Literature Review

1.1 History of Vertical Takeoff and Landing(VTOL)

Aircrafts
A vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft is one that can hover, take off, and
land vertically. This classification includes fixed-wing aircraft as well
as helicopters and other aircraft with powered rotors
The idea of vertical flight has been around for thousands of years and sketches for
VTOL (helicopter) shows up in Leonardo da Vinci's sketch book. Many approaches
have been tried to develop practical aircraft with vertical take-off and landing
capabilities including Henry Berliner's 1922-1925 experimental horizontal rotor fixed
wing aircraft, and Nikola Tesla's 1928 patent and George Lehberger's 1930 patent
for relatively impractical VTOL fixed wing airplanes with a tilting engines .In the late
1930s British aircraft designer Leslie Everett Baynes was issued a patent for the
Baynes Heliplane, another tilt rotor aircraft. In 1941 German designer Heinrich
Focke's began work on the Focke-Achgelis Fa 269, which had two rotors that tilted
downward for vertical takeoff. But this could not be completed due to the start of
world war 2 which hindered his progress.
Vertical takeoff and landing vehicles came into existence due to experiments carried
out during the years 1950 1970 and almost all came out to be failures. Sometimes
it used to have short run before the take off hence they were also called STOL,
Shortrun Take Off and Landing vehicle. The flight control and stability of VTOL/STOL
is very difficult and is of prime area of research presently in this field.
Most of the initial inventions of VTOL were of shortrun take off type or jump type
vertical take off and landing vehicles some of example are Harrier, V-22 Osprey and
Yak-38 Forger. They had wing type configuration. Lockheed manufactured XFV-1 in
May 1951 and Convair manufactured XFV- pogo in 1951.both were experiments and
completed their test flight [2].

The Harrier was a jump style VTOL and was developed in Britian. It was also named
as Harrier Jump Jet. Hawker Aircraft company came out with this design in 1957 [3].
It was mainly used for military purpose. It could take off vertically if it is under its
maximum loading limit. It can also take short run take off for better fuel effiency.
The Yakovlev Yak-38 was developed in Russia by Soviet National Aviation. Its first
prototype was completed on 14th April 1970 [4]. It looked similar to Hawker P.1127
but had different working principle. In difference to Hawker P.1127 it had two
smaller engines. It was the only VTOL vehicle of Russia and used for military
purpose.

1.2 Existing VTOL Model aircrafts

Existing VTOL Aircraft Model aircraft are typically based on existing full-size aircraft.
In this section a critical analysis of existing VTOL aircraft is presented.

1.2.1 F-35B Joint Strike Fighter

The Joint Strike Fighter program is the focal point of the US Department of Defence
for creating advanced and affordable next-generation strike aircraft for all four
branches of the U.S. armed forces and their allies . It attempts to do this by creating
three variants; each suited to a particular niche in the armed forces with up to 80%
parts commonality between models . The variant of particular interest to this project
is the F-35B Short Take-Off and Vertical Landing (STOVL).
The F-35B is powered by the Pratt & Whitney F135-PW-600 turbojet engine which is
coupled to a lift fan fore of the main turbine, as shown in . Vertical thrust at the rear
of the aircraft is generated by vectoring the turbine exhaust through a specially
developed three bearing swivel nozzle.. Differential thrust from the exhaust and the
lift fan allows for pitch control of the aircraft. The airducts protruding from the sides
of the turbine direct jets of air out to the wings, controlling roll. The nozzle at the
rear of the turbine can swivel either side of straight down, vectoring thrust either
side to control yaw.

1.2.2

V-22 Osprey

According to Boeing (2005) the V-22 Osprey is the first aircraft designed from the
ground up to accommodate the needs of all four branches of the U.S. armed forces.
Winning the Naval Air System Command contract in April 1983 the project that was
to be known as the Osprey was a collaboration between Bell, known for their
experience with tilt wing rotorcraft, and Boeing Vertol, known for their experience
with heavy lifting helicopters (Rogers, 1989). The V-22 is designed for both Vertical
Take-Off and Landing (VTOL) and Short Take-Off and Landing (STOL), with the former
used for larger payloads. Capable of 510 km/h (Boeing, 2005) in conventional flight
the V-22 combines the advantages of helicopters and fixed wing aircraft
Powered by two Allison T406-AD-400 turboprop engines, each developing 4,586 kW
of power, the V-22 drives each of its tri-blade 11.58 m diameter proprotors to
achieve the large amount of thrust required for vertical take-off (Boeing, 2005).
Utilising both cyclic and collective propeller pitch control, the V-22 can control all six
of its degrees of freedom when in hover while the nacelles remain stationary and in
their upright position .

