Fault analysis and protection

of power system
24-27 June, 2006

Dr. Abdel-aal H. Mantawy

Associate Professor

Topics of Discussion
Topic (1):
Topic (2):
Topic (3):
Topic (4):
Topic (5):
Topic (6):
Topic (7):
Topic (8):

Fault analysis
Fundamental of protective relays
Current and voltage transformers
Differential protection of transformers
Over current protection of transformers
Non electric protection of transformers
Over current protection of TL
Distance protection of TL

Balanced Fault Calculations

Fault definition
z Up

normal conditions that create excess of

current

Fault effects
z System

exposed to abnormal forces and

thermal stresses.
z Rotating machines can be thermally
damaged at unsymmetrical faults due to
occurring negative sequence currents.
z Damages in the electrical environment can
be caused by heat radiation
z Rise of the ground potential etc.

Fault clearance
zA

satisfying fault clearance is necessary

for an operative power plant.
z The correcting measures can be
initiation of:
z Disconnection

of some parts of the load,

z Connection of back-up capacity or,
z Disconnection of the critical apparatus.

Faults Types

zShunt

faults
zSeries faults
zThe

power system can not be allowed to

be in service with a shunt, or a series fault
under an unlimited time.

Shunt faults
zA

fault current has developed due

to insulation breakdown in one or
several phases.

Series faults
zA

primary current loop has been

broken in one or two phases.

Types of faults
Three major groups:
zShort circuited faults.
zOpen circuited faults.
zSimultaneous faults.

Types of short circuit faults

The short circuited faults consists of
z Balanced fault
z Three

phase faults (with or without earth

connection).

z Unbalanced

fault

z Single

phase to ground fault (L-G)

z Two phase fault (L-L)
z Two phase to ground fault (L-L-G)

Types of open circuit faults

z Two

phase open circuit.

z Three phase open circuit.

Figure 1. Different fault types in power system.

Simultaneous faults
zSimultaneous

faults are a combination of

the two groups described above.
zFor example, if one conductor, at an
overhead line is broken and one end of
the line falls down.
zThen there is both one single phase to
earth fault and one single phase open
circuited fault in the system.

Types Of Faults In System Components

Equipment

Cause of fault

% of total faults

4. Transformers

1. Insulation failure
2. Faults in tap-changer
3. Faults in bushing
4. Faults in protection circuit
5. Inadequate protection
6. Overloading, Over voltage

10-12

5. CT & PT

1. Over-voltages
2. Insulation failure
3. Breaking of conductors
4. Wrong connections

15-20

6. Switchgear

1. Insulation failure
2. Mechanical defect
3. Leakage of air, oil, gas
4. Inadequate rating
5. Lack of maintenance

10-12

Types of Faults
Equipment

Cause of fault

1. Overhead lines

1.
2.
3.
4.

2.Underground
cables

1. Failure of joints.
2. Damage during digging.
3. Insulation
failure
due
temperature rise.

3.Alternators
(Generator)

% of total faults

Lightning strokes.
Trees, kites, airplanes, etc.
Storms, earthquakes, icing
Internal overvoltages.

30 - 40

8-10
to

1. Stator faults
2. Rotor faults
3. Abnormal conditions
4. Faults in associated equipment
5. Faults in protective system

6-8

Fault Calculation
Fault calculation is the analysis of the
electrical behavior in the power system
under fault conditions for:
zFaults at different parts of the network
zDifferent types of faults,
zDifferent positions of the faults, and
zDifferent configurations of the network

Benefits of fault analysis

zChoice

of suitable transmission system

configuration.
zLoad and short circuit ratings for the
high voltage equipment.
zBreaking capacity of CBs.
zApplication and design of control and
protection equipment.

Benefits of fault analysis

z Service

conditions of the system.

z Investigation of unsatisfactory
performances of the equipment.
z Fault calculations are used when checking
for the relays requirements are fulfilled
(reliability).

2. Factors Affecting The Fault

Calculation
The fault current and voltage at different
parts of the network will be affected by
the following:
z Type of fault.
z Fault location.
z Configuration of the network.
z Neutral earthing.

3. Basic Principles
A.Time

aspect
B.Type of fault

A. Time Aspect
z

It is a well known fact that the effects of a fault changes with the
time that has passed since the fault occurred.

The physical reason for this transient process is that

electromagnetic energy is stored in the inductances of the circuits.

This energy can not be altered instantaneously.

Therefore, some time will pass while the new electrical field is
created.

These time intervals are known as the sub-transient and

transient conditions.

Transient short circuit current

Transient Interval
z The

duration of the transient interval is

counted in ms.

z In

this case, the fault calculations are

intended to be used for application and
design of relay equipment

B. Type Of Fault
zThe

task of the protection relays is to

protect the high voltage equipment.

zThe

most dangerous phenomena is

normally the high current that occurs at a
short circuit.

zShort

circuit type faults are normally

considered for protective relays studies.

