STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1-TENSILE TEST
OBJECT:
To determine the deformation behavior of a specimen subjected to a continuously
increasing tensile load until it breaks.
THEORY:
Let a bar of uniform cross-sectional area A be fixed at one end and a load P be
applied at the other end. If the original length of the bar is L, it is found that as a result of
the application of the load there is a lengthening of the bar. Let the increase in length be
L
1. The strain in the bar is defined as
= Increase in length/Original length = L/L
Notice that the strain is non-dimensional, i.e., it has no units.
The stress in the bar is defined as
= Applied load/Cross-sectional area = P/A
If P is in Kgf and A is square cms, the unit of stress is Kgf/cm2.
APPARATUS:
The requirements of any tensile testing machine are (1) to hold the specimen firmly
(2) to apply a constantly increasing force or a constant extension rate (3) to record the
force and extension continuously.
Specimens are usually of a "dumb bell" shape to aid gripping at each end and often
circular in cross-section.
The narrow portion in the centre, called the gauge length, is the part which deforms.
The ends are gripped by split collars or tensile chucks which enable the specimens to be
offered to the tensile machine.
There are two main types of drive, screw thread and hydraulic. The screw drive ad
fitted to Tensometer Type W is reasonably cheap, accurate and in widespread use.

Operation of Tensometer Type W:

If we examine the diagram, Fig. 1, the principles on which the machine operator can
be seen.
The specimen is hold at one end by a force-measuring system and at the other by a
means of applying the extension, all positively linked, The extension is applied by a
worm gearbox either by hand or by a motor drive and as the operating screw is directly
connected to the gearbox, it moves to the right, thereby extending the specimen, The
resistive force offered by the specimen is then transmitted to the measuring system, the
heart of which is a spring beam. This beam deflects and as the force applied to it is
directly proportional to the deflection, as the beam always operates well within its elastic
limit, we can now measure this deflection in order to measure the force.

Fig.1.
The most important point to remember is that the resistive force offered by the
specimen has now been changed to linear movement by the machine. All teeching
machines use a similar system, but often more complex.
This deflection is now magnified by a lever which operates a mercury system
resulting in mercury being displaced into a glass tube with further magnification taking
place, This displacement can now be comtinuously measured throughout the test by
following the variations in height of a mercury column with a cursor and its pricking

device by puncturing a graph sheet at frequent intervals, thereby recording force. You
will notice that the recorder drum is directly linked with the gearing in the gearbox,
therefore, at all times that the specimen is being extended the recorder drum rotates. It
follows that the graph paper, attached to the recorder drum, will rotate at a constant ratio
with the gearbox and operating screw and must, therefore, be a measure of extension of
the specimen. Thus, at the same time as recording the force on the specimen, we are
recording its extension.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the size of the specimens given to you and find out the material of the
specimens also.
2. Mount it on the Tensometer
3. Choose the proper spring and fit it to the machine. Fix the corresponding scale
alongside of the mercury column.
4. Check the position of the recorder pen
5. Start loading your specimen slowly and apply the load until the specimen breaks.
And at the same time record the force-extension curve manually.
6. Remove the broken specimen. Repeat the experiment with the other specimen.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
1. Plot stress-strain curves for all the specimens on a single sheet.
2. Determine all the properties
3. Explain the various features of the stress-strain plot.
OUESTIONS:
1. Define the following terms: Elasticity, Plasticity, Strength, Toughness, Hardness,
Ductility, Brittleness, Factor of Safety, and Proof Stress.
2. Compare the mode of failure of a specimen under tensile test and compression
test.
Data:
that the loading platform is completely self aligning and loading is purely axial. A
strain gauged load link is fitted midway up each tie bar and the two links provide an
output for the digital load meter which is supplied with the equipment.

The space above the loading platform is used for compression tests and that below it
for tensile tests. For tensile tests the specimens are fitted into chucks which screw two
ball joints; one under the loading platform, the other in the frame base plate.
The hydraulic ram has a self sealing coupling and can be connected either to the
manual pump, or motorized pump, whichever is ordered. The hydraulic ram, manual
pump, motorized pump and connecting hoses are all rated for operating up to 200 KN.
The universal Test Machine is fitted with strain gauged load links which provide a
direct output of load on a Digital Load Meter supplied with the equipment.
There is a simple mechanical extensometer giving very accurate reading of
extension for tensile test specimens up to 9.8 mm diameter. The gauge length is
automatically set to 50 mm when the two halves are together.
Procedure:
1. Measure the size of the specimens given to you and find out the material of the
specimens also.
2. Use of the extensometer as follows:
a. Adjust the screws so that the specimen will be located centrally in the frame and
align them so that they will grip the specimen.
b. Place the extensometer over the specimen. Locate the specimen on the screws
and tighten the cone point screws to clamp the extensometer to the specimen. The screws
should be tightened sufficiently to press the cone points into the surface of the specimen,
but care should be taken not to overtighten the screws.
c. Loosen the licking screw on the bezel of the dial gauge (if fitted) and rotate the
bezel to set the reading to zero. Gently tap the dial gauge and re-check the zero, then note
the reading of the small, revolution counter towards the middle of the dial gauge face.
3. Load the specimen slowly and as uniformly as possible. Record the extension at load
increments of at least every 5kN in the elastic region.
4. Continue loading and recording extensions at 0.5 kN increments up to a safe value
below the forecast fracture load.
5. Remove the extensometer before fracture.
6. Increase the load, slowly and uniformly, until fracture the specimen. Record the
fracture load.
7. Remove the specimen for study of fractured area.
8. measure the final length between the extensometer marks and the diameter in the neck.
9. Calculate values for stess and strain* and plot against each other.

