1

Frequency control (MW-Hz) with wind

PSERC Seminar
February 9, 2010
Iowa State University
James D. McCalley
Harpole Professor of Electrical &
Computer Engineering

Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

MW-Hz time frames

Transient frequency control
Variability
Regulation
Load following
Storage
Conclusions

MW-Hz Time Frames

0+<t<2s; Inertial
t=0+; Proximity

2s<t<10s; Speed-governors

10s<t<3m; AGC
1m<t; AGC, ED

MW-Hz Time Frames

Transient frequency
response
Inertia & governor

Regulation
Governor & AGC

Load following
AGC and ED

Scheduling
ED & UC

Source: H. Holttinen, The impact of largescale power production on the Nordic

electricity system, VTT Publications 554, PhD Dissert, Helsinki U. of Technology, 2004.

MW-Hz Time Frames

=

100
80

REGULATION IN MEGAWATTS

60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
07:00

07:20

07:40

08:00

08:20

08:40

09:00

09:20

09:40

10:00

Regulation

Load Following

Regulation

Source: Steve Enyeart, Large Wind Integration Challenges for Operations / System
Reliability, presentation by Bonneville Power Administration, Feb 12, 2008, available at
http://cialab.ee.washington.edu/nwess/2008/presentations/stephen.ppt.

Transient frequency control

What can happen if frequency dips too low?
For f<59.75 Hz, underfrequency relays can trip load.
For f<59 Hz, loss of life on turbine blades
Violation of NERC criteria with penalties
N-1: Frequency not below 59.6 Hz for >6 cycles
at load buses
N-2: Frequency not below 59.0 Hz for >6 cycles
at load buses

Transient frequency control

d f
dt

PL f Re
2

n
i 1

Hi

Frequen
cy(Hz)
60

mf

60-mf1t1
60-mf2t1

t
1

mf1

Time
(sec)

mf2
mf3

60-mf3t1

The greater the rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) following

loss of a generator PL, the lower will be the frequency dip.
ROCOF increases as total system inertia Hi decreases.
Therefore, frequency dip increases as Hi decreases.

Transient frequency control

Example: Ireland: PL =432 MW=4.32 pu. Hi =475 sec
2.75 sec
Nadir

1. Governors
2. Load frequency sensitivity

49.35

mf

d f
dt

PL f Re
2

n
i 1

Hi

50-0.227*2.75=49.38Hz

4.32 (50)
2 * 475

0.227 Hz / sec

Transient frequency control

Example: Estrn Interconnection: PL =2900 MW=29 pu. Hi =32286 sec

mf

d f
dt

PL f Re
2

n
i 1

29(60)
2 * 32286

59.9828
Hz

Nadir

59.9725z

Hi

0.0269Hz / sec

60-0.0269*1.5=59.9597Hz

Transient frequency control

So what is the issue with wind.?
1. Increasing wind penetrations tend to displace
(decommit) conventional generation.
2. DFIGs, without specialized control, do not contribute
inertia. This lightens the system d f
PL f Re
mf
(decreases denominator)
n
dt
2 Hi
i 1

Lets see an example.

10

11

Transient frequency control

Green: Base Case

Dark Blue: 2% Wind Penetration
Light Blue: 4% Wind Penetration
Red: 8% Wind Penetration

Estrn Interconnection: Frequency dip after 2.9GW Gen drop for Unit DeCommitment scenario at different wind penetration levels (0.6, 2, 4, 8%)

Transient frequency control

12

Why do DFIGs not contribute inertia?

They do not decelerate in response to a frequency drop.
Fuel supply
control

Steam valve control

Generator

Steam
Boiler

FUEL

STEAMTURBINE

MVARvoltage
control
CONTROL
SYSTEM

Generator
Wind
speed

WINDTURBINE

Gear
Box
Real power
output control

CONTROL
SYSTEM

MVARvoltage
control

The ability to control mech

torque applied to the
generator using pitch
control & electromagnetic
torque using rotor current
control (to optimize Cp and
to avoid gusting) enables
avoidance of mismatch
between mechanical torque
and electromagnetic torque
and, therefore, also
avoidance of rotor
deceleration under network
frequency decline.

