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: 12 JUL 08
Page 1
Grading Sheet
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
MIME 3470Thermal Science Laboratory
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Experiment . 4
FLOW METERS
APPEARANCE
ORGANIZATION
ENGLISH and GRAMMAR
MATHCAD
ORDERED DATA, DIMENSIONS, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
VENTURI METER: COMBINED PLOT: hflow vs. Qtheo & hflow vs. Qact
PLOT OF Cv vs. Re
ORIFICE METER: COMBINED PLOT: hflow vs. Qtheo & hflow vs. Qact
PLOT OF Co vs. Re
TURBINE METER: PLOT OF Qact vs. Qind
REGRESSED & PLOTTED CALIBRATION LINE
ROTAMETER:
PLOT OF Qact vs. Qind
COMBINED PLOT: h fric vs. Qact FOR THE 4 METERS
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
ORIGINAL DATASHEET
5
5
5
5
5
8
5
5
10
10
5
TOTAL
100
Comments
SCORE
TOTAL
GRADER
meter and relating the pressure difference to the flow rate yields
p2 p1 V12 V22
2 gc
FLOW METERS
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
EXPERIMENT TIME/DATE:
NAME
NAME
NAME
TIME, DATE
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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or
2
1
p 2 p1 h flow g Qtheo
gc
2gc
A12
1
.
A22
(2)
h flow
p1
p
g V12
g V22 4
.
z1
2 z2
1
gc 2gc 2
gc 2gc
2
(3)
gc 1
This equation relates the pressure difference, hflow, to the flow rate
Qtheo, and represents the theoretical curve for the Venturi meter.
* Herschel, Cl., The Venturi Meter, paper read before the Am. Soc. Civil Eng.,
(1)
kg m
s2
kg m
N s2
gc 1
lbm ft
lbf s 2
. In the SI system
With increasing flow, values for the discharge coefficient level off
at around Co 0.8 for the orifice meter.
p1 p 2 gh flow
V 2 V12
gh flow 2
(4)
Q1
A1
Q2
A2
2
1
A12
(5)
Thus,
2 gh flow
1
A2 A2
1
2
1
Qtheo
(6)
Qact
Cv
Qtheo
Q
2 gh flow V22 V12 2
A2
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the pressures are almost the same. This is true for a short distance
downstream of the orificethen pressure recovery sets in. With
these assumptions, Bernoullis equation is the same, except
pressure measurements are made at instead of .
2
(7)
2
2
2
2
p 2 p1 h flow
g
Q 2
gc
2g c
and
yields
1
1
A2 A2 .
2
1
(8)
Co
Qact
.
Qtheo
(9)
very ancientin many of its units. For example, the English inch is a smidgen off an
ancient inch, found for example in the Great Pyramid of Giza. This ancient (at least
3500 years old) inch can be found by dividing the polar diameter of the earth by
500,000,000;
e.g.,
While through a Venturi meter the pressure drop is very small (about 15 to
20 percent of the pressure drop in the throat), its practical application is limited by
its large (long) size. Therefore standardized orifices as shown in Figs. 209 and 210
are used more frequently. The pressure diagrams in these two figures show that with
this kind of apparatus, the loss in pressure is from 60 to 70% of the pressure drop in the
orifice. The velocity coefficient has been found to be 0.96 to 0.98 with the
standardized (German) rounded-approach orifice (Fig. 209). For the sharp-edged
orifice shown in Fig. 210 the coefficient depends very much upon the ratio of the
cross sections a/A. For instance, for a/A = 0.15, we have =0.61, whereas for a/A =
0.75, the velocity coefficient is = 0.91.
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Orifice MeterUse the procedure and write up requirements as specified for the Venturi meter. The expected discharge coefficient is 0.8.
Turbine-Type Flow MeterThe totalizer reading is the measure of
indicated or theoretical flow.
The actual flow is still measured
using the collection tank and a
stopwatch. For your report, plot
the measured flow rate against
(vs.) the flow rate reading and
determine and plot a regressed
line of this data all on the same
graph. This is a calibration curve.
The Mathcad linear regression
function is documented at the
right (source Mathcad Help).
RotameterFor the rotameter, record the position of the float, the
pressure drop across the meter, and the measured flow rate. For
your report, plot the measured flow rate vs. indicated flow rate.
Again a calibration curve; but without regression.
Finally, on one graph, plot friction pressure drops, hfrict, across
each meter vs. the actual flow rate through the meter.
6
REFERENCES
1. Flowmeters:
Introduction,
efunda
(engineering
fundamentals),
http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/flowmeters/flowmeter_intro.cfm
2. Simon & Schuster New Millennium Encyc. & Reference Library, 2000
3. Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O.G., Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics, Dover
Pubs., 1957. [Based on Prandtls Lectures. Composed by Prandtls
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student, Tietjens, who turned the lecture notes into a text. Translated by J.P.