10. Determine value of E from the graph.

11. Calculate ductility.
* Strain= Dial reading/ (3*50)

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2-UNIVERSAL BEAM TESTING
OBJECT:
Verification of deflection and determination of reaction at beam supports for the
following arrangements.
1. Simple beam supported on fixed knife edges
2. Simple cantilever beam
3. Propped cantilever
4. Continuous beam with rigid supports
APPARATUS:
The basic of this apparatus is a simple load measuring cell which works entirely on
mechanical principles. This load cell consists of a plunger B which runs in ball bearings
contained by outer case A so that it is free to move in a vertical direction but not free to
rotate. Vertical support for the plunger is provided by the calibrated spring G which, in
turn, is supported by micrometer screw E which fits into the bottom of the case A. A
micrometer scale is engraved on the micrometer thimble F on the top edge of D.
Clamping ring C, which screws to the case A, provides a ready and convenient method of
holding the load cell in any desired position (Fig.1).
The method of operating the cell is as follows:
When a load "P" is applied to the plunger it is initially displaced downwards. The
micrometer screw E is now rotated until the plunger is returned to its original position. A
dial gauge is normally used to indicate the position of the plunger. The reading of the
micrometer scale then given the deflection of the spring and hence the load carried by the
cell.
Calibration of Load Cell:
A simply supported beam is arranged so that it is supported at one end on a rigid
support and the other end on the load cell to be calibrated (Fig.2). A dial gauge is fitted
above the beam at the load cell end. A load is now applied to the centre of the beam and
therefore the load on the cell is W/2. The micrometer screw is adjusted until the dial
gauge reading has returned to its original value and the micrometer reading is noted, thus
giving the spring deflection for a load W/2. This procedure can be repeated for number of
values of W and the relationship between applied load W and spring deflection obtained.

It is recommended that the load cell or the frame supporting it, is tapped gently while
taking readings, so as to reduce friction to a minimum.

L
W

Fig.2
PROCEDURE:
1. Si mply Supported Beam:
With the loading arrangement shown in Fig. 3 make at least six readings of the
central deflection, S, of the beam and tabulate the readings for different loads.

Deflection,

PL3
48EI

L/2

L/2

Fig.3

2. Simple Cantilever Beam:

With the loading arrangement shown in Fig. 4 make at least six readings of
deflection, , at a distance x from the fixed end, for six different loads at the free end.
Compare with the theoretical al values of .

Deflection,

WX 3 WLX 2

6 EI
2 EI
L

Fig.4
3. Propped Cantilever:
In this experiment the load cell is used as the prop. When the cantilever is loaded
the deflection of the load cell is noted on the dial gauge and the micrometer screw
adjusted until the free end of the cantilever is returned to its original level. The
theoretical and experimental values obtained for the load W on the prop are then
compared. (see Fig.5)
R

reaction,

Wa 2
(3L a)
2 L3

deflection under the load,

Wa 3
3EI

1 a
a 2
1 4 ( L ) (3 L )

L
x

Fig.5

4. Continuous Beam with Rigid Supports:

Continuous beam as shown in Fig.6, is supported at points A.B, and C on load cells
and a dial gauge is fitted directly over each support. As the beam is loaded by the weights
W1 and W2 the micrometer screws on the load cells can be adjusted so that each support
is brought back to its original level; the conditions are those existing in a continuous
beam on rigid supports. The conditions of loading, dimensions and elastic constants of
the beam will be known and therefore by the application of the three moment theorem,
the theoretical reactions at the supports can be calculated and compared with those
actually measured by the load cells.
3 (L21 L22)
.W
16(L1 L 2)

if

W1 W2

1 WL1
(
M3)
L1 2

RB W M B (

MB

moment,
RA

reaction,
RC

L1 L2
)
L1 L2

1 WL2
(
MB)
L2 2

L1

L2

L 1/2

L 2/2

W1

W2

Fig 6
Typical Experimental set up:
Set up the frame, beam, weight hangers and load cells as shown in Fig.6 but no
loads applied to the weight hangers. Lower the support B free of the beam and adjust the
end supports A and C so that they are at their upper limit and then lower approximately
two turns of the micrometer head until each micrometer heads reads zero.