1.3

Previous Tilt-Rotor VTOL RC Aircraft

There have been a number of recent attempts by individuals to build RC VTOL tiltrotor aircraft.. There are many threads on discussion boards such as rcgroups.com
where individuals have expressed an intense interest in the development of a
commercially available transition capable tilt-rotor RC aircraft. Literature for this
section is restricted due to the fact that the people who have attempted to build an
RC VTOL aircraft are enthusiasts who do not generally publish their designs and
ideas in detail. Larry Chapman is an enthusiast who has been developing a tilt-rotor
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RC aircraft based on the V-22 for over a decade and has actually flown in a USAF V22 flight simulator. His most recent model used customized 2 blade propellers with
variable pitch (from a RC helicopter) driven by O.S.46 petrol engines. Initially Larry
used no control augmentation but the latest model uses two rate gyros for yaw and
roll. The generic gyroscope based control system used has been a success even
though no advanced control techniques are employed. The earliest model built by
Larry had the motors mounted within the fuselage of the plane with gearboxes at
the wingtips. This proved highly unstable during hover and more recent designs
have the motors mounted at the wingtips. One of the initial major problems
experienced by Larry was the gyroscopic effects on the fuselage from attempted
rotation of the nacelles. When the propeller nacelles angles were altered the nose
would pitch up. Initially flat symmetrical helicopter blades were used but these were
found to stall when they were tilted to the 60 degrees from standard required for
transition. To prevent this, the model now incorporates timber propellers with a
more traditional screw

In 2003, an Austrian man by the name of Norbert also built a scale model of the V22. Norbert used a single petrol engine to power a pair of variable pitch tri-blade
propellers. He claimed to be able to sustain a basic hover with some control of
propeller tilt but has not achieved transition to forward flight. Again a generic
gyroscope based control system is able to stabilise the plane during hover.

Brian DiCinti has built a RC V-22 with electric engines . In 2003 he was able to
maintain hover and helicopter like forward flight without properly functional tilt
control. Again, only a basic gyroscope control system is employed to stabilise the
plane. Brian is currently attempting to develop a more functional wing tilting
system.

1.4 Current Applications

Current applications of this technology in the military are fighter jets and
drones . The possibilities for the application of VTOL are nearly endless and
are being further explored as the technology matures. There are several
unexplored possibilities for the use of VTOL technology in civilian
applications. Aircrafts with this capability could be used for the surveying of
land for construction, search and rescue, firefighting, emergency medical
services, border patrol, recreational use, weather research, or even traffic
monitoring
There are various designs that have been are being used in Vertical Take off
and Landing remote control planes
A tiltrotor is an aircraft which generates lift and propulsion by way of one or
more powered rotors (sometimes called proprotors) mounted on rotating
engine pods or nacelles usually at the ends of a fixed wing or an engine
mounted in the fuselage with drive shafts transferring power to rotor
assemblies mounted on the wingtips. It combines the vertical lift capability of
a helicopter with the speed and range of a conventional fixed-wing aircraft.

A tiltwing aircraft features a wing that is horizontal for conventional forward

flight and rotates up for vertical takeoff and landing. It is similar to the
tiltrotor design where only the propeller and engine rotate.

A tail-sitter or tailsitter is a type of VTOL aircraft that takes off and lands on
its tail, then tilts horizontally for forward flight.

2.1 Thermal Imaging

Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal imaging, and thermal video are
examples of infrared imaging science. Thermographic cameras usually
detect radiation in the long-infrared range of the electromagnetic
spectrum (roughly 9,00014,000 nanometersor 914 m) and produce
images of that radiation, called thermograms. Since infrared radiation is
emitted by all objects with a temperature above absolute zero according to
the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to see one's
environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation
emitted by an object increases with temperature; therefore, thermography
allows one to see variations in temperature. When viewed through a thermal
imaging camera, warm objects stand out well against cooler backgrounds;
humans and other warm-blooded animals become easily visible against the
environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to
the military and other users of surveillance cameras.

