3G LTE evolution

Although there are major step changes between LTE and its 3G predecessors, it is nevertheless
looked upon as an evolution of the UMTS / 3GPP 3G standards. Although it uses a different form
of radio interface, using OFDMA / SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many similarities with
the earlier forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use.
In determining what is LTE and how does it differ from other cellular systems, a quick look at the
specifications for the system can provide many answers. LTE can be seen for provide a further
evolution of functionality, increased speeds and general improved performance.
WCDMA
(UMTS)

HSPA
HSDPA / HSUPA

HSPA+

LTE

Max downlink speed

bps

384 k

14 M

28 M

100M

Max uplink speed

bps

128 k

5.7 M

11 M

50 M

Latency
round trip time
approx

150 ms

100 ms

50ms (max)

~10 ms

3GPP releases

Rel 99/4

Rel 5 / 6

Rel 7

Rel 8

Approx years of initial roll out

2003 / 4

2005 / 6 HSDPA
2007 / 8 HSUPA

2008 / 9

2009 / 10

Access methodology

CDMA

CDMA

CDMA

OFDMA / SC-FDMA

In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. Originally there
was also no basic provision for voice, although Voice over LTE, VoLTE was added was chosen
by GSMA as the standard for this. In the interim, techniques including circuit switched fallback,
CSFB are expected to be used

LTE basics:- specification overview

It is worth summarizing the key parameters of the 3G LTE specification. In view of the fact that
there are a number of differences between the operation of the uplink and downlink, these
naturally differ in the performance they can offer.
LTE BASIC SPECIFICATIONS
PARAMETER

DETAILS

Peak downlink speed

64QAM
(Mbps)

100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)

Peak uplink speeds

(Mbps)

50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)

Data type

All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit

switched.

Channel bandwidths
(MHz)

1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20

Duplex schemes

FDD and TDD

Mobility

0 - 15 km/h (optimised),
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)

Latency

Idle to active less than 100ms

Small packets ~10 ms

LTE BASIC SPECIFICATIONS

PARAMETER

DETAILS

Spectral efficiency

Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA

Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA

Access schemes

OFDMA (Downlink)
SC-FDMA (Uplink)

Modulation types
supported

QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)

These highlight specifications give an overall view of the performance that LTE will offer. It meets
the requirements of industry for high data download speeds as well as reduced latency - a factor
important for many applications from VoIP to gaming and interactive use of data. It also provides
significant improvements in the use of the available spectrum.

Main LTE technologies

LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to the previous cellular
systems. They enable LTE to be able to operate more efficiently with respect to the use of
spectrum, and also to provide the much higher data rates that are being required.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex):

OFDM technology has been

incorporated into LTE because it enables high data bandwidths to be transmitted

efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to reflections and interference.
The access schemes differ between the uplink and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access is used in the downlink; while SC-FDMA(Single
Carrier - Frequency Division Multiple Access) is used in the uplink. SC-FDMA is used in
view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is small and the more constant power
enables high RF power amplifier efficiency in the mobile handsets - an important factor
for battery power equipment. Read more about LTE OFDM / OFDMA / SCFMDA

MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output):

One of the main problems that previous

telecommunications systems has encountered is that of multiple signals arising from the
many reflections that are encountered. By using MIMO, these additional signal paths can
be used to advantage and are able to be used to increase the throughput.
When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths
to be distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna matrices
can be used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station, the
same is not true of mobile handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limit
the number of antennas which should be place at least a half wavelength apart. Read
more about LTE MIMO

SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency
requirements for 3G LTE, it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the
improved performance to be achieved. One change is that a number of the functions
previously handled by the core network have been transferred out to the periphery.
Essentially this provides a much "flatter" form of network architecture. In this way latency

times can be reduced and data can be routed more directly to its destination. Read more
about LTE SAE
ne of the key elements of LTE is the use of OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, as
the signal bearer and the associated access schemes, OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplex) and SC-FDMA (Single Frequency Division Multiple Access).
OFDM is used in a number of other of systems from WLAN, WiMAX to broadcast technologies
including DVB and DAB. OFDM has many advantages including its robustness to multipath
fading and interference. In addition to this, even though, it may appear to be a particularly
complicated form of modulation, it lends itself to digital signal processing techniques.
In view of its advantages, the use of ODFM and the associated access technologies, OFDMA
and SC-FDMA are natural choices for the new LTE cellular standard.

LTE modulation & OFDM basics

The use of OFDM is a natural choice for LTE. While the basic concepts of OFDM are used, it has
naturally been tailored to meet the exact requirements for LTE. However its use of multiple
carrier each carrying a low data rate remains the same.

Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large number of close
spaced carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals would be expected to interfere with
each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each other there is no mutual interference. The data to be
transmitted is split across all the carriers to give resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects..

Click on the link for an OFDM tutorial

The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e. from
base station to mobile) and the uplink (i.e. mobile to the base station) as a result of the different
requirements between the two directions and the equipment at either end. However OFDM was
chosen as the signal bearer format because it is very resilient to interference. Also in recent
years a considerable level of experience has been gained in its use from the various forms of
broadcasting that use it along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation format that is
very suitable for carrying high data rates - one of the key requirements for LTE.
In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an
additional advantage.

LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics

One of the key parameters associated with the use of OFDM within LTE is the choice of
bandwidth. The available bandwidth influences a variety of decisions including the number of
carriers that can be accommodated in the OFDM signal and in turn this influences elements
including the symbol length and so forth.
LTE defines a number of channel bandwidths. Obviously the greater the bandwidth, the greater
the channel capacity.
The channel bandwidths that have been chosen for LTE are:
1. 1.4 MHz
2. 3 MHz
3. 5 MHz
4. 10 MHz
5. 15 MHz
6. 20 MHz
In addition to this the subcarriers spacing is 15 kHz, i.e. the LTE subcarriers are spaced 15 kHz
apart from each other. To maintain orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1 / 15 kHz = of 66.7
s.
Each subcarrier is able to carry data at a maximum rate of 15 ksps (kilosymbols per second).
This gives a 20 MHz bandwidth system a raw symbol rate of 18 Msps. In turn this is able to
provide a raw data rate of 108 Mbps as each symbol using 64QAM is able to represent six bits.
It may appear that these rates do not align with the headline figures given in the LTE
specifications. The reason for this is that actual peak data rates are derived by first subtracting
the coding and control overheads. Then there are gains arising from elements such as the spatial
multiplexing, etc.