Raise the centre support until it just touches the beam and then continue turning the
micrometer head until it reads zero; the weight of the beam and weight hangers will
make this possible without raising the beam off the end support.
Set the dial gauges over each support to zero, checking that all micrometer heads
are still set at zero. This is the datum for the experiment and from this point the weight of
the beam and the weight of the hangers can be neglected, the effective load on the beam
being any additional weights applied to the hangers.
Add the required loads at the pre-determined positions and then adjust the
micrometer head on each load cell until each respective dial gauge returns to zero.
The readings on the micrometer heads are then the measure of the load at each
support. It is advisable to lightly tap frame during the adjustment of the micrometer
heads to neutralize slight friction.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
Plot calibration curves for each load cell
Plot load vs. deflection for each cases and compare with theoretical results

Strength Of materials
Unsymmetrical Bending of a cantilever-3


:Object
To measure the deflection of a cantilever due to unsymmetrical
bending and to determine the moment of inertia of the cantilever
about its principal axes experimentally.
:Theory
Let X and Y be principal directions. Apply the load at inclination of
as shown in Fig.1

Then the deflection

W cos( ) L3
Yy
3EI x
Yx

W sin( ) L3
3EI y

Deflection in the direction of W

And perpendicular to this

V Y y cos( ) Yx sin( )

H Yx cos( ) Yy sin( )

These can be put in the following forms

WL3
V
6E

1 1 1 1

cos( 2 )

I x I y I y I x

WL3
6E

1
sin( 2 )

I y I x

These two shows that if plot V vs. H ,a circle having the center at
WL3
6E

1
1

I x I y

WL3
6E

and radius

1 1

I y I x

will be obtained

:Apparatus
It consists of a vertical cantilever (angle section Fig.3) rigidly fixed to
the base of apparatus. The load to the free end of the cantilever is
applied in a horizontal plane by a simple system of cord and pulley,
which can rotate any direction about the vertical fixed of the cantilever
. The H and V displacement of the cantilever for any angular
position of the load is measured by two verniers fixed to the top of
apparatus. Various section beams may be used.
:Procedure
Vary from 0 to 157.5 ,in intervals of 22.5 and determine vernier zero
readings for each . For each apply 1lb ,2lb, etc. And adjust the
pulley sideways until the cord is parallel to one of the black lines. Then
read the horizontal and vertical readings. Subtract the zero readings to
find the actual V and H.
1. Draw V ,H vs. W for each .
2. Determine the average values of V/W and H/W for each from
the above graphs.
Results and discussion:
Plot:
1. V/H and H/W against and show that the maximum
values of V/W occurs where H/W is zero.
2. V/W vs. H/W to verify circle relationship. Hence determine
Ix and Iy .
3. Compare your results with theoretical one.
Questions:
1. Obtain all the formulae.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
4-TORTION TESTING FOR METALS

OBJECT
To verify the elastic torsion equation and determination of modulus of rigidity and yield
shear stress and other typical values.

THEORY
Refer book at mechanics of solids.

APPARATUS
The machine consists of a very
base formed from 3 dia. ground stem
carrying a
rigid headstock and a manually operating straining head. The latter basically a worm
reduction- gear box (ratio 60:1) mounted on a cast iron bracket and arranged to slide on a
keyway along the full length of the base. This can be clamped at any position depending
on the length of the specimen under test.
Thetortional strain
can be applied to the specimen in either clock- wise or
anticlockwise direction is reassured very accurately by using simple devices on the
straining head. These consists of a circular scale reading
on the output shaft and a
similar scale marked in 6 div. on the input shaft. This latter through the reduction ratio
of gear box allows strain to be applied to the specimen in increment of 1/10 if required.
A counter is also provided to record the number of revolutions of the input shaft.

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the mean diameter of the specimen.
2. Compare the
increment that
observations below the
proportional
3. Adjust the torsion machine to
and then in
the specimen into the
heads.
See
gripes
making sure not to displace the specimen. If in tightening the grips they produce
same torque operate the machine in forward or reverse so that it will be reduced to
zero.

4. Apply load at a low speed. Take reading of torque and angle of twist simultaneously
without stopping the machine. After the specimen shows definite signs of yielding
apply load at high speed until it falls. Note the characteristic of the fracture.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Plot
1. Torque vs. angle of twist
2. Stress vs. angle of twist on the same sheet.
Determine the torque at
a) proportional limit
b) yield point and mark them on the graph.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain why large shafts such as ships' propeller shaftsare often made hollow?
2. Discuss the feasibility of determining the shearing strength of brittle materials by
torsion?

STRENGHT OF MATERIALS
5-BENDING OF STRUTS
OBJECTS
To investigate the validity of the Euler and Rankine Gordan
conditions of struts and over a range of strut length from 15 to 30.

for all

THEORY
Any member which is in compression is called a strut. Struts fall into three classes:
1. very short columns
2. very long columns
3. intermediate between the above two types

1.VERY SHORT COLUMNS

Such columns are incapable of bending and fail when the direct stress equals the yield
stress. The failing load is given by ( yield stress X cross sectional
of the strut ).

2.VERY LONG COLUMNS

Such columns fail by buckling at a load which producess a negligible direct stress.
The buckling load is such that if a column receives a slight lateral displacement the
elastic forces tending to straighten it will only just balance the effect of the buckling
load. This load is sometimes reffered to as the "crippling" or "critical" or "failing load".
Eulers theory for long struts:

Where
P = critical load
= aquivalent length which depends on the end condition
= Modulus of rigidity
I = least second moment of area of cross-section
I = L for Pin-Pin

=
for fixed-fixed
=
for pin-fixed
=
for free-fixed
L = actual length

3. INTERMEDIATE TYPE
In most practical cases of struts both direct and buckling stresses are important, and
several formula are available for this case. One of the most useful of these is the Rankine
Gordon formula. This states that
c

PR =
1 + [ Le / k ] C
Where
PR = Rankine crippling load
A = area of cross-section
Le / k = slenderness ratio
Le = equivalent length
k = least radius of gyration of section
c

= crushing strength
Rankine constants depending on the materials
C = 1 / 7500
for still
Rational basis of the Rankine Gordan formula:
It has been found that if PR = Rankine crippling load P = Euler buckling load and PO
= critical stress failing load then the relationship

I
=

PR

PO

Gives satisfactory results.