2.2 History of thermal Imaging

Current thermal imagers are based on technology that was originally
developed for the military. Thermal imaging technology provides the ability
to see and target opposing forces through the dark of night or across a
smoke-covered battleground. The properties that have made infrared
detection valuable to military services around the world also make it
valuable to fire services and law enforcement.
In the late 1950s and 1960s, Texas Instruments, Hughes Aircraft, and
Honeywell developed single element detectors that scanned scenes and
produced line images. The military had a lock on the technology because it
was expensive and had sensitive military applications. These basic detectors
led to the development of modern thermal imaging. The pyroelectric vidicon
tube was developed by Philips and EEV in the 1970s and became the core of
a new product for firefighting, first used by the Royal Navy for shipboard
firefighting.
In 1978, Raytheon R&D group, then part of Texas Instruments, patented
ferroelectric infrared detectors, using barium strontium titanate (BST). BST
stands for barium strontium titanate, the material that coats the thermal
imagers sensor.. In the late 1980s, the federal government awarded HIDAD
(HIgh-Density Array Development) contracts to both Raytheon and
Honeywell for the development of thermal imaging technology for practical
military applications. Raytheon went on to commercialize BST technology,
while Honeywell developed vanadium oxide (VOx) micro bolometer
technology. Later federal programs such as LOCUSP (Low Cost Uncooled
Sensor Program) provided funding for both companies to develop their
thermal imaging technologies into equipment systems, including rifle sites
and drivers viewers. After the 1991 Gulf War, production volumes increased
and costs decreased, and so introduction of thermal imaging to the fire
service ensued.
Meanwhile, the Honeywell micro bolometer patent was awarded in 1994.
Boeing, Lockheed-Martin (who sold its infrared business to British Aerospace,
or BAE), and others licensed VOx technology from Honeywell and developed
infrared detectors for military applications. Thermal imagers based on both
BST and micro bolometer technologies are available now for non-military
applications. In fact, thermal imaging has now expanded to be used in
firefighting, law enforcement, industrial applications, security, transportation
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and many other industries. Bullard introduced its first thermal imager
specifically designed for firefighting in 1998.

2.3 Current Applications of Thermal Imaging

Firefighters use thermography to see through smoke, to find persons, and to
localize the base of a fire. Maintenance technicians use thermography to
locate overheating joints and sections of power lines, which are a sign of
impending failure. Building construction technicians can see thermal
signatures that indicate heat leaks in faulty thermal insulation and can use
the results to improve the efficiency of heating and air-conditioning units.
Pipelines, including pipes, compressors and pumps, are frequently located in
environments which are difficult to monitor and secure (e.g. offshore, remote
areas). Attacks or damage to such installations can lead to enormous
ecological impact and loss of revenue, potentially leading to international oil
market disruptions. Improving oil and gas installation security is a matter of
global importance, and the main rationale for the monitoring of oil and gas
pipelines is for safety reasons.
Thermal Oil and gas leaks have been found to show up well in thermal
infrared (TIR) imagery because of the temperature differences between the
fluid and the soil. For soils, thermal conductivity is affected by the water
content, and conductivity also changes when liquid oil drains into soil. Gas
escapes show as cold, whilst an oil leak creates a warm area. Therefore the
rationale for detecting hydrocarbon leakages from pipelines using thermal
image surveys is based upon differential thermal imaging: comparing images
of the same area captured on different days using advanced techniques
enables the detection of a change in temperature.
The theory is that a leak from a pipeline can be detected as a direct
consequence of the increase in the heat capacity of the soil together with the
oil, relative to that of the soil alone.

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Thermal imaging trespasser detection system is a type of smart surveillance

system which is used to detect human objects (trespasser) even in poor
lighting condition. The system can be employed to secure a place when and
where human shouldnt exist. The algorithm is regional based whereby an IR
object that occupy 3 partitions is considered as a human being, whereas IR
object that occupy < 3 partitions is not considered as human being.
However, the algorithm is having a distance problem where a human being
that is far away from the camera is not identified as a human
This system requires a fine resolution thermal camera and a laptop or
personal computer installed with Matlab programming (version R2007b or
later) and an alarm signaling system. The alarm signaling system can be as
simple as a computers speaker.

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References
1. http://www.bullard.com/V3/products/thermal_imaging/history_o
f_thermal_imaging.php
2. http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=2056389
3. https://www.google.com/patents/US20140236390
4. https://www.abdn.ac.uk/geosciences/documents/UAV_Report_R
edwing_Final_Appendix_Update.pdf
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOL#History
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermography#Applications
7. http://instrumentation.com/PDFS/EvolutionThermalImagingCam
eras.pdf
8. http://www.boeing.com/rotorcraft/military/v22
9. https://www.scribd.com/document/294024933/The-History-ofVTOL
10.

https://sites.google.com/site/mechvtol/vtol-history

11.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/til
trotor.htm
12.
13.

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