LTE OFDM cyclic prefix, CP

One of the primary reasons for using OFDM as a modulation format within LTE (and many other
wireless systems for that matter) is its resilience to multipath delays and spread. However it is
still necessary to implement methods of adding resilience to the system. This helps overcome the
inter-symbol interference (ISI) that results from this.
In areas where inter-symbol interference is expected, it can be avoided by inserting a guard
period into the timing at the beginning of each data symbol. It is then possible to copy a section
from the end of the symbol to the beginning. This is known as the cyclic prefix, CP. The receiver

can then sample the waveform at the optimum time and avoid any inter-symbol interference
caused by reflections that are delayed by times up to the length of the cyclic prefix, CP.
The length of the cyclic prefix, CP is important. If it is not long enough then it will not counteract
the multipath reflection delay spread. If it is too long, then it will reduce the data throughput
capacity. For LTE, the standard length of the cyclic prefix has been chosen to be 4.69 s. This
enables the system to accommodate path variations of up to 1.4 km. With the symbol length in
LTE set to 66.7 s.
The symbol length is defined by the fact that for OFDM systems the symbol length is equal to the
reciprocal of the carrier spacing so that orthogonality is achieved. With a carrier spacing of 15
kHz, this gives the symbol length of 66.7 s.

LTE OFDMA in the downlink

The OFDM signal used in LTE comprises a maximum of 2048 different sub-carriers having a
spacing of 15 kHz. Although it is mandatory for the mobiles to have capability to be able to
receive all 2048 sub-carriers, not all need to be transmitted by the base station which only needs
to be able to support the transmission of 72 sub-carriers. In this way all mobiles will be able to
talk to any base station.
Within the OFDM signal it is possible to choose between three types of modulation for the LTE
signal:
1. QPSK (= 4QAM) 2 bits per symbol
2. 16QAM 4 bits per symbol
3. 64QAM 6 bits per symbol

Note on QAM, Quadrature Amplitude Modualtion:

Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM is widely sued for data transmission as it enables better elvels of
spectral efficiency than other forms of modulation. QAM uses two carriers onth e same frequency shifted by 90
which are modulated by two data streams - I or Inphase and Q - Quadrature elements.

Click on the link for a QAM tutorial

The exact LTE modulation format is chosen depending upon the prevailing conditions. The lower
forms of modulation, (QPSK) do not require such a large signal to noise ratio but are not able to

send the data as fast. Only when there is a sufficient signal to noise ratio can the higher order
modulation format be used.

Downlink carriers and resource blocks

In the downlink, the subcarriers are split into resource blocks. This enables the system to be able
to compartmentalise the data across standard numbers of subcarriers.
Resource blocks comprise 12 subcarriers, regardless of the overall LTE signal bandwidth. They
also cover one slot in the time frame. This means that different LTE signal bandwidths will have
different numbers of resource blocks.

Channel bandwidth
(MHz)

1.4

10

15

20

Number of resource blocks

15

25

50

75

100

LTE SC-FDMA in the uplink

For the LTE uplink, a different concept is used for the access technique. Although still using a
form of OFDMA technology, the implementation is called Single Carrier Frequency Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA).
One of the key parameters that affects all mobiles is that of battery life. Even though battery
performance is improving all the time, it is still necessary to ensure that the mobiles use as little
battery power as possible. With the RF power amplifier that transmits the radio frequency signal
via the antenna to the base station being the highest power item within the mobile, it is
necessary that it operates in as efficient mode as possible. This can be significantly affected by
the form of radio frequency modulation and signal format. Signals that have a high peak to
average ratio and require linear amplification do not lend themselves to the use of efficient RF
power amplifiers. As a result it is necessary to employ a mode of transmission that has as near a
constant power level when operating. Unfortunately OFDM has a high peak to average ratio.
While this is not a problem for the base station where power is not a particular problem, it is
unacceptable for the mobile. As a result, LTE uses a modulation scheme known as SC-FDMA Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiplex which is a hybrid format. This combines the low peak
to average ratio offered by single-carrier systems with the multipath interference resilience and
flexible subcarrier frequency allocation that OFDM provides.

MIMO, Multiple Input Multiple Output is another of the LTE major technology innovations used to
improve the performance of the system. This technology provides LTE with the ability to further
improve its data throughput and spectral efficiency above that obtained by the use of OFDM.

Although MIMO adds complexity to the system in terms of processing and the number of
antennas required, it enables far high data rates to be achieved along with much improved
spectral efficiency. As a result, MIMO has been included as an integral part of LTE.

LTE MIMO basics

The basic concept of MIMO utilises the multipath signal propagation that is present in all
terrestrial communications. Rather than providing interference, these paths can be used to
advantage.

General Outline of MIMO system

The transmitter and receiver have more than one antenna and using the processing power
available at either end of the link, they are able to utilise the different paths that exist between the
two entities to provide improvements in data rate of signal to noise.

Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data throughput
limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist
between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data throughput available on a given channel with
its defined bandwidth. By using multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital
signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel,
thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel.

Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial

MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies including Wi-Fi and other
wireless and cellular technologies to provide improved levels of efficiency. Essentially MIMO
employs multiple antennas on the receiver and transmitter to utilise the multi-path effects that
always exist to transmit additional data, rather than causing interference.

LTE MIMO
The use of MIMO technology has been introduced successively over the different releases of the
LTE standards.
MIMO has been a cornerstone of the LTE standard, but initially, in releases 8 and 9 multiple
transmit antennas on the UE was not supported because in the interested of power reduction,
only a single RF power amplifier was assumed to be available.
It was in Rel. 10 that a number of new schemes were introduced. Closed loop spatial
multiplexing for SU-MIMO as well as multiple antennas on the UE.

LTE MIMO modes

There are several ways in which MIMO is implemented in LTE. These vary according to the
equipment used, the channel function and the equipment involved in the link.

Single antenna: This is the form of wireless transmission used on most basic wireless
links. A single data stream is transmitted on one antenna and received by one or more
antennas. It may also be referred to as SISO: Single In Single Out or SIMO Single In
Multiple Out dependent upon the antennas used. SIMO is also called receive diversity.