APPARATUS
A unique feature of the machine is the adjustable loading beam pivot located on the
left-hand vertical tube and illustrated in fig. 1. The threaded split steel sleeve (2) may be
clamped in any position on the vertical tube (l) to suit the length of the strut under test

and is set to that the sprit level on the horizontal loading beam indicates that the loading
beam is dead level.
As the right hand end of the loading beam falls during loading the pivot (8) at the left
hand end may be lowered by gently turning the capstan out (4) which forces the bronze
pivot casting (3) down the threaded steel sleap (2). The loading beam is thereby restored
to a dead level position and by careful adjustment of the capstan out (4) during loadng
of the strut it is easily possible to ensure that a true axial load is applied to the strut
throughout the test.
The loading beam which is pivoted in ball bearings and its left hand end carries a
spring balance to which is
the hand wheel operated loading screw
to the
machine base plate. An extension of the loading beam is supported by an adjustable
weight the suspension cord passing over a ball bearing pully fixed between the two top
tie bars. This adjustable weight counterbalances the weight of the loading beam the
spring balance and the connecting links which connect the loading screw to the spring
balance.

PROCEDURE
1. Slaken the clamping lever on the pivot assembly unit on the left hand column and
adjust the position of this unit so that with the strut standing vertically between the
top and bottom Vs the loading beam is approximately level.
2. Fit the requisite connecting link between the balance bottom hook and the loading
screw top shackle.
3. Adjust the loading beam balance weight until the connecting link between the
spring balance and the loading screw just rises to lightly contact the shackle at the
top of the loading screw.
4. Fit the cord pully on the short vertical column at the centre of the
base in such
a position that the loop on the end of the cord will be at the centre of the strut.
Apply 3/10 lb horizontal load in the centre of the the 21" and 24" long struts and
7/10 lb. horizontal load on the 15" and 13" long struts. This very light load is
applied horizontally to the centre of the struts to enable the point of cripple is
opposite to the measuring dial gauge.
5. Set the dial gauge on the left hand vertical column so that thedial gauge will contact
the centre of the strut.
6. Apply load to the strut by means of the hand wheel which operates the loading
screw. Apply load in suitable increments and level the beam after each load
application. Record the load and deflection after leveling the loading beam.
7. After each load and deflection has been recorded lift the small horizontal loading
weight gently and note whether the strut deflection deduces. When the strut
deflection remains static despite lifting of the horizontal loading weight the strut
may be cosidered to have crippled and the crippling load be recorded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Plot
1. Axial load vs central deflection for each rod strut and determine the crippling load
in each case.
2. P vs I/k for struts of the same end conditions and vertify the results with
theoreticalones.

QUESTIONS
1. Derive the expressions for P
2. What are the assumptions you made in obtaining Eulers formula for long struts?

Torsion of Rods and Tubes

Introduction:
The elastic deformation and eventual failure of beams in bending is
related to the behavior of the beam material in direct tension and
compression. However there is another way of distorting material that
occurs when it is twisted.
In the simplest case a length of round rod can be twisted about its
longitudinal axis in such a way that no bending of direct stress is
involved . This is called pure torsion.
Objects:
The purpose of each experiment is to illustrate an item of structural
theory , or to show how well simplifying assumptions in the applied
mathematics correspond to actual behavior. But in this experiment:
1. To investigate the torsional rigidity of solid and hollow
circular rods.
2. To compare the torsional efficiency of a solid, hollow and
split hollow section.
3. To study the behavior of a hollow square section.
Theory:
Refer to the book on mechanics of solids.
Apparatus
A torsion head with ball bearings to minimize friction is fitted with a
three jaw chuck for gripping the specimens and a symmetrical 200mm
torque arm which applies pure torsion. The equal and opposite forces
which induce the torsion are via load hanger s on nylon cords , one of
which passes up over an offset pulley.
The torsion head is clamped at the right hand bottom corner of the
HST1 frame as shown with the offset pulley and load hanger in front of
the frame.
To anchor the other end of the torsion specimens a three jaw chuck is
fitted to the test frame by a clamp which permits the chuck to be
turned to any initial position to suit the specimen.
The set up specimens provided are all 450mm long spacing to improve
the grip of the chucks details of the specimens are:
HST22a an HE30TF aluminum alloy 9.5mm rod
HST22b an HE30TF tube 9.5mm o/d and 6.3 i/d