Transient frequency control

Ireland sees significant f for loss of largest unit. Estrn
interconnection (EI) sees small f for loss of largest unit.
Ireland total system inertia is 475 sec.
Estrn interconnection total system inertia is 32286 sec.
(ERCOT and WECC are between these extremes.)
The heavier the system, the less frequency moves.
Hard to cause trans freq dip problem in the EI with N-1
outage, but frequency stability is still of concern because:
1. Islanding conditions can be susceptible
2. Control performance standards may be impacted.

13

14

Transient frequency control CPS1, CPS2

ACE
10 B

CFmin ute

min ute

f min ute

2
1

C1

AVG10min

ACEi
10 Bi

* F1
1
2

CPS1min ute

L10 1.65
CF2

2 CFmin ute

10

100% RMS{dF} AVG period

10 Bi 10 Bs

1
ACE10
L10

Number of intervals that CF2 1

R
Total number of intervals
CPS2 100(1 R)%

C2

AVG10

min ute

F1min

( ACEi )

Transient frequency control

15

What is the fix for this? Consider DFIG control system

Source: J. Ekanayake, L. Holdsworth, and N. Jenkins, Control of DFIG Wind Turbines, Proc. Instl
Electr. Eng., Power Eng., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 28-32, Feb 2003.

Transient frequency control

16

Add inertial emulation, a signal d/dt scaled by 2H

-2H
d / dt

Transient frequency control

17

Several European grid operators have imposed requirements on wind

plants in regards to frequency contributions, including Nordic countries
[1,2]. North American interconnections have so far not imposed
requirements on wind farms in regards to frequency contributions, with
the exception of Hydro-Quebec. (We better fix this before installing 600
GW of wind!!!!)
Hydro Quebec requires that wind farms be able to contribute to reduce
large (>0.5 Hz), short-term (< 10 sec) frequency deviation [3]. The
Hydro-Quebec requirement states [4], The frequency control system
must reduce large, short-term frequency deviations at least as much as
does the inertial response of a conventional generator whose inertia (H)
equals 3.5 sec.
[1] Wind Turbines Connected to Grids with Voltages above 100 kV Technical Regulation for the Properties and
the Regulation of Wind Turbines, Elkraft System and Eltra Regulation, Draft version TF 3.2.5, Dec., 2004.
[2] Nordic Grid Code 2007 (Nordic Collection of Rules), Nordel. Tech. Rep., Jan 2004, updated 2007.
[3] N. Ullah, T. Thiringer, and D. Karlsson, Temporary Primary Frequency Control Support by Variable Speed
Wind Turbines Potential and Applications, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 23, No. 2, May 2008.
[4] Technical Requirements for the Connection of Generation Facilities to the Hydro-Quebec Transmission
System: Supplementary Requirements for Wind Generation, Hydro Quebec, Tech. Rp., May 2003, revised 2005.

Temporal Variability

18

Source: Task 25 of the International Energy Agency (IEA), Design and operation of power systems
with large amounts of wind power: State-of-the-art report, available at
www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2007/W82.pdf.

Spatial Variability (geo-diversity)

19

Source: Task 25 of the International Energy Agency (IEA), Design and operation of power systems
with large amounts of wind power: State-of-the-art report, available at
www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2007/W82.pdf.

Spatial Variability (geo-diversity)

20

Source: Task 25 of the International Energy Agency (IEA), Design and operation of power systems
with large amounts of wind power: State-of-the-art report, available at
www.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2007/W82.pdf.

Variability of net load

1 hour

10 min

max

max

Load (MW)

123

400

22

135

Net load (MW)

130

499

23.6

158

Source:V. Vittal, J. McCalley, V. Ajjarapu, Impact of Increased DFIGWind Penetration On Power

Systems And Markets, Final report, Power System Engineering Research Center, 2009.