Transmit diversity: This form of LTE MIMO scheme utilises the transmission of the
same information stream from multiple antennas. LTE supports two or four for this
technique.. The information is coded differently using Space Frequency Block Codes.
This mode provides an improvement in signal quality at reception and does not improve
the data rate. Accordingly this form of LTE MIMO is used on the Common Channels as
well as the Control and Broadcast channels.

Open loop spatial multiplexing:

This form of MIMO used within the LTE system

involves sending two information streams which can be transmitted over two or more
antennas. However there is no feedback from the UE although a TRI, Transmit Rank
Indicator transmitted from the UE can be used by the base station to determine the
number of spatial layers.

Close loop spatial multiplexing : This form of LTE MIMO is similar to the open loop
version, but as the name indicates it has feedback incorporated to close the loop. A PMI,
Pre-coding Matrix Indicator is fed back from the UE to the base station. This enables the
transmitter to pre-code the data to optimise the transmission and enable the receiver to
more easily separate the different data streams.

Closed loop with pre-coding: This is another form of LTE MIMO, but where a single
code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. This can be sued as a fall-back mode
for closed loop spatial multiplexing and it may also be associated with beamforming as
well.

Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO:

This form of LTE MIMO enables the system to target

different spatial streams to different users.

Beam-forming: This is the most complex of the MIMO modes and it is likely to use
linear arrays that will enable the antenna to focus on a particular area. This will reduce
interference, and increase capacity as the particular UE will have a beam formed in their
particular direction. In this a single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. A
dedicated reference signal is used for an additional port. The terminal estimates the
channel quality from the common reference signals on the antennas.

LTE has been defined to accommodate both paired spectrum for Frequency Division Duplex,
FDD and unpaired spectrum for Time Division Duplex, TDD operation. It is anticipated that both
LTE TDD and LTE FDD will be widely deployed as each form of the LTE standard has its own
advantages and disadvantages and decisions can be made about which format to adopt
dependent upon the particular application.
LTE FDD using the paired spectrum is anticipated to form the migration path for the current 3G
services being used around the globe, most of which use FDD paired spectrum. However there
has been an additional emphasis on including TDD LTE using unpaired spectrum. TDD LTE
which is also known as TD-LTE is seen as providing the evolution or upgrade path for TDSCDMA.
In view of the increased level of importance being placed upon LTE TDD or TD-LTE, it is planned
that user equipments will be designed to accommodate both FDD and TDD modes. With TDD
having an increased level of importance placed upon it, it means that TDD operations will be able
to benefit from the economies of scale that were previously only open to FDD operations.

Duplex schemes
It is essential that any cellular communications system must be able to transmit in both directions
simultaneously. This enables conversations to be made, with either end being able to talk and
listen as required. Additionally when exchanging data it is necessary to be able to undertake
virtually simultaneous or completely simultaneous communications in both directions.
It is necessary to be able to specify the different direction of transmission so that it is possible to
easily identify in which direction the transmission is being made. There are a variety of
differences between the two links ranging from the amount of data carried to the transmission
format, and the channels implemented. The two links are defined:

Uplink: the transmission from the UE or user equipment to the eNodeB or base station.

Downlink
equipment.

the transmission from the eNodeB or base station to the UE or user

Uplink and downlink transmission directions

In order to be able to be able to transmit in both directions, a user equipment or base station
must have a duplex scheme. There are two forms of duplex that are commonly used, namely
FDD, frequency division duplex and TDD time division duplex..

Note on TDD and FDD duplex schemes:

In order for radio communications systems to be able to communicate in both directions it is necessary to have
what is termed a duplex scheme. A duplex scheme provides a way of organizing the transmitter and receiver so
that they can transmit and receive. There are several methods that can be adopted. For applications including
wireless and cellular telecommunications, where it is required that the transmitter and receiver are able to
operate simultaneously, two schemes are in use. One known as FDD or frequency division duplex uses two
channels, one for transmit and the other for receiver. Another scheme known as TDD, time division duplex uses
one frequency, but allocates different time slots for transmission and reception.

Click on the link for more information on TDD FDD duplex schemes

Both FDD and TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly they may be
used for different applications, or where the bias of the communications is different.

Advantages / disadvantages of LTE TDD and LTE FDD for cellular communications
There are a number of the advantages and disadvantages of TDD and FDD that are of particular
interest to mobile or cellular telecommunications operators. These are naturally reflected into
LTE.
COMPARISON OF TDD LTE AND FDD LTE DUPLEX FORMATS
PARAMETER
Paired

LTE-TDD
Does not require paired spectrum

LTE-FDD
Requires paired spectrum with

COMPARISON OF TDD LTE AND FDD LTE DUPLEX FORMATS

PARAMETER

LTE-TDD

LTE-FDD

spectrum

as both transmit and receive occur

on the same channel

sufficient frequency separation to allow

simultaneous transmission and
reception

Hardware cost

Lower cost as no diplexer is

needed to isolate the transmitter
and receiver. As cost of the UEs is
of major importance because of the
vast numbers that are produced,
this is a key aspect.

Diplexer is needed and cost is higher.

Channel
reciprocity

Channel propagation is the same in

both directions which enables
transmit and receive to use on set
of parameters

Channel characteristics different in

both directions as a result of the use of
different frequencies

UL / DL
asymmetry

It is possible to dynamically change

the UL and DL capacity ratio to
match demand

UL / DL capacity determined by
frequency allocation set out by the
regulatory authorities. It is therefore not
possible to make dynamic changes to
match capacity. Regulatory changes
would normally be required and
capacity is normally allocated so that it
is the same in either direction.

Guard period /
guard band

Guard period required to ensure

uplink and downlink transmissions
do not clash. Large guard period
will limit capacity. Larger guard
period normally required if
distances are increased to
accommodate larger propagation
times.

Guard band required to provide

sufficient isolation between uplink and
downlink. Large guard band does not
impact capacity.

Discontinuous
transmission

Discontinuous transmission is
required to allow both uplink and
downlink transmissions. This can
degrade the performance of the RF
power amplifier in the transmitter.

Continuous transmission is required.

Cross slot
interference

Base stations need to be

synchronised with respect to the
uplink and downlink transmission
times. If neighbouring base stations
use different uplink and downlink
assignments and share the same
channel, then interference may
occur between cells.