HST22c a similar tube slit longitudinally

HST22d a Perspex (methyl methacrylate) 10mm rod
HST22e an HE30TF (HECWP) square hollow section 12.7mm side and
1.63mm wall thickness.
Two angular deflection scales can be clamped in position along the
length of the specimen onto which vernier pointers are gripped. Split
collars in black plastic are used with the 9.5mm o/d specimens to bush
the grips. The white plastic collars are used to clamp the 10mm
diameter Perspex rod in the vernier pointer. The square specimen fits
in the vernier pointer without any bushes. The vernier gives a direct
reading to 0.1.
Procedure:
Using the Perspex rod as a distance piece gripped in the torsion head.
The fix end is set so that its three jaw chuck grips the other end of the
rod.
The angular deflection scales are clamped in position so that the
scales are to the front of the frame with their verniers just touching the
scales. The vernier with ten divisions equal to 9 degrees on the
quadrants enable the angular rotation to be read 0.1.
The vernier pointers , bushed as necessary ,must be loosely threaded
onto the specimens before the specimens are inserted into the
chucks.
The four aluminum alloy specimens are the same overall length as the
Perspex rod and are readily inserted by just loosening the chuck on the
torsion head and then fully opening the chuck at the fix end. There is a
clamp at the fixed end which permits the chuck to be turned to the
correct initial position after each specimen has been gripped both
ends and the load hangers are in place the torsion arm should be just
clear of the front member of the HST1 frame.
Part 1
Start with the Perspex rod and set the scales 150mm apart. Adjust the
viewed from the right hand side of the frame) with the load hangers on
the cords. Set the verniers to 0 on each scales.
Apply 1 n to each hanger and read the angular deflection of each
vernier. Repeat this until the load on each hangers are 5 n, by which
time the torque arm will be nearly at its most clockwise position. Take
a final set of reading with the load , removed. Record the results in
table 1a.

Torque
Load
Torque

Vernier A

Twist
Vernier B

B-A

2*(N)

(N.m)

(deg.)

(deg.)

(deg.)

Table 1a
Twist/ torque of a Perspex rod
Gauge length 150mm
(A table like this is suitable for all specimens )
Move the scales and verniers to increase the distance between them
to 300mm , and repeat the above loadings and readings , using table
1b similar to 1a.
Part 2
Replace the Perspex rod with the aluminum alloy rod. Re-set the fixed
end and clamp it very firmly. Use the scale 300mm apart with the
vernier starting at 0.
Apply 40N to each hanger in eight
increment s of 5N , reading the angular deflection for each loading.

.Repeat the experiment using the aluminum alloy tube

Part 3
Take the split tube specimen. Adjust the starting position as in part 1 and use
.the scales at 300 mm apart
Apply 4 N to each hanger in increments of IN, reading the angular
.deflections
Part 4
Finally, take the hollow square section, making sure that the two vernier arms
without collars are threaded on before inserting the specimen in the chucks.

The specimen should have the short stub end to the left with one vernier
.20mm from the shoulder
Set the deflection scales 300mm apart and set the verniers to 0 on each
.quadrant. Clamp the fixed end very firmly
Apply 40 N to each hanger in eight increments of 5N, reading the angular
.deflections for each loading
:Results
Tabulate the readings for each specimen and derive the angular twist over the
gauge length between the pointers by taking the differences of the angular
deflections. Calculate the applied torque from 200 mm times the applied load
.on one hanger
On graph 1 plot the angular twist against the applied torque for both gauge
length of the Perspex rod (part 1). Draw in the best fit straight lines and
.calculate their slopes. State the ratio of the slopes
Use the result to derive the modulus of rigidity for the Perspex from

Where

T/ = slope of graph, but

J = torsion constant

in radians

4/32

L = gauge length
On the second graph plot the results of part 2 for aluminum alloy rod and
tube. Draw in the best fit straight lines. Add the result and line for the hollow
.square tube of part 4

.Use an third graph to show the results for slit tube of part 3
Derive a modulus of rigidity for aluminum alloy from the results of part 2 and
use it to calculate the apparent 1 value for the spilt tube. Compare this
.experimental torsion constant with the theoretical value given by
where d = mean diameter of tube
l = wall thickness
Again using the value of G calculates the value for

of the hollow square

tube. Compare this with the theoretical value

OBSERVATIONS
Given that we are dealing with elastic torsion the graphs should be linear. Did
the results agree with this (particularly those for the Perspex? The handbook
values for the modulus of rigidity are 26200 N/mm2 for aluminum alloy and
.1200 N/mm2 for Perspex. Comment on the experimental comparisons
Using a maximum shear stress q= 100 N/mm2 calculate the maximum torque
for the solid and tubular aluminum alloy specimens. Then calculate the torque
carried per mm2 of cross section and comment on this aspect of economy.
?What is the disadvantage, if any
The slit in the tube specimen HST 22c was made with a 1 mm saw. Note the
great change in torsion stiffness. The shear stress in such a case in given by
CONCLUSIONS
?Does the simple theory of torsion apply to circular section rods and tubes

?What is the optimum way of designing for torsion in the following cases
a) Maximum torque within a set diameter
.b) Lightest member for a given shear stress
.c) A Large rotation (for example a torsion spring)
Construction Appendix

With The Perspex guard which encloses the apparatus bears on a micro switch
which enables the contractor when power is available To test or run the
.machine this guard should be in place

Load is applied to the cantilever through a ball bearing at the end. There is a
gap in the cantilever into which is inserted the test specimen, and by using a
small cross section specimen the stress on it will be much greater than in the
.rest of the cantilever
The apparatus is supplied complete with a recommended standard specimen
with a throat diameter of 4mm. When correctly assembled the minimum
diameter of 4 mm is at 125.7 mm from the load at the end of the cantilever.
:Hence the bending stress for a load P (n) is
In order to be able to induce any bending stress range the loading system has
a counterweight designed to eliminate the effect o self weight on the
.cantilever
A micro switch senses the downward deflection of the loaded end of the
cantilever. As fracture occurs the switch cuts off the electrical supply to the
motor. The number of revolutions to fracture is assessable from the eight digit
counter. The apparatus is designed to overhang the edge of the bench or
pedestal on which it is placed. Ideally a used to minimize the effect of shock
. loads from other apparatus
Procedure
As fatigue fracture experiments may run for many houses the usual procedure
is for each group in a class to set up and start on or two specimens and for all
.results to be shared at the end
To carry out any meaningful fatigue experiments a consistent set of test
specimens must be prepared. The typical standard specimen is shown in fig. t
(a), and an alternative notched specimen for part 2 of the experiment is in fig.