21

22

Evaluating regulation share of a gen or load

Contribution of wind
variability to net load
variability

2
w

2
L

2
T

2
w: : Var of
2
L : Var of
2
T : Var of

wind plant
total load.
total load less wind.

ORNL Method allocation of regulation [1]: The basic

concept of this method stems from the following:
If a wind farms natural diurnal cycle is positively-correlated
with the 24 hour load cycle, then T2 L2 ; the wind will ramp
with the load, and there will be less need for load following.
If a wind farms natural diurnal cycle is negatively-correlated
with the 24 hour load cycle, then T2 L2 ; the wind will ramp
against the load, and there will be less need for load
following.
[1] B. Kirby, M. Milligan, Y. Makarov, D. Hawkins, K. Jackson, H. Shiu California Renewables
Portfolio Standard Renewable Generation Integration Cost Analysis, Phase I: One Year Analysis Of
Existing Resources, Results And Recommendations, Final Report, Dec. 10, 2003, available at
http://www.consultkirby.com/files/RPS_Int_Cost_PhaseI_Final.pdf.

Solutions to increased variability

1. Increase control of the wind generation via pitch control
a. Provide regulation and/or load following capability
b. Limit wind generation ramp rates
Limit of increasing ramp is easy to do
Limit of decreasing ramp is harder, but good
forecasting can warn of impending decrease and
plant can begin decreasing in advance
2. Increase non-wind MW ramping capability during periods of
expected high variability using one or more of the below:
a. Conventional generation
b. Storage (e.g., pumped storage, CAES, batteries)
c. Load control

23

24

Ensure availability of high-ramp rate units

Steam turbine plants 1- 5 %/min
Nuclear plants 1- 5 %/min
GT Combined Cycle 5 -10 %/min
Combustion turbines 20 %/min
Diesel engines 40 %/min

Coal units typically have ramp rates that are in the range of 1% to 1.5%
of their nameplate rating per minute between minimum load and
maximum load set points. Coal unit minimum load set-points range from
20% to 50% of nameplate, depending on the design of the air quality
control system being used. For example, a 500 MW coal plant may have
a minimum load of 100 MW and would be able to ramp up at the rate of
5 MW per minute. In addition, it can take a day or more to bring a coal
plant up to full load from a cold start condition. Natural gas-fired
combustion turbines, on the other hand, can normally be at full load
from a cold start in 10 to 30 minutes (which results in an effective ramp
rate of 3.3% to 10% of their nameplate rating per minute).
Source:
www.xcelenergy.com/COMPANY/ABOUT_ENERGY_AND_RATES/RESOURCE%20AND%20REN
EWABLE%20ENERGY%20PLANS/Pages/2007_Minnesota_Resource_Plan.aspx

25

Regulation via rotor speed & pitch control

Fuel supply
control

Generator

Steam
Boiler

FUEL

STEAMTURBINE

Pitch
control

Steam valve control

MVARvoltage
control
CONTROL
SYSTEM

Generator
Wind
speed

WINDTURBINE

Gear
Box
Real power
output control

MVARvoltage
control

Rotor
speed
control
Whereas speed control may be well suited for continuous, fine, frequency
regulation, blade pitch control can provide fast acting, coarse control both
for frequency regulation as well as emergency spinning reserve.
CONTROL
SYSTEM

Sources: Rogrio G. de Almeida and J. A. Peas Lopes, Participation of Doubly Fed Induction Wind Generators
in System Frequency Regulation, IEEE Trans On Pwr Sys, Vol. 22, No. 3, Aug. 2007.
B. Fox, D. Flynn, L. Bryans, N. Jenkins, D. Milborrow, M. OMalley, R. Watson, and O. Anaya-Lara, Wind Power
Integration: Connection and system operational aspects, Institution of engineering and technology, 2007.