Not applicable

LTE TDD / TD-LTE and TD-SCDMA

Apart from the technical reasons and advantages for using LTE TDD / TD-LTE, there are market
drivers as well. With TD-SCDMA now well established in China, there needs to be a 3.9G and
later a 4G successor to the technology. With unpaired spectrum allocated for TD-SCDMA as well
as UMTS TDD, it is natural to see many operators wanting an upgrade path for their technologies

to benefit from the vastly increased speeds and improved facilities of LTE. Accordingly there is a
considerable interest in the development of LTE TDD, which is also known in China as TD-LTE.
With the considerable interest from the supporters of TD-SCDMA, a number of features to make
the mode of operation of TD-LTE more of an upgrade path for TD-SCDMA have been
incorporated. One example of this is the subframe structure that has been adopted within LTE
TDD / TD-LTE.
While both LTE TDD (TD-LTE) and LTE FDD will be widely used, it is anticipated that LTE FDD
will be the more widespread, although LTE TDD has a number of significant advantages,
especially in terms of higher spectrum efficiency that can be used by many operators. It is also
anticipated that phones will be able to operate using either the LTE FDD or LTE-TDD (TD-LTE)
modes. In this way the LTE UEs or user equipments will be dual standard phones, and able to
operate in countries regardless of the flavour of LTE that is used - the main problem will then be
the frequency bands that the phone can cover.

LTE Frame and Subframe Structure

- information, overview, or tutorial about the LTE frame and subframe structure
including LTE Type 1 and LTE Type 2 frames.
In order that the 3G LTE system can maintain synchronisation and the system is able to manage
the different types of information that need to be carried between the base-station or eNodeB
and the User Equipment, UE, 3G LTE system has a defined LTE frame and subframe structure
for the E-UTRA or Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access, i.e. the air interface for 3G LTE.
The frame structures for LTE differ between the Time Division Duplex, TDD and the Frequency
Division Duplex, FDD modes as there are different requirements on segregating the transmitted
data.
There are two types of LTE frame structure:
1. Type 1: used for the LTE FDD mode systems.

2. Type 2: used for the LTE TDD systems.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

The basic type 1 LTE frame has an overall length of 10 ms. This is then divided into a total of 20
individual slots. LTE Subframes then consist of two slots - in other words there are ten LTE
subframes within a frame.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

Type 2 LTE Frame Structure

The frame structure for the type 2 frames used on LTE TDD is somewhat different. The 10 ms
frame comprises two half frames, each 5 ms long. The LTE half-frames are further split into five
subframes, each 1ms long.

Type 2 LTE Frame Structure

(shown for 5ms switch point periodicity).
The subframes may be divided into standard subframes of special subframes. The special
subframes consist of three fields;

DwPTS - Downlink Pilot Time Slot

GP - Guard Period

UpPTS - Uplink Pilot Time Stot.

These three fields are also used within TD-SCDMA and they have been carried over into LTE
TDD (TD-LTE) and thereby help the upgrade path. The fields are individually configurable in
terms of length, although the total length of all three together must be 1ms.

LTE TDD / TD-LTE subframe allocations

One of the advantages of using LTE TDD is that it is possible to dynamically change the up and
downlink balance and characteristics to meet the load conditions. In order that this can be
achieved in an ordered fashion, a number of standard configurations have been set within the
LTE standards.
A total of seven up / downlink configurations have been set, and these use either 5 ms or 10 ms
switch periodicities. In the case of the 5ms switch point periodicity, a special subframe exists in
both half frames. In the case of the 10 ms periodicity, the special subframe exists in the first half
frame only. It can be seen from the table below that the subframes 0 and 5 as well as DwPTS are
always reserved for the downlink. It can also be seen that UpPTS and the subframe immediately
following the special subframe are always reserved for the uplink transmission.
UPLINKDOWNLINK
CONFIGURATION

DOWNLINK TO
UPLINK
SWITCH
PERIODICITY

SUBFRAME NUMBER

5 ms

5 ms

5 ms

10 ms

10 ms

10 ms

5 ms

Where:
D

is
a
subframe
S
is
a
"special"
subframe
U is a subframe for uplink transmission

for
used

downlink
for
a

transmission
guard
time

Uplink / Downlink subframe configurations for LTE TDD (TD-LTE)

LTE Physical, Logical and Transport

Channels
- overview, information, tutorial about the physical, logical, control and
transport channels used within 3GPP, 3G LTE and the LTE channel mapping.
IN THIS SECTION
LTE Introduction
OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA
LTE MIMO
TDD & FDD
Frame & subframe
Physical logical & transport channels
Bands and spectrum
UE categories
SAE architecture
LTE SON
VoLTE
SRVCC
LTE-M
LTE-U / LAA
Security
See also
4G LTE Advanced
In order that data can be transported across the LTE radio interface, various "channels" are
used. These are used to segregate the different types of data and allow them to be transported
across the radio access network in an orderly fashion.

Effectively the different channels provide interfaces to the higher layers within the LTE protocol
structure and enable an orderly and defined segregation of the data.

3G LTE channel types

There are three categories into which the various data channels may be grouped.

Physical channels: These are transmission channels that carry user data and control
messages.

Transport channels: The physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to
Medium Access Control (MAC) and higher layers.

Logical channels: Provide services for the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer within
the LTE protocol structure.

3G LTE physical channels

The LTE physical channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates in a different manner.

Downlink:

Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH):

This physical channel carries system

information for UEs requiring to access the network. It only carries what is termed
Master Information Block, MIB, messages. The modulation scheme is always
QPSK and the information bits are coded and rate matched - the bits are then
scrambled using a scrambling sequence specific to the cell to prevent confusion
with
data
from
other
cells.
The MIB message on the PBCH is mapped onto the central 72 subcarriers or six
central resource blocks regardless of the overall system bandwidth. A PBCH
message is repeated every 40 ms, i.e. one TTI of PBCH includes four radio
frames.
The PBCH transmissions has 14 information bits, 10 spare bits, and 16 CRC bits.
o

Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) : As the name implies

the PCFICH informs the UE about the format of the signal being received. It
indicates the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs, whether 1, 2, or 3.
The information within the PCFICH is essential because the UE does not have

prior

information

about

the

size

of

the

control

region.