1(b). A minimum of 10 specimens for each part is recommended. They must

all be cut from one length of material. In addition at least one tensile test
specimen must be taken in order to obtain the lower yield or 2% proof stress,
the ultimate strength, the elongation on five diameters across the fracture, and
if possible the uniform elongation of the material being investigated. For part2
it may also be considered useful to test a notched tensile test piece. From the
tensed test results the maximum bending stress that can be applied must not
be greater than the yield or proof stress, and could perhaps be taken a 0.0 of
.than test value
A set of bending stresses from say 0.9 of the yield or proof stress to 0.4 of the
ultimate strength should be selected to match the number of rest specimens
for the complete machined, ground, polished). If the equipment is available,
measure and record the surface roughness in direction of the stress. Setting up
is a reasonably simple operation provided it is done methodically. The object
is to align the specimen and loading arm with the axis of rotation to eliminate
.stresses due to eccentric whirling
The drive shaft and the loading arm chucks have loose collet grip inserts
.which the 9 mm diameter ends of the specimen are slid as shown in fig2
Firstly lighten The collet on the drive shaft chuck so that about a 1 mm
shoulder shows between the face of the collet and the start of the neck of the
.specimen use the 16 and 23 mm spanner provided
Then push the loading arm onto the end of the specimen and adjust the collet
to give a sliding fit. now position the loading arm so that the dimension of
109.5 mm is attained from the rear face of the bearing housing to the adjacent
.end of the specimen (see fig.2). Tighten the collet with spanners

6-Fatigue Test
Object
The object of the experiment is to make an introductory study of fatigue using
.a Wechsler rotating fatigue apparatus
Theory
Fatigue of materials is a well-known situation whereby rupture can be caused
by a large number of stress variations at appoint even though the maximum
stress is less than the proof or yield stress. The fracture is initiated by tensile
stress at microscopic flaw. Once started the edge of the crack acts as a stress
raiser and thus assists in propagation of crack until the reduced section can no
longer carry the imposed load. White it appears that fatigue failure may occur
in all materials, there are marked differences in the incidence of fatigue. For
example, mild steel is know to have an endurance limit stress below which
fatigue fracture does not occur: with aluminum alloys, however, there is no
.such limit
As a consequence of these differences there are two design methods. With a
material like mild steel the actual stresses range can be kept below the
endurance limit. Alternatively one can design for a specified number of stress
variations, on condition that the part will be replaced at that stage. The latter
method is quite common with aircraft where the use of aluminum is
.widespread
The subject of fatigue testing is extensive, and is complicated by important
factors like the surface condition of the specimen, the type of stress variation,
and the influence of the shape of the specimen on the stress flow. It is known

that highly polished specimens withstand fatigue better than normally

machined ones. The most damaging type of stress variation is the complete
2

reversal, that is between the limits

for which the stress range is

Fluctuating stresses are less damaging, the standard case being between the

limits of 0 and

. The shape of a machine part is very important, since it is

known that at corners and notches the local stresses can be several times more
than the calculated average value. Evidently since fatigue is a localized stress
.phenomenon any from of stress raiser must affect performance
To introduce this very complex subject in a simple way, the apparatus
demonstrates the classical fatigue experiments carried out by Wechsler. He
selected the method of reversing the stress on a part by employing a cantilever
rotated about its longitudinal axis. Hence the stress at any point on the surface
of the cantilever varies sinusoid ally. In the machine used here the cantilever
is specially designed to use a relatively simple with a definite minimum cross
.section
Apparatus
At on end of a heavy steel base plate is mounted an electric motor and starter
contractor. The motor shaft carries a pulley with a belt drive to a counter shaft
so that different ration of speed can be arranged. For testing metals the
.counter shaft is normally driven at twice the speed of the motor
The counter shaft, running in a substantial bearing block, has a collet chuck of
9 mm i/d to carry a rotation cantilever. A box attached to the bearing block
contains a battery powered electronic reset table counter with an eight digit
reading. The counter has three states which are enabled in sequence by

pressing the black button on the top of the box holding the counter. In
sequence the states are OFF, ZERO, and COUNT the counter may be found
with the reading at the end of the previous experiment (although it should
have been switched off to save the battery). The counter can be zeroed by
pressing the black button as required. Do this before fixing the guard in place
.which will enable the motor to be started if power is available