26

Regulation via rotor speed & pitch control

Review of the websites from TSOs (in Europe), reliability
councils (i.e., NERC and regional organizations) and ISOs (in
North America) suggest that there are no hard requirements
regarding use of primary frequency control in wind turbines.

There are soft requirements [1]:

BCTC will specify on a site by site basis,
Hydro Quebec requires that wind turbines be designed so that they can be
equipped with a frequency control system (>10MW)
Manitoba Hydro reserves the right for future wind generators
NERC [2], said, Interconnection procedures and standards should be
enhanced to address voltage and frequency ride-through, reactive and
real power control, frequency and inertial response and must be
applied in a consistent manner to all generation technologies.
[1] Wind Generation Interconnection Requirements, Technical Workshop, November 7, 2007,
available at www.bctc.com/NR/rdonlyres/13465E96-E02C-47C2-B634F3BCC715D602/0/November7WindInterconnectionWorkshop.pdf.
[2] [North American Electric Reliability Corporation, Special Report: Accommodating High Levels of
Variable Generation, April 2009, available at http://www.nerc.com/files/IVGTF_Report_041609.pdf.

27

Regulation via rotor speed & pitch control

ERCOT says [1], as wind generation becomes a bigger
percentage of the on line generation, wind generation will have to
contribute to automatic frequency control. Wind generator control
systems can provide an automatic response to frequency that is
similar to governor response on steam turbine generators. The
following draft protocol/operating guide concept is proposed for all
new wind generators: All WGRs with signed interconnect
agreements dated after March 1, 2009 shall have an automatic
response to frequency deviations.

[15] Draft White Paper, Wind Generation White Paper: Governor Response Requirement, Feb,
2009, available at
www.ercot.com/content/meetings/ros/keydocs/2009/0331/WIND_GENERATION_GOVERNOR_RE
SPONSE_REQUIREMENT_draft.doc..

But are we sure.?

28

First, primary frequency control for over-frequency conditions,

which requires generation reduction, can be effectively handled by
pitching the blades and thus reducing the power output of the
machine. Although this action spills wind, it is effective in
providing the necessary frequency control.
Second, primary frequency control for under-frequency conditions
requires some headroom so that the wind turbine can increase
its power output. This means that it must be operating below its
maximum power production capability on a continuous basis. This
also implies a spilling of wind.
Question: Should we spill wind in order to provide frequency
control, in contrast to using all wind energy and relying on
conventional generation to provide the frequency control?
Answer: Need to compare system economics between increased
production costs from spilled wind, and increased production and
investment costs from using storage and conventional generation.

29

Hybrid Wind Systems Architecture

Storage and Conversion Technologies
"Energy" Storage
Storage
Technology

Conversion
Technology

Measured Hybrid Wind

Wind Production Forecast
System Production Data Advanced
Dispatch
Storage Status

SCADA

"Power" Storage
Storage
Technology

Conversion
Technology
Power
Electronics
(PE)

Pumped
Hydro

Hydraulic
Turbine (HT)

Ultracapacitor

Compressed
Air Energy
Storage
(CAES)

Gas Turbine
(GT)

Superconducti
ng Magnetic
Energy Storage
(SMES)

Biomass

Gas Turbine
(GT)

Flywheel

Power
Electronics
(PE)

Hydrogen

Full Cell (FC)

Battery

Power
Electronics
(PE)

Wind
Production
Forecasting

System-level Dispatch

min f p

Cg ,i Pg ,i
i

Cw,i Pw,i
i

SPi
i

RCi
i

Plant-Level Inter-Device Control

Hybrid Wind Farm Control

Power
Electronics

Plant-level Control

(PE)

A suite of models facilitate a plug-andplay modular approach to configure

hybrid wind systems.