A PCFICH is transmitted on the first symbol of every sub-frame and carries a

Control Format Indicator, CFI, field. The CFI contains a 32 bit code word that
represents 1, 2, or 3. CFI 4 is reserved for possible future use.
The PCFICH uses 32,2 block coding which results in a 1/16 coding rate, and it
always uses QPSK modulation to ensure robust reception.
o

Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) :

The main purpose of this

physical channel is to carry mainly scheduling information of different types:

Downlink resource scheduling

Uplink power control instructions

Uplink resource grant

Indication for paging or system information

The PDCCH contains a message known as the Downlink Control Information,

DCI which carries the control information for a particular UE or group of UEs. The
DCI format has several different types which are defined with different sizes. The
different format types include: Type 0, 1, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 2, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3, 3A,
and 4.
o

Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) : As the name implies, this
channel is used to report the Hybrid ARQ status. It carries the HARQ ACK/NACK
signal indicating whether a transport block has been correctly received. The
HARQ indicator is 1 bit long - "0" indicates ACK, and "1" indicates NACK.
The PHICH is transmitted within the control region of the subframe and is
typically only transmitted within the first symbol. If the radio link is poor, then the
PHICH is extended to a number symbols for robustness.

Uplink:

Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) :

The Physical Uplink Control

Channel, PUCCH provides the various control signalling requirements. There are
a number of different PUCCH formats defined to enable the channel to carry the
required information in the most efficient format for the particular scenario
encountered. It includes the ability to carry SRs, Scheduling Requests.

The

basic

PUCCH
FORMAT

formats
UPLINK CONTROL
INFORMATION

are

summarised

MODULATION
SCHEME

BITS PER
SUB-FRAME

N/A

N/A

Format 1

SR

Format 1a

1 bit HARQ ACK/NACK

with or without SR

BPSK

Format 1b

2 bit HARQ ACK/NACK

with or without SR

QPSK

Format 2

CQI/PMI or RI

QPSK

20

Format 2a

CQI/PMI or RI and 1 bit

HARQ ACK/NACK

QPSK + BPSK

21

Format 2b

CQI/PMI or RI and 2 bit

HARQ ACK/NACK

QPSK + BPSK

22

Format 3

below:
NOTES

Provides support for

carrier aggregation.

Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) : This physical channel found on

the LTE uplink is the Uplink counterpart of PDSCH

Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) : This uplink physical channel is

used for random access functions. This is the only non-synchronised
transmission that the UE can make within LTE. The downlink and uplink
propagation delays are unknown when PRACH is used and therefore it cannot be
synchronised.
The PRACH instance is made up from two sequences: a cyclic prefix and a guard
period. The preamble sequence may be repeated to enable the eNodeB to
decode the preamble when link conditions are poor.

LTE transport channels

The LTE transport channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates in a different manner. Physical layer transport channels offer
information transfer to medium access control (MAC) and higher layers.

Downlink:

Broadcast Channel (BCH) :

Control Channel (BCCH)

The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast

Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) :

This transport channel is the main

channel for downlink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.

o

Paging Channel (PCH) : To convey the PCCH

Multicast Channel (MCH) : This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH

information to set up multicast transmissions.

Uplink:

Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel
for uplink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.

Random Access Channel (RACH) :

This is used for random access

requirements.

LTE logical channels

The logical channels cover the data carried over the radio interface. The Service Access Point,
SAP between MAC sublayer and the RLC sublayer provides the logical channel.

Control channels: these LTE control channels carry the control plane information:

Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) : This control channel provides system

information to all mobile terminals connected to the eNodeB.

Paging Control Channel (PCCH) :

This control channel is used for paging

information when searching a unit on a network.

o

Common Control Channel (CCCH) : This channel is used for random access
information, e.g. for actions including setting up a connection.

Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) :

This control channel is used for

Information needed for multicast reception.

o

Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) : This control channel is used for carrying
user-specific control information, e.g. for controlling actions including power
control, handover, etc..

Traffic

channels:These

LTE

traffic

channels

Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) :

carry

the

user-plane

data:

This traffic channel is used for the

transmission of user data.

o

Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) : This channel is used for the transmission
of multicast data.

It will be seen that many of the LTE channels bear similarities to those sued in previous
generations of mobile telecommunications.

LTE Frequency Bands & Spectrum

Allocations
There are very many frequency bands used for LTE TDD and FDD versions.
The spectrum allocated for LTE varies around the world and as a result there
many LTE bands and frequency allocations.
IN THIS SECTION
LTE Introduction
OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA
LTE MIMO
TDD & FDD
Frame & subframe
Physical logical & transport channels
Bands and spectrum
UE categories
SAE architecture
LTE SON
VoLTE
SRVCC

 LTE-M
LTE-U / LAA
Security
See also
4G LTE Advanced
There is a growing number of LTE frequency bands that are being designated as possibilities for
use with LTE. Many of the LTE frequency bands are already in use for other cellular systems,
whereas other LTE bands are new and being introduced as other users are re-allocated
spectrum elsewhere.

FDD and TDD LTE frequency bands

FDD spectrum requires pair bands, one of the uplink and one for the downlink, and TDD requires
a single band as uplink and downlink are on the same frequency but time separated. As a result,
there are different LTE band allocations for TDD and FDD. In some cases these bands may
overlap, and it is therefore feasible, although unlikely that both TDD and FDD transmissions
could be present on a particular LTE frequency band.
The greater likelihood is that a single UE or mobile will need to detect whether a TDD or FDD
transmission should be made on a given band. UEs that roam may encounter both types on the
same band. They will therefore need to detect what type of transmission is being made on that
particular LTE band in its current location.
The different LTE frequency allocations or LTE frequency bands are allocated numbers. Currently
the LTE bands between 1 & 22 are for paired spectrum, i.e. FDD, and LTE bands between 33 &
41 are for unpaired spectrum, i.e. TDD.

LTE frequency band definitions

FDD LTE frequency band allocations

There is a large number of allocations or radio spectrum that has been reserved for FDD,
frequency division duplex, LTE use.

The FDD LTE frequency bands are paired to allow simultaneous transmission on two
frequencies. The bands also have a sufficient separation to enable the transmitted signals not to
unduly impair the receiver performance. If the signals are too close then the receiver may be
"blocked" and the sensitivity impaired. The separation must be sufficient to enable the roll-off of
the antenna filtering to give sufficient attenuation of the transmitted signal within the receive
band.