Rotate the specimen to check that the end of the cantilever runs true. If it does not, it may
be possible to adjust it slightly by realigning the specimen in the chucks or pressing
.lightly in the end of the loading arm to reduce eccentricity
.If this is not possible the specimen must have got bent and should be discarded
Ensure that the counterbalance and load hangers are in place (see fig 3).With the guard in
.place switch the electric motor ON and OFF to verify smooth running
Select the bending stress for the test and apply the required weight on the load hanger. Set
the revolution counter to zero and fit the safety guard over the apparatus. With one finger
ready to push the STOP button , use another finger to press the ON button. If the motor
starts and all seems well note the time and make an estimate of when fracture might occur
Should the motor not start adjust the.(allow one hour per 1/3 million reversals)
.microswitch downward slightly and try again
Normally the test terminates itself through the fracture of the specimen opening the
microswitch and hence stopping the motor. As the onset of fracture approaches the
specimen will bend more , and this may open the microswitch before complete fracture
occurs. In this case move the microswitch down slightly and restart the motor. When the
bending stress is at or below the endurance limit for mild steel it may be decided to stop
the test at say ,10^7 reversals(approximately 30 hours of running time).The result should
be noted as NOT FAILED at the recorded count , and the test specimen must be labeled
with its history and removed from the apparatus. A similar situation may also arise when
.an aluminium alloy specimen is subjected to a low bending stress

Part 1
Using a set of mild steel standard specimens and a similar set of aluminum alloy
.specimens, allocate the stress levels and tests throughout the class and proceed as above

If time and the number of specimens permit obtain pairs of results at two stress levels of
the mild steel and three or four repeats at one stress level with the aluminum alloy
.material
Collate the results and plot them as they occur on a graph of stress range S against
Number of reversals N allowing the base to run to 108.Note that in the case rotating
.Cantilever the stress range is twice the applied bending stress

Part 2
If time permits and the specimens are available, use a set of notched specimens of the
.same material as the standard specimens, and proceed as in Part 1

Results
.Reproduce the graph of stress range S against N
Then plot a graph of logS against logN and expect to be able to draw a best fit straight
line from the higher to lower stress points. There will also be a horizontal line through the
.points at the endurance limit for mild steel

Questions
The graphs for mild steel standard specimens should show an endurance limit. What-1
proportion of the ultimate stress is it? How does it compare with typical elastic design
?stresses
What stress level might be just safe for an aluminum alloy component made from the-2
?material tested if a fatigue life of 10^8 reversals had to be withstood

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
7-THE CREEP TEST
OBJECT
Experimental study of creep in metals.

THEORY
There are many applications in engineering where components must function at high
temperatures. To mechanical properties of these metals are considerably altered when
subjected to high temperatures. A particular property of materials at high temperature is
known as creep. This is gradual change in dimentions which occurs on the continuous
application of stress over long periods. At room temperature creep for such engineering
materials as steel brass aluminium alloys etc. is not very significant and can be
disregarded but at higher temperatures it becomes more pronounced. However for soft
metals e.g. load creep is important even at room temperatures.
Whereas the results from tensile tests are concerned with plastic deformation taking
place over periods of seconds creep is concerned with plastic deformation over weeks
months or years. Hence this is a property in which the time effect must be taken into
account. Experiments show that the deformation due to creep does not take place
according to the normal load-extension curve. Elastic limit is lowered in creep. Creep can
occure in tension compression or torsion but tests are usually done in tension. The test
procedure for a creep test is very rigid. Temperature control must be within 0.5 C the
extensometer used must be capable of measuring a change in length of
in pe inch. A
creep curve which shows stain plotted against time has a characteristic shape which is
divided into three stages.the first stage is reffered to as the primary or transient creep.
The second stage is called the steady state or secondary creep and the final stage is
reffered to as tertiary creep. The effect of increasing the temperature or the stress is to
reduce the secondary creep stage and therefore to increase the amount of strain in any
given time and hence to accelerate fracture. In practice the working stress or the
component must be arranged so that the tertiary creep stage is never reached.

APPARATUS
The apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.
The machine comprises a loading lever A pivoted on a ball journal bearing B. Two
steel straps D connect the arm A to the jaw holder E. The lower ends of staps
areattached to circular faces of steel blocks on either side of the arm A thus ensuring that
the load on the specimen is always applied vertically. The upper jaw for clamping the
upper end of the specimen are supported from the top horizontal cross member a tension
out allows the height to be adjusted.
The weight W may be suspended on the loading lever at different leverages. Load
calibration curves are given for the 2 lb and 4 lb weights. The specimen extension is
recorded on a dial gauge. The apparatus is mounted on a cast iron triangular base plate
which is fitted with a coplanar sprit level and three adjustable leveling screws.

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus should be mounted on a rigid bench free from vibration which is
likely to cause erratic reading of the dial gauge.
2. Level the base plate by by the leveling screws.
3. Lift the loading lever on to its rest position support.
4. Withdraw the cross pins in the jaw holders by unscrewing the knurled locking nuts.
Insert one end of the the specimen in the lower jaw holder replace the cross pin in
the knurled lock nut. Fit the upper end of the specimen in the top jaw holder
replace the cross pin and knurled nut. Adjust the top tension nut to take up all
clearances but enouph to lift the loading lever off its stop. Tighten the knurled nuts
at each end of the specimen.
5. Note that the specimens are very easily damaged and they should at all times be
handled with care.
6. Set the dial gauge to zero by rotating the bezel. Select a position on the loading
lever for the weight. Use the 4 lb weight to determine the breaking load i.e. the load
that will cause fracture within 10 seconds.
7. To apply the load to the specimen lift the leading lever end very slightly to allow
the support to be rotated clear of the lever. Very carefully lower the lever until the
full load is transferred to the specimen and at the pricise moment that the specimen
receives the load a stop watch.
8. The position of the load on the loading lever may be varied until a satisfactory time
between application of the load and fracture of the specimen is obtained.

