. (2013) are also plotted, conrming values of Emin below
computations from Eq. (24). Given the uncertainty of Emin for
R < 0.01 m, this is the smallest weir recommended for laboratory application. For practical applications in the interval 0.01 <
R < 0.30 m, the discharge curve is free from signicant scale
eects if Emin > 0.04 m. Selected experiments were conducted
at VAW, ETH Zurich, to conrm a design free of signicant
scale eects. A circular weir made with a half-cylindrical crest
of R = 0.30 m was inserted in a 0.50 m wide ume. Downstream
slopes of 30 and 90 were considered. According to the present
theory results Emin = 0.0325 m for R = 0.30 m, corresponding to
E/R = 0.108. This value was adopted as the minimum overow
head for experimentation. The discharge curve was experimentally determined starting at an overow head of 0.05 m. The
experimental results are plotted in Fig. 12d, along with the theoretical Cd and Cdi curves. Note that the discharge curve is free
from signicant scale eects, as preferred in the design of the
experiments.
It should be noted that boundary layer presence does not necessarily result in signicant scale eects (e.g. if turbulent in both
prototype and model). They are likely to result in signicant
scale eects if the boundary layer is turbulent in the prototype
and laminar in the model, or if the boundary layer is laminar in
both the prototype and the model. Here the most frequent case
of laminar boundary layer in the model and turbulent boundary
layer in the prototype at high R is addressed.
7

Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from this research:

General round-crested weir ow equation including surface
tension and viscosity eects is developed. The discharge

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Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Scale eects of round-crested weir ow

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

663

Figure 12 (a) Limiting relation R[Emin /R] for 2% reduction of Cd due to scale eects, (b) minimum overow head Emin versus R to avoid signicant
scale eects (with Emin and R in mm), (c) detail of (b) for R < 30 mm and (d) VAW experiments to avoid signicant scale eects

equation has a similar structure than currently used for

round-nosed broad-crested weirs, thereby unifying the treatment of scale eects for both weir types.
Potential bed velocity is closely described near the crest by an
exponential law if the crest velocity is correctly predicted using
the critical bed velocity accounting for streamline curvature.
2D solution of the laminar boundary layer equations over
round-crested weir is developed. This information was so
far not available, allowing for detailed characteristics of the
motion. It includes an upstream portion where the boundary
layer grows due to weak acceleration, followed by a rapid
decrease towards the weir crest, where the velocity is high
due to critical ow.
2D laminar boundary layer solution is compared with
Thwaites integral method. The comparative results indicate
that this method results in an excellent agreement with the 2D
solution. The analysis conrms that this simple technique can
be used for laminar boundary layer computations in weir ow.
Matthews boundary layer displacement thickness solution is
not close to 2D and 1D data, except near the weir crest. His
theory gives predictions in fair agreement with 2D and 1D data
at the weir crest.
Development of a novel analytical solution for the boundary layer displacement thickness from Thwaites method; the
solution was found to be in excellent agreement with both 2D
and 1D data.

Present theory yields Cd predictions in good agreement with

Matthews equation and laboratory data for half cylinders
mounted with vertical walls operating at low heads.
Flat plate approximation for viscous eects produces an
excessive prediction of scale eects, in disagreement with
experimental data.
Present theory works well for small cylinders operating at high
relative heads, where non-linear terms originating from surface tension are important, as veried using 3D numerical
data obtained by computational uid dynamics and laboratory
observations.
Full cylindrical crests mounted on thin plates induce additional
scale eects in the discharge characteristics, provoked by the
boundary layer developed in the submerged crest portion. The
present theory accounts for this eect and produces reasonable
discharge characteristics.
Broad-crested weir discharge equation is simulated using a
round-crested weir ow analogy for separation bubble, allowing for a shear layer above the bubble. Predictions account
for three real uid ow eects: ow separation, surface tension on the water surface and viscosity at the shear layer
above the bubble. Predictions are in good agreement with
experiments.
Present theory predicts the minimum overow head to avoid
scale eects for a given R. A minimum value of R = 0.01 m is
recommended for laboratory experimentation. For weir crest

664

O. Castro-Orgaz and W.H. Hager

Acknowledgement

= boundary layer momentum thickness at weir

crest (L)
a, b, l, , = parameters
(i, j)
= node indices in (s, y) directions ()
(N , M )
= maximum values of (i, j)

This research was supported by the Spanish project CTM201345666-R, Ministerio de Economa y Competitividad, Spain.

References

curvatures within 0.01 < R < 0.30 m, the discharge curve is

free from signicant scale eects if Emin > 0.04 m.

Notation
Cd

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Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 52, No. 5 (2014)

Cdi
CD
Co
C
C
E
g
H
Ho
h
L
ps
q
R
R
Rs
S
s
sM
so
u
Ue
Uc
Uo
v
Vs
x
y
z
zb

= discharge coecient of round-crested

weir ()
= discharge coecient of round-crested weir
for ideal uid ow ()
= discharge coecient of broad-crested
weir ()
= correction coecient of curvilinear ow ()
= correction coecient of surface tension ()
= correction coecient of viscosity ()
= specic energy head at weir crest (L)
= acceleration of gravity (L T2 )
= total energy head (L)
= energy head at inlet of broad-crested weir (L)
= ow depth (L)
= broad-crested weir length (L)
= free surface pressure (M T2 L1 )
= unit discharge (L2 T1 )
= Reynolds number ()
= radius of curvature at bed (L)
= radius of curvature at free surface (L)
= shape factor ()
= curvilinear coordinate measured along
bottom prole (L)
= separation bubble maximum thickness (L)
= s coordinate of starting point (L)
= velocity in s-direction (L T1 )
= potential bed velocity (L T1 )
= critical bed velocity (L T1 )
= approach ow velocity (L T1 )
= velocity in y-direction (L T1 )
= free surface velocity (L T1 )
= horizontal distance (L)
= coordinate normal to channel bottom prole,
normal to s (L)
= vertical elevation (L)
= bed elevation (L)
= specic weight of water (M T2 L2 )
= stream function (L2 T1 )
= surface tension coecient (M T2 )
= kinematic viscosity (L2 T1 )
= surface velocity coecient ()
= boundary layer thickness (L)
= boundary layer displacement thickness (L)
= boundary layer displacement thickness at
weir crest (L)
= boundary layer momentum thickness (L)

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