FDD LTE BANDS & FREQUENCIES

LTE
BAND
NUMBER

UPLINK
(MHZ)

DOWNLINK
(MHZ)

WIDTH
OF
BAND
(MHZ)

DUPLEX
SPACING
(MHZ)

BAND
GAP
(MHZ)

1920 - 1980

2110 - 2170

60

190

130

1850 - 1910

1930 - 1990

60

80

20

1710 - 1785

1805 -1880

75

95

20

1710 - 1755

2110 - 2155

45

400

355

824 - 849

869 - 894

25

45

20

830 - 840

875 - 885

10

35

25

2500 - 2570

2620 - 2690

70

120

50

880 - 915

925 - 960

35

45

10

1749.9 - 1784.9

1844.9 - 1879.9

35

95

60

10

1710 - 1770

2110 - 2170

60

400

340

11

1427.9 - 1452.9

1475.9 - 1500.9

20

48

28

12

698 - 716

728 - 746

18

30

12

13

777 - 787

746 - 756

10

-31

41

14

788 - 798

758 - 768

10

-30

40

15

1900 - 1920

2600 - 2620

20

700

680

16

2010 - 2025

2585 - 2600

15

575

560

17

704 - 716

734 - 746

12

30

18

18

815 - 830

860 - 875

15

45

30

19

830 - 845

875 - 890

15

45

30

20

832 - 862

791 - 821

30

-41

71

21

1447.9 - 1462.9

1495.5 - 1510.9

15

48

33

FDD LTE BANDS & FREQUENCIES

LTE
BAND
NUMBER

UPLINK
(MHZ)

DOWNLINK
(MHZ)

WIDTH
OF
BAND
(MHZ)

DUPLEX
SPACING
(MHZ)

BAND
GAP
(MHZ)

22

3410 - 3500

3510 - 3600

90

100

10

23

2000 - 2020

2180 - 2200

20

180

160

24

1625.5 - 1660.5

1525 - 1559

34

-101.5

135.5

25

1850 - 1915

1930 - 1995

65

80

15

26

814 - 849

859 - 894

30 / 40

27

807 - 824

852 - 869

17

45

28

28

703 - 748

758 - 803

45

55

10

29

n/a

717 - 728

11

30

2305 - 2315

2350 - 2360

10

45

35

31

452.5 - 457.5

462.5 - 467.5

10

10

TDD LTE frequency band allocations

With the interest in TDD LTE, there are several unpaired frequency allocations that are being
prepared for LTR TDD use. The TDD LTE bands are unpaired because the uplink and downlink
share the same frequency, being time multiplexed.

TDD LTE BANDS & FREQUENCIES

LTE BAND
NUMBER

ALLOCATION (MHZ)

WIDTH OF BAND (MHZ)

33

1900 - 1920

20

34

2010 - 2025

15

35

1850 - 1910

60

36

1930 - 1990

60

37

1910 - 1930

20

38

2570 - 2620

50

39

1880 - 1920

40

TDD LTE BANDS & FREQUENCIES

LTE BAND
NUMBER

ALLOCATION (MHZ)

WIDTH OF BAND (MHZ)

40

2300 - 2400

100

41

2496 - 2690

194

42

3400 - 3600

200

43

3600 - 3800

200

44

703 - 803

100

There are regular additions to the LTE frequency bands / LTE spectrum allocations as a result of
negotiations at the ITU regulatory meetings. These LTE allocations are resulting in part from the
digital dividend, and also from the pressure caused by the ever growing need for mobile
communications. Many of the new LTE spectrum allocations are relatively small, often 10 20MHz in bandwidth, and this is a cause for concern. With LTE-Advanced needing bandwidths of
100 MHz, channel aggregation over a wide set of frequencies many be needed, and this has
been recognised as a significant technological problem. . . . . . . . .

LTE UE Category & Class Definitions

- LTE utilises UE or User Equipment categories or classes to define the
performance specifications an enable base stations to be able to communicate
effectively with them knowing their performance levels. Some like LTE Cat 3,
LTE Cat 4 and LTE Cat 0 are widely quoted and used. Other like LTE Cat 7 and
LTE Cat 8 are much newer.
LTE TUTORIAL INCLUDES
LTE Introduction
OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA
LTE MIMO
TDD & FDD
Frame & subframe
Physical logical & transport channels
Bands and spectrum

 UE categories
SAE architecture
LTE SON
VoLTE
SRVCC
LTE-M
LTE-U / LAA
Security
See also
4G LTE Advanced
In the same way that a variety of other systems adopted different categories for the handsets or
user equipments, so too there are 3G LTE UE categories. These LTE categories define the
standards to which a particular handset, dongle or other equipment will operate.

LTE UE category rationale

The LTE categories or UE classes are needed to ensure that the base station, or eNodeB, eNB
can communicate correctly with the user equipment. By relaying the LTE UE category
information to the base station, it is able to determine the performance of the UE and
communicate with it accordingly.
As the LTE category defines the overall performance and the capabilities of the UE, it is possible
for the eNB to communicate using capabilities that it knows the UE possesses. Accordingly the
eNB will not communicate beyond the performance of the UE.

LTE UE category definitions

There are 9 different LTE UE categories that are defined. As can be seen in the table below, the
different LTE categories have a wide range in the supported parameters and performance. LTE
category 1, for example does not support MIMO, but LTE UE category five supports 4x4 MIMO.
It is also worth noting that UE class 1 does not offer the performance offered by that of the
highest performance HSPA category. Additionally all LTE UE categories are capable of receiving
transmissions from up to four antenna ports.
A summary of the different LTE UE category parameters is given in the tables below.

HEADLINE DATA RATES FOR LTE CATEGORIES

LTE UE CATEGORY
LINK

Downlink

10

50

100

150

300

300

300

1200

Uplink

25

50

50

75

50

150

600

It can be seen that the headline data rates for category 8 exceed the requiremetns for IMTAdvanced by a considerable margin.
While the headline rates for the different LTE UE categories or UE classes show the maximum
data rates achievable, it is worth looking in further detail at the underlying performance
characteristics.