9. To carry out the actual creep tests set up the apparatus as described above but
replace the 4 lb weight by a 2 lb weight. As before very carefully transfer the load
to the specimen and take deflection reading as recorded by the dial gauge at equal
time increments until the specimen fractures. The average ambient temperature
should be recorded.
10. Repeat the experiment with the load 2 lb on another positions of the leading lever.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Plot extension vs. time curves and discuss about the three phases of creep. Compare
with one given in the books.

QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate the fractures in metals due to creep and that due to fatigue.
2. Effect of temperature on creep property.
3. What are the ill effects due to creep of a machine component?

Impact Test-9
Object
The object of the experiment is to make an introductory study of impact and to
Show that how a material reacts to a sudden tension due to a quick blow or
.impact

Theory
An external force applied to a structure or part is called an impact load if the time
of application is less than one third the lowest natural period of vibration of the
.part or structure. Otherwise it is called simply a static load
The charpy (commonly used) and izod (rarely used)notched-bar tests utilize
bars of specified geometries to determine brittleness and impact strength. These
-tests are helpful in comparing several materials and in the determination of low
.temperature brittleness
,In both tests the specimen is struck by a pendulum released from a fixed height
and the energy absorbed by the specimen , called the impact value , can be
computed from the height of swing after fracture, but is read from a dial which
.essentially computes the result
The effect of temperature on impact values is shown in this figure for a material
showing a ductile-brittle transition. Not all materials show this transition. Notice

the narrow region of critical temperatures where the impact value increases very
,rapidly. In the low-temperature region the fracture appears as a brittle
shattering type, whereas the appearance is a tough , tearing type above the
critical-temperature region. the critical temperature seems to be dependent on
.both the material and the geometry of the notch
The average strain rate used in obtaining the stress-strain diagram is about 0.001
in/(in.s)or less. When the strain rate is increased , as it is under impact
conditions, the strengths increase , as shown in following figure. In fact at very
high strain rates the yield strength seems to approach the ultimate strength as a
limit. But note that the curves show little change in the elongation. This means
that the ductility remains about the same. Also, in view of the sharp increase in
yield strength , a mild steel could be expected to behave elastically throughout
.practically its entire strength range under impact conditions
The charpy and izod tests really provide toughness data under dynamic, rather
that static, conditions. It may well be that impact data obtained from these tests
.are as dependent on the notch geometry as they are on the strain rate

Apparatus
Impact tester is intended for mounting on a bench, with fixing holes at the front
and back of the baseplate . If the impact tester is mounted on a bench, the zero
.point must be set when installing
The impact tester has a maximum impact energy of 15 joules, each scale division
being 0.1 joules. Test pieces suitable for the tester are 10*10*55mm.The reduced
.length of the pendulum requires a test piece smaller than standard

Procedure
Our main aim of doing this experiment is to find the energy required to break the
specimen in different temperatures. So we can prepare specimens with this
,temperatures : 100 c(boiling water),0 c(ice &water),25 c(room temperature)
c(liquid nitrogen),50 c(with heating the specimen in water).The how we 23.Perform the experiment is identical for all of them
:Setting of test piece supports
loosen the allen screw.1
.set to the required distance. Tighten slightly on the allenkey.2
check that the pendulum striking blade center is exactly in fire with the center.3
.of the test piece supports. If it is not so adjust until it lines up
.Check distances once more then tighten up fully with the allenkey.4

Setting the zero point of the start point

Because of friction and wind resistance, the pendulum will not have the same
striking angle as the fall angle. This can be compensated for by inclining the
impact tester slightly. The fall angle will then be larger and the striking angle less
but the scale is fixed and a non-loading blow of 15 joules should show a value of
.joules 15

Method
.Set the pointer to 15 joules(straight down).1
Raise the pendulum to the start point. Release the pendulum by means of the.2
.Black knob
.Stop the pendulum using the friction brake. Take the reading of the pointer.3
.The pointer should point to zero(0) if the impact tester is properly set

If the pointer shows more than zero, fixed impact tester should be angled.4
slightly by inserting a spacer(washer) under the pendulum side. For the free
.standing model , screw down the allen screw
If the pointer shows less than zero the pointer is over the scale, then the
Spacer(washer), shall be placed under the back edge for fixed models and the
.allen screw in the free standing model, turned anti-clockwise(upwards)
Check the setting with an unloaded test. Complete further adjustment until.5
.exactly zero is registered
To be able to calculate the impact strength KCU, the pendulums potential energy
.when released, is first calculated
K=F.L(1+sin(a-90))
The potential energy in the pendulum after it has broken the test piece is then
calculated
T=F.L(1-cosb)
The energy consumed when breaking the test piece is then E=K-T, neglecting
friction and wind resistance losses. To calculate the impact strength KCU, the
energy received is divided by the cross sectional area of the test piece. The
.impact test apparatus can be graduated directly in joules

Results
.Plot the variation of impact energy with temperature

Questions
?How did the impact strength vary with different temperatures.1

At what temperature was the transitional critical temperature?Give.2

.approximate temperature range
?How was the impact strength affected by the carbon content of the material.3