Den Hartog. First published by United Engineering Trustees, Inc., 1934]
4. Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., & Lightfoot, E.N., Transport Phenomena,
John-Wiley & Sons, 1960.
5. Ross, S.M. (1998), A First Course in Probability, 5th ed., Prentice-Hall
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Page 6
CONCLUSIONS
Page 7
Page 8
APPENDICES
Appendix AClepsydras (water thief), Ancient Fluid Meters
When one thinks of a fluid meter, they envision a device that
ascertains a flow rate per unit of time. The ancients looked at
flow meters the other way aroundthey used fluid meters to
determine a unit of time per flow rate.
In this experiment, the student used a stopwatch to time a flow
into a catch basin to determine a flow rate. With water clocks, a
known flow rate is used and the tank becomes the stopwatch.
Water Clocks
Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology Physics Laboratory
Water clocks were among the earliest timekeepers that didn't depend
on the observation of celestial bodies. One of the oldest was found in
the tomb of Amenhotep I, buried around 1500 BC. Later named
clepsydras (water thief) by the Greeks, who began using them about
325 BC, these were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water
to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom.
Other clepsydras were cylindrical or bowl-shaped containers designed
to slowly fill with water coming in at a constant rate. Markings on the
inside surfaces measured the passage of hours as the water level
reached them. These clocks were used to determine hours at night, but
may have been used in daylight as well. Another version consisted of a
metal bowl with a hole in the bottom; when placed in a container of
water the bowl would fill and sink in a certain time. These were still in
use in North Africa this century.
More elaborate and impressive mechanized water clocks were developped between 100BC and 500 AD by
Greek and Roman horologists and
astronomers. The added complexity
was aimed at making the flow more
constant by regulating the pressure,
and at providing fancier displays of
the passage of time. Some water
clocks rang bells and gongs, others
opened doors and windows to show
little figures of people, or moved
pointers, dials, and astrological
models of the universe.
A Greek astronomer, Andronikos,
supervised the construction of the
Tower of the Winds in Athens in the
1st century BC. This octagonal structure featured a 24-hour clepsydra
A Brief History of Clocks:
and indicators for the eight winds
From Thales to Ptolemy
By: Jesse Weissman
from which the tower got its name,
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Gre
and it displayed the seasons of the
ekScience/Students/Jesse/CLOC
year and astrological dates and
K1A.html
periods. The Romans also developped mechanized clepsydras, though their complexity accomplished
little improvement over simpler methods for determining the passage
of time.
In the Far East, mechanized astronomical/astrological clock making
developed from 200 to 1300 AD. Third-century Chinese clepsydras
drove various mechanisms that illustrated astronomical phenomena.
One of the most elaborate clock towers was built by Su Sung and his
associates in 1088 AD. Su Sung's mechanism incorporated a waterdriven escapement invented about 725 AD. The Su Sung clock tower,
over 30 feet tall, possessed a bronze power-driven armillary sphere for
observations, an automatically rotating celestial globe, and five front
panels with doors that permitted the viewing of changing mannikins
which rang bells or gongs, and held tablets indicating the hour or other
special times of the day.
Since the rate of flow of water is very difficult to control accurately, a
clock based on that flow can never achieve excellent accuracy.
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0855491.html
http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1580.htm
Besides the gnomon or sundial, the Egyptians used the water clock,
which had the advantage over the former of showing time during the
night as well as during the day.
A complete example was found in the Amon Temple of Karnak
(Thebes), 25.5 north of the equator. This water clock dates from the
time of Amenhotep III of the Eighteenth Dynasty, father of Ikhnaton.
The jar has an opening through which water flows out; marks are
incised on the inner surface of the jar to indicate the time. Since the
Egyptian day was divided into hours which changed in length with the
length of the day, the jar has different sets of markings for the various
seasons of the year. Four time points are prominently important: the
autumnal equinox, the winter solstice, the vernal equinox, and the
summer solstice. The equinoxes have equal days and nights in all
latitudes. But on the solstices, when either the day or the night is the
longest of the year, the length of the daylight varies with the latitude:
the farther from the equator, the greater is the difference between the
day and the night on the day of the solstice. This difference also
depends on the inclination of the equator to the plane of the orbit or
ecliptic, which is at present 23 . Should this inclination change, or in
other words, should the polar axis change its astronomical position
(direction), or should the polar axis change its geographical position
with each pole shifting to another point, the length of the day and night
(on any day except the equinoxes) would change, too.
The water clock of Amenhotep III presented its investigator with a very
strange time scale.7 Calculating the length of the day of the winter solstice, he found that the clock was constructed for a day of 11 hours 18
minutes, whereas the day of the solstice at 25 north latitude is 10 hours
26 minutes, a difference of fifty-two minutes. Similarly, the builder of the
clock reckoned the night of the winter solstice to be 12 hours 42 minutes, where as it is 13 hours 34 minutesfifty-two minutes too short.