Open Circuit Fault

z

Open circuit faults will not cause high Overcurrent

or high overvoltages and are therefore normally not
dangerous to the network.

Open circuit faults will cause heating in rotating machines

due to the negative sequence current that will flow in the
system.

The machines are therefore equipped with negative

sequence current protection.

The setting of this relay normally needs no fault calculation

and can be done correctly without knowledge of the
problems mentioned above.

Earth and Fault Resistance

z The

magnitude of the fault current is

dependent on what type of fault that
occurs.

z At

earth faults the size of the fault current

is depending on the earthing resistance or
reactance (if applicable) and on the fault
resistance.

Three phase fault

z Three

phase faults normally gives the

highest short circuit currents.

z Therefore,

short circuit calculations for

three phase faults are normally used.

Two phase fault

z Two

phase faults normally gives lower

fault currents than three phase faults.
z Normally the need for fault calculations for
two phase faults is limited.
z However, a two phase fault calculation
can be necessary to check the minimum
fault current level to verify the sensitivity
for the back-up protection.

Representation of Power
System Components
zOverhead

lines

zCables
zTransformers
zSynchronous

machines
zAsynchronous machines

Overhead lines
z
z
z
z
z
z

Overhead lines are represented by their resistance and

reactance.
Positive sequence values are used for symmetrical faults.
For unsymmetrical faults, the positive, negative and zero
sequence values are used.
Negative sequence components for overhead lines are
always equal to the positive sequence components.
The values mentioned, must be given by the constructor
of the overhead lines.
The values depends on the size of the line itself, as well as
on the physical configuration of the lines (both within a
phase and between the phases).

Overhead Lines Typical Values

For line reactance of a HV overhead line the
reactance is about 0.3-0.4 ohm/km at 50 Hz.
z The resistance is normally small (0.02-0.05
ohm/km) and of minor importance to the short
circuit calculations.
z The zero sequence reactance is approximately
3-4 times the positive sequence reactance
z The mutual reactance is approximately 55-60%
of the zero sequence reactance.
z

Cables
z Represented

as the overhead lines, i.e. by

a resistance and a reactance.
z Typically a cable impedance angle is
around 45 and the zero sequence values
are of the same magnitude as the positive
sequence values.

Transformers
z
z
z

Represented by their short circuit impedance.

As the transformer is almost entirely inductive
the resistance normally is neglected.
The impedance of the transformer is:

Zk U 2
X =

100 S N
z

where "Zk" is the short circuit impedance.

Transformer typical values

z Typical

values for "Zk" are 4-7% for

small transformers (<5MVA) and
z 8-15% for larger transformers
z The Zero sequence impedance
depends on the type of connection.
z These figures must be given by the
manufacturer in every single case.

Three winding transformer

There are short circuit impedances between all
of the three windings.

The Star delta impedance transformation is necessary to calculate fault

currents when three winding transformers are involved.

In this case the star triangle transformation is useful.

Synchronous Machines
Represented by an EMF and a subtransient
reactance, neglecting its resistance.
X
E

Asynchronous Machines
z

They only contribute to the fault current, the

motor operates as a generator, for about 100
ms after the fault occurrence.

They are therefore neglected in short circuit

calculations for protection relay applications.

Impedance (Reactance)
Diagram
zIt

is called reactance diagram because usually

resistances are neglected.
zThe impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit
of all system components as connected in the real
system.
zThe impedance diagram is drawn per phase
zThe impedance diagram is then reduced to one
equivalent impedance.

Assumptions for fault analysis

z Neglect

all the shunt elements (capacitors,

reactors, transformers, tap chargers).
z Neglect all resistance (R<<X). X; is the
reactance.
z Assume all voltages equal 1 P.U
z Neglect load currents (assume the system
at no load).

Steps for fault calculations

Convert the system into Per Unit (PU) at
the same base.
2. Draw the reactance Diagram.
3. Apply Thevinens theory by
1.

Vf

A.
B.

Calculating the equivalent reactance

between at the fault point (Xeq).
Calculating the voltage at the fault point
before the fault (Vf).

Fault calculation steps

4.

Calculate the fault current as:

V f (P .U )
I f (P .U ) =
X eq (P .U )
Where
V f = Voltage at fault point before the fault ( 10)

Xeq : is the equivalent system reactance

Per Unit System

z Q:

Why P.U?
z Easy calculation
z Easy comparison
z Easy check for results.

How to convert to P.U

ActualV alue
P .Uvalue =
BaseV alue
z In

Power system we have 4 major values

z V, I, P and Z
z Bases for V & P are chosen.
z Bases for Z & I are calculated.

Selected Base values

MVA b

KVb

3 Phase Power Base.

Line Voltage Base.