Stochastic SCOPF

Predictive Control

Component-level Control
Production Smoothing
Control Command

Energy
Storage

Production Firming
Control Command

Wind
Plant

- Pumped Hydro + Hydraulic Turbine

- CAES + Gas Turbine
- Biomass + Gas Turbine
- Hydrogen + Fuel Cell

Hybrid Wind Systems

Power
Storage

Component Modeling and Control

Grid,
Wind turbine,
Storage devices, per table right

- Super Capacitor + PE
- SMES + PE
- Flywheel + PE
- Battery + PE
PE: Power Electronics

Design and Control Hybrid Wind System

to Firm and Smooth Wind Variability

Wind Speed (s)

Hybrid Wind Systems

Save Money, Enhance
Frequency Regulation

12

30

10
8
6
4
2

200

400

600

400

800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Time (s)
Wind Power
CAES Power
NaS Battery Power 10

350
HUNTVILL

REDBRIDG

CHENAUX

CHFALLS

MARTDALE

BRIGHTON

STINSON

CEYLON

RICHVIEW

LAKEVIEW

PICTON

Power Command (MW)

HOLDEN

300
NANTCOKE

250
200
150
100
50
0

HEARN

-50
WALDEN

COBDEN

MTOWN

MITCHELL

HANOVER

200

400

600

KINCARD

60.04

800
1000
Time (s)

1200

STRATFRD

PARKHILL

DOUGLAS

WVILLE

Number of buses
Number of generators
Number of branches
Peak Load
Total Generation Capacity
Wind Power Capacity
Compressor
CAES
Power Capacity
Gas Turbine
CAES Energy Capacity
NaS Battery Power Capacity
NaS Battery Energy Capacity

Cost ($M)
Investment Cost

Operation Cost

155.15

221.83

Life time: 20 years

60
25
96
6,110MW
10,995MW
545MW
30MW
75MW
17,000MWh
5.5MW
1.25MWh

Saving ($M)

System Frequency (Hz)

JVILLE

1800

60.02
60.01
60
59.99
59.98
59.97
59.96

200

400

600

800
1000
Time (S)

1200

1400

1600

1800

100

With Storage
No Storage

80
Mismatch (MW)

BVILLE

1600

Wind plant
Hybrid Wind Systems

60.03
GOLDEN

1400

60
40
20
0
-20

-40
-60

481.40

-80
-100
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Conclusion: Select solution portfolio

Wind
Grid
energy prblem
attrbute caused
by wind
attrbute

Solutions

DFIG Control
Inrtial
emulation

Inc.
reserves

Fast
Spnng 1 hour
Freq
reg via rmping /10 min
pitch+
cnvrtr

Storage
Fast

Slow

Load Cntrl
Fast

Slow

Stochastic
Unit
Cmmt
prgrm

Dec
forecast
error

HVDC
Wind
control
plant
remote
trip
(SPS)

Geodiversity
of wind

Estimated relative costs/MW of solution technology (to be refined)

5

Decreased Transient
inertia
frequency
dips, CPS2
perfrmance
Increased
1 min MW
variability
Increased
10 min
MW
variability
Increased
1 hr MW
variability

CPS2
perfrmance

Balancing
market
perfrmance

Increased
day-ahead
MW
variability
Increased
transmissi
on loading

Day-ahead
market
perfrmance

Low,
variable
capacity
factor

CPS1,
CPS2
perfrmance

Increased
need for
transmssio
n
More
planning
uncertainty

10

10

10

10

31

Reducing 2008 CO2 by 35% sees wind at 34%

Solar, 1.0
Nuclear, 15
Hydro, 2.95
Wind, 8.1

15

INCREASE Non-CO2
6.82
12Q to
30Q

20.54

Electric
Generation
49.72

12.68
25.7

Commercial
8.58

Natural Gas
23.84

Used
Energy
42.15

IGCC, 3
Old Coal
10.42

8.58

Industrial
23.94

8.5

Biomass
3.88

32

26.33

REDUCE PETROLEUM 37Q15Q

Unused
Energy
(Losses)
43.0

Residential
11.48

Geothermal
3.04

Petroleum
15.13

32

LightDuty:
Freight:
Aviation:

8.56Q
3.75Q
3.19Q

Transportation
15.5

6.95