On the summer solstice, the longest day, the clock anticipated a day of
12 hours 48 minutes, where as it is 13 hours and 41 minutes, and a
night of 11 hours 12 minutes, where as it is 10 hours 19 minutes.
On the vernal and autumnal equinoxes the day is 11 hours and 56
minutes long, and the clock actually shows 11 hours and 56 minutes;
the night is 12 hours 4 minutes long, and the clock show exactly 12
hours 4 minutes.
The difference between the present values and the values of the day
for which the clock is adjusted is very consistent: on the winter solstice
the day of the clock is fifty-two minutes longer than the present day of
the winter solstice in Karnak, and the night is fifty-two minutes
shorter; on the summer solstice the day is fifty-three minutes shorter
on the clock and the night fifty-three minutes longer.
The figures on the clock show a smaller difference between the
length of the daylight on the solstices or between the longest and
the shortest days of the year than is observed at Karnak at the
present time. Thus the water clock of Amenhotep III, if it was
correctly built and correctly interpreted, indicates either that Thebes
was closer to the equator or that the inclination of the equator
toward the ecliptic was less than the present angle of 23 . In
either case the climate of the latitudes of Egypt could not have been
the same as it is in our age.
As we find from the present research, the clock of Amenhotep III
became obsolete in the middle of the eighth century; and the clock
that might have replaced it at that time would have been make
obsolete in the catastrophes of the end of the eighth and the
beginning of the seventh centuries, when once more the axis
changed its direction in the sky and its position on the globe as well.
Worlds in Collision, Immanuel Velikovsky,
Delta Book (Dell Publishing Co.), Inc., 1950
In 1952, this was on the New York Times Best Seller list. Despite this,
Velikovsky upset academics in many fieldshistory, religion,
astronomy (including physics), . Those of astronomy [see below],
told Velikovskys then publisher that if they continued to publish the
book that their schools would no longer purchase that publishers
textbooks. The publisher caved. So much for academic freedom.
Most academics and pedestrians having not read this and subsequent
works formed their opinions from hearsay. Einstein was no different at
first. Once Velikovsky, who also lived in Princeton, got Einsteins atten7
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If this person has the story correct, Einstein told Velikovsky that he must
make scientific predictions based on his historical research if his
hypothesis of early history was ever to get scientific attention. One of
Vs predictions was that there was an electromagnetic belt around the
earth. At the time, astronomers considered the mechanisms of the
solar system and universe to be governed simply by Newtonian gravitational phenomena. Velikovsky proposed that electromagnetic attractions / repulsions also were in play. This greatly incensed astronomers
being instructed by someone outside their field. Yet, early space
exploration did indeed establish the existence of such an electromagnetic beltit is known to us today as the van Allen radiation belt.
The historical appendices to these labs have been added for a reason.
They exist to help round out the student. Think of them as brain candy
light facts that you will not be tested on. But, there is a further reason.
Velikovskys works were truly interdisciplinaryincorporating history,
astronomy, cosmology, psychology, geology, and paleontology. With
such a broad base, he was able to advance truly astounding ideas.
Maybe one of you might catch the bug. There is often money to be
made where two fields overlap. More important than money, however,
is the excitement of truly unearthing something new not just
developing a better brake system.
Using a water clock and an inclined plane, Galileo was able to determine the
rate of acceleration due to gravity. by timing how long it takes for the ball to
roll from the marked distances.
[He found that] it takes one unit of time for the ball to roll one unit of distance,
two units of time to roll four units of distance, three units of time for the ball to
roll nine units of distance, .
NovaGalileos Battle for the Heavens
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/expe_inpl_2.html#clock
Galileo made an amazing contribution to timekeeping, simply by not paying
attention in church. In 1581, Galileo was 17 and he was standing in the Cathedral of Pisa watching a huge chandelier swinging back and forth from the
ceiling. Galileo noticed that no matter how short or long the arc of the chandelier was, it took exactly the same amount of time to complete a full swing.
The chandelier gave Galileo the idea to create a pendulum clock. While the
clock would eventually run of energy, it would keep accurate time until the
pendulum stopped. If the pendulum was set swinging again before it stopped,
there would never be a loss in accuracy. Because of this, pendulums caught
on and are still widely used today. The History of Time
http://library.thinkquest.org/C008179/historical/basichistory.html#galileo
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___________________
Lab Partners
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
hflow
hfriction
inH20
inH20
hflow
hfriction
inH20
inH20
Flow Indicated
by Counter, %
hfriction
Venturi Meter:
Water in tank
gal.
Time
s.
Water in tank
gal.
Time
s.
Water in tank
gal.
Time
s.
Water in tank
gal.
Time
s.
d
d
d
d
d
Orifice Meter:
d
d
d
d
d
Turbine Flow Meter:
d
d
d
d
d
Rotameter:
inH20
% of Flow
d
d
d
d
d
hfriction
inH20
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