Calculated Base values

V b V b
Z b = i
I b V b

( 3) V
2

3V Ab

(
=

3V b

3V Ab

V L2 ((103 )V L ) 2
=
=

6
10 V A 3
V 3

KV b
Zb =
MV Ab

Ib =

MVAb
3KVb

Per unit impedance

MV Ab
Z
Z =
= Z i

2
Zb
KV b

MVAb
Z = Z
2
KVb

P.U Modification
Z P .U (old ) = Z

MV Ab (old )

Z P .U ( new ) = Z

MV Ab ( new )

KV b2(old )

KV

2
b ( new )

MVAb(new) KVb(old ) 2
(
)
ZP.U (new) = ZP.U (old )
MVAb(old ) KVb(new)

Example
New Bases
50MVA
&138KV at
bus 2

Three phase
fault at Bus 2

1- P.U calculation
z Choose

=50MVA (new value).

z Choose KVb 138KV at bus 2
z & KVb =13.4 at bus 1 (new values)
MVA b

ZP.U

ZP.U(new)

MVA b
= Z
KVb2

MVA b(new) KVb(old)

= ZP.U(old)

MVA
b(old) KVb(new)

P.U calculation
2

50 13.2
X g =0.2
=0.194(P.U)
50 13.4
2

50 13.4
X T =0.15
=0.125(P .U )
60 13.4

2- Reactance Diagram

3- Calculation of Equivalent Reactance

X eq =X g +X T = 0.319( P .U )

4- fault current calculation

Vf (P .U )
10
If (P .U )=
=
= J 3.134(P .U )
X eq (P .U ) J 0.319
If (A)=If (P.U)I b

MVA b

50
KA =
= 0.21KA
Ib =
3KVb
3(138)
Vf =If Zf

V1 =If ( X T +Zf )

Zf is fault impedance

Xt: transformer react

Example 2

13.8KV

115KV

13.8KV

Given:
For: Xg1=Xg2=0.2 p.u at 100MVA, 13.2KV.
For T1

X T1 = 0.1(P .U ),120MVA, 13.8/115KV

For T2

X T2 = 0.1(P .U ),120MVA, 115/13.8KV

Solution
z Choose

MVAb=120 (new value).

z Choose KVb =115 at TL (new values).
2

120 13.2
X G2 =X G1 =0.2

=0.194(P .U )
100 13.8
2

120 13.8
X T1 =X T2 =0.1

=0.1(P .U )
120 13.8

MVA b
120
X TL(P.U) =X TL
= 15
= 0.1134
2
2
115
KVb

Reactance (impedance) Diagram

Equivalent reactance calculation

X eq

X G1 +X T1 +X L/2 )( X G2 +X T2 +X L/2 )
(
=
X G1 +X T1 +X L/2 +X G2 +X T2 +X L/2

1
If =
(P.U)
JX eq
XB
IG1 =If
X A +X B

XA
IG2 =If
X A +X B

Example 3

P.U. and fault calculation

z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z

MVAb=100
KVLb=15.5 at the Gen
Xd=0.2*(100/125)=0.16 p.u
Xt=0.15*(100/150)=0.1 p.u
Xsys=0.025 p.u
If1=If2=1.0/j0.07=-j14.29
Ibase=100000/ 3*15.5=3724.9 A
If=14.29*3724.9=53228.82 A
Igen=If*0.125/(o.125+0.16)=23.35 KA
Isys=If*0.16/(0.125+0.16)=29.89 KA

Example 4

X 2 //Y3 =Z1
0.1//X3 //Y1 =Z2
Z1 +Z2 =Z3
X eq =Z3 //Y2 //0.1//X1

Example 5

X 2 //Y3 =Z1
0.1//X3 //Y1 =Z2
Z1 +Z2 =Z3

X eq =Z3 //Y2 //0.1//X1

Example 6
4

P
G1

T1

T2

G2

Reactance
Diagram
3
2

P
T1

G1

T2
F

Xg1

XT1

XTL1
Xg2

XT2

XTL2/2
1

G2

XTL2/2
3

Reduction of Reactance Diagram

X2

X1

Xg1+XT1

Xg2+ XT2
X3
3

Reduction of Reactance Diagram

Xg1+XT1+X2

Xg2+ XT2+X1
X3
3

Reduction of Reactance Diagram

(Xg1+XT1+X2) //
(Xg2+ XT2+X1)

X3

Equivalent Reactance
Xeq = X3 + (Xg1+XT1+X2) //(Xg2+

XT2+X1)

Put X4= Xg1+XT1+X2, and

X5= Xg2+XT2+X1
Xeq = X3 + (X4.X5)/(X4+X5)

Fault Current and MVAsc

z If

= Vf (p.u) / Xeq (p.u)

z If (A) = If (p.u) * Ib at fault point
z MVAsc = 3 KVb x If (KA)

Thank you