UL AND DL PARAMETERS FOR LTE UE CATEGORIES 1 - 5

LTE CATEGORY
PARAMETER

LTE CAT 1

LTE CAT 2

LTE CAT 3

LTE CAT 4

LTE CAT 5

Max number of DL-SCH

transport block bits
received in a TTI

10 296

51 024

102 048

150 752

302 752

Max number of bits of a

DL-SCH block received in
a TTI

10 296

51 024

75 376

75 376

151 376

Total number of soft

channel bits

250 368

1 237 248

1 237 248

1 827 072

3 667 200

Maximum number of

UL AND DL PARAMETERS FOR LTE UE CATEGORIES 1 - 5

LTE CATEGORY
PARAMETER

LTE CAT 1

LTE CAT 2

LTE CAT 3

LTE CAT 4

LTE CAT 5

Max number of bits of an

UL-SCH transport block
received in a TTI

5 160

25 456

51 024

51 024

75 376

Support for 64-QAM in UL

No

No

No

No

Yes

supported layers for spatial

multiplexing in DL

UL AND DL PARAMETERS FOR LTE UE CATEGORIES 6, 7, 8

LTE CATEGORY
PARAMETER

LTE CAT 6

LTE CAT 7

LTE CAT 8

299 552

299 552

1 200 000

TBD

TBD

TBD

3 667 200

TBD

TBD

Max number of bits of an

UL-SCH transport block
received in a TTI

TBD

TBD

TBD

Support for 64-QAM in UL

No

Yes, up to
RAN 4

Yes

Max number of DL-SCH

transport block bits
received in a TTI
Max number of bits of a
DL-SCH block received in
a TTI
Total number of soft
channel bits
Maximum number of
supported layers for spatial
multiplexing in DL

From this it can be seen that the peak downlink data rate for a Category 5 UE using 4x4 MIMO is
approximately 300 Mbps, and 150 Mbps for a Category 4 UE using 2x2 MIMO. Also in the Uplink,
LTE UE category 5 provides a peak data rate of 75 Mbps using 64-QAM.

Note:
DL-SCH

Downlink

shared

channel

UL-SCH
TTI = Transmission Time Interval

Uplink

shared

channel

LTE Category 0
With the considerable level of development being undertaken into the Internet of Things, IoT and
general machine to machine, M2M communications, there has been a growing need to develop
an LTE category focussed on these applications. Here, much lower data rates are needed, often
only in short bursts and an accompanying requirement is for the remote device or machine to be
able to draw only low levels of current.
To enable the requirements of these devices to be met using LTE, and new LTE category was
developed. Referred to as LTE Category 0, or simply LTE Cat 0, this new category has a reduced
performance requirement that meets the needs of many machines while significantly reducing
complexity and current consumption. Whilst Category 0 offered a reduced specification, it still
complied with the LTE system requirements.

LTE CATEGORY 0 PERFORMANCE SUMMARY

PARAMETER

LTE CAT 0
PERFORMANCE

Peak downlink rate

1 Mbps

Peak uplink rate

1 Mbps

Max number of downlink spatial layers

Number of UE RF chains

Duplex mode

Half duplex

UE receive bandwidth

20 MHz

Maximum UE transmit power

23 dBm

The new LTE Cat 0 was introduced in Rel 12 of the 3GPP standards. And it is being advanced in
further releases.
One major advantage of LTE Category 0 is that the modem complexity is considerably reduced
when compared to other LTE Categories. It is expected that the modem complexity for a Cat 0
modem will be around 50% that of a Category 1 modem.

LTE UE category summary

In the same way that category information is used for virtually all cellular systems from GPRS
onwards, so the LTE UE category information is of great importance. While users may not be

particularly aware of the category of their UE, it will match the performance an allow the eNB to
communicate effectively with all the UEs that are connected to it.

LTE SAE System Architecture Evolution

- information, overview, or tutorial about the basics of the 3G LTE SAE, system
architecture evolution and the LTE Network
IN THIS SECTION
LTE Introduction
OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA
LTE MIMO
TDD & FDD
Frame & subframe
Physical logical & transport channels
Bands and spectrum
UE categories
SAE architecture
LTE SON
VoLTE
SRVCC
LTE-M
LTE-U / LAA
Security
See also
4G LTE Advanced

Along with 3G LTE - Long Term Evolution that applies more to the radio access technology of the
cellular telecommunications system, there is also an evolution of the core network. Known as
SAE - System Architecture Evolution. This new architecture has been developed to provide a
considerably higher level of performance that is in line with the requirements of LTE.
As a result it is anticipated that operators will commence introducing hardware conforming to the
new System Architecture Evolution standards so that the anticipated data levels can be handled
when 3G LTE is introduced.
The new SAE, System Architecture Evolution has also been developed so that it is fully
compatible with LTE Advanced, the new 4G technology. Therefore when LTE Advanced is
introduced, the network will be able to handle the further data increases with little change.

Reason for SAE System Architecture Evolution

The SAE System Architecture Evolution offers many advantages over previous topologies and
systems used for cellular core networks. As a result it is anticipated that it will be wide adopted by
the cellular operators.
SAE System Architecture Evolution will offer a number of key advantages:
1. Improved data capacity: With 3G LTE offering data download rates of 100 Mbps, and
the focus of the system being on mobile broadband, it will be necessary for the network
to be able to handle much greater levels of data. To achieve this it is necessary to adopt
a system architecture that lends itself to much grater levels of data transfer.
2. All IP architecture: When 3G was first developed, voice was still carried as circuit
switched data. Since then there has been a relentless move to IP data. Accordingly the
new SAE, System Architecture Evolution schemes have adopted an all IP network
configuration.
3. Reduced latency: With increased levels of interaction being required and much faster
responses, the new SAE concepts have been evolved to ensure that the levels of latency
have been reduced to around 10 ms. This will ensure that applications using 3G LTE will
be sufficiently responsive.
4. Reduced OPEX and CAPEX: A key element for any operator is to reduce costs. It is
therefore essential that any new design reduces both the capital expenditure
(CAPEX)and the operational expenditure (OPEX). The new flat architecture used for SAE
System Architecture Evolution means that only two node types are used. In addition to
this a high level of automatic configuration is introduced and this reduces the set-up and
commissioning time.

SAE System Architecture Evolution basics

The new SAE network is based upon the GSM / WCDMA core networks to enable simplified
operations and easy deployment. Despite this, the SAE network brings in some major changes,
and allows far more efficient and effect transfer of data.
There are several common principles used in the development of the LTE SAE network:

a common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies.

an optimised architecture for the user plane with only two node types.

an all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.

a split in the control / user plane between the MME, mobility management entity and the
gateway.

a radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used on WCDMA /
HSPA.

integration of non-3GPP access technologies (e.g. cdma2000, WiMAX, etc) using client
as well as network based mobile-IP.

The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved Packet Core or EPC.
This connects to the eNodeBs as shown in the diagram below.

LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core

As seen within the diagram, the LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core, EPC consists of four main
elements as listed below:

Mobility Management Entity, MME: The MME is the main control node for the LTE
SAE access network, handling a number of features:
o

Idle mode UE tracking

Bearer activation / de-activation

Choice of SGW for a UE

Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location

Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and implements roaming

restrictions

It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS)

Provides temporary identities for UEs

The SAE MME acts the termination point for ciphering protection for NAS
signaling. As part of this it also handles the security key management.
Accordingly the MME is the point at which lawful interception of signalling may be
made.

Paging procedure

The S3 interface terminates in the MME thereby providing the control plane
function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks.

The SAE MME also terminates the S6a interface for the home HSS for roaming
UEs.

It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME provides a considerable level of overall
control functionality.

Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane element within
the LTE SAE. Its main purpose is to manage the user plane mobility and it also acts as
the main border between the Radio Access Network, RAN and the core network. The
SGW also maintains the data paths between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In
this way the SGW forms a interface for the data packet network at the E-UTRAN.
Also when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW serves as a
mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.

PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity for the UE to
external packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry and exit point for UE data.
The UE may have connectivity with more than one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs.

Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name for the entity
within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the service flow, enforces charging policy. For
applications that require dynamic policy or charging control, a network element entitled
the
Applications
Function,
AF
is
used.

LTE SAE PCRF Interfaces

LTE SAE Distributed intelligence

In order that requirements for increased data capacity and reduced latency can be met, along
with the move to an all-IP network, it is necessary to adopt a new approach to the network
structure.
For 3G UMTS / WCDMA the UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, comprising the
Node B's or basestations and Radio Network Controllers) employed low levels of autonomy. The
Node Bs were connected in a star formation to the Radio Network Controllers (RNCs) which
carried out the majority of the management of the radio resource. In turn the RNCs connected to
the core network and connect in turn to the Core Network.
To provide the required functionality within LTE SAE, the basic system architecture sees the
removal of a layer of management. The RNC is removed and the radio resource management is
devolved to the base-stations. The new style base-stations are called eNodeBs or eNBs.
The eNBs are connected directly to the core network gateway via a newly defined "S1 interface".
In addition to this the new eNBs also connect to adjacent eNBs in a mesh via an "X2 interface".
This provides a much greater level of direct interconnectivity. It also enables many calls to be
routed very directly as a large number of calls and connections are to other mobiles in the same
or adjacent cells. The new structure allows many calls to be routed far more directly and with
only minimum interaction with the core network.

In addition to the new Layer 1 and Layer 2 functionality, eNBs handle several other functions.
This includes the radio resource control including admission control, load balancing and radio
mobility control including handover decisions for the mobile or user equipment (UE).
The additional levels of flexibility and functionality given to the new eNBs mean that they are
more complex than the UMTS and previous generations of base-station. However the new 3G
LTE SAE network structure enables far higher levels of performance. In addition to this their
flexibility enables them to be updated to handle new upgrades to the system including the
transition from 3G LTE to 4G LTE Advanced.
The new System Architecture Evolution, SAE for LTE provides a new approach for the core
network, enabling far higher levels of data to be transported to enable it to support the much
higher data rates that will be possible with LTE. In addition to this, other features that enable the
CAPEX and OPEX to be reduced when compared to existing systems, thereby enabling higher
levels of efficiency to be achieved.

LTE SON Self Organizing Networks

- LTE, Long Term Evolution and the requirements for LTE SON, Self Organising
Networks
IN THIS SECTION
LTE Introduction
OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA
LTE MIMO
TDD & FDD
Frame & subframe
Physical logical & transport channels
Bands and spectrum
UE categories
SAE architecture
LTE SON
VoLTE

 SRVCC
LTE-M
LTE-U / LAA
Security
See also
4G LTE Advanced
With LTE requiring smaller cell sizes to enable the much greater levels of data traffic to be
handled, there networks have become considerably more complicated and trying to plan and
manage the network centrally is not as viable. Coupled with the need to reduce costs by
reducing manual input, there has been a growing impetus to implement self organising networks.
Accordingly LTE can be seen as one of the major drivers behind the self-organising network,
SON philosophy.
Accordingly 3GPP developed many of the requirements for LTE SON to sit alongside the basic
functionality of LTE. As a result the standards for LTE SON are embedded within the 3GPP
standards.

LTE SON development

The term SON came into frequent use after the term was adopted by the Next Generation Mobile
Networks, NGMN alliance. The idea came about as result of the need within LTE to be able to
deploy many more cells. Femtocells and other microcells are an integral part of the LTE
deployment strategy. With revenue per bit falling, costs for deployment must be kept to a
minimum as well as ensuring the network is operating to its greatest efficiency.
3GPP, the Third Generation Partnership Programme has created the standards for SON and as
they are generally first to be deployed with LTE, they are often referred to as LTE SON.
While 3GPP has generated the standards, they have been based upon long term objectives for a
'SON-enabled broadband mobile network' set out by the NGMN.
NGMN has defined the necessary use cases, measurements, procedures and open interfaces to
ensure that multivendor offerings are available. 3GPP has incorporated these aspirations into
useable standards.

Major elements of LTE SON

Although LTE SON self-optimising networks is one of the major drivers for the generic SON
technology, the basic requirements remain the same whatever the technology to which it will be
applied.
The main elements of SON include:

Self configuration: The aim for the self configuration aspects of LTE SON is to enable
new base stations to become essentially "Plug and Play" items. They should need as
little manual intervention in the configuration process as possible. Not only will they be
able to organise the RF aspects, but also configure the backhaul as well.

Self optimisation: Once the system has been set up, LTE SON capabilities will enable
the base station to optimise the operational characteristics to best meet the needs of the
overall network.

Self-healing: Another major feature of LTE SON is to enable the network to self-heal. It
will do this by changing the characteristics of the network to mask the problem until it is
fixed. For example, the boundaries of adjacent cells can be increased by changing
antenna directions and increasing power levels, etc..

Typically an LTE SON system is a software package with relevant options that is incorporated
into an operator's network.

Note on SON, Self Organizing Networks:

SON mainly came out of the requirements of LTE and the more complicated networks that will arise. However the
concepts behind SON can be applied at any network enabling its efficiency to be increased while keeping costs
low. Accordingly, it is being used increasingly to reduce operational and capital expenditure by adding software to
the network to enable it to organise and run itself.

Click on the link for further information about Self Organising Networks, SON