Advanced FOUNDATION ENGINEERING V.N.S. MURTHY =Advanced Foundation Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Series V.N.S. MURTHY Consulting Geotechnical Engineer. Bangalore India CBS PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS NEW DELHI * BANGALORE‘Advanced Foundation Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Series ISBIV: 978-81-239-1506-7 (PB) 978-81-239-1807-4 (HC) © 2007, Author First Edition: 2007 Allrights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any Information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the author and the publisher. Published by : Satish Kumar Jain for CBS Publishers & Distributors, 4596/1-A, 11 Darya Ganj. New Deini- 110.002 (India) E-mail: cospubs@vsni.com Website : www.cbspd.com Production Director : Vinod K. Jain Branch Office Seema House, 2975, 17th Cross, KR. Road, Bonsankari 2nd Stage, Bangalore - 560070 Fax: 080-26771680 * E-mail: cbsong@vsni.net Printed at India Binding House, Noida, UP (Inala)the Cause of Pudents |Department of Civil Engineering Indian institute of Science Bangalore - 560 012, India Foreword fier his first book Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dr Murthy takes the readers deeper into the realms of foundation engineering in this second book ‘Advanced Foundation Engineering. As the author himself states, the objective is to provide to ‘the students, teachers and practising engineers a comprehensive review of all the relevant theories in the field of foundation engineering, The author has amply met this objective. ‘As Terzaghi pointed out more than 50 years ago, the state of maturity in foundation ‘engineering is the semi-empirical stage after the initial empirical and scientific stages. To appreciate the complexities and the need for semi-empiricism and to be a successful practitioner of the art of foundation engineering, one needs to have a thorough theoretical background. Dr Murthy’s book serves this purpose admirably. ‘The book has 18 chapters. The frst three chapters cover the basics of geotechnical properties and soil exploration. In the next four chapters, bearing capacity and settlement aspects of shallow foundations are dealt with. Different aspects of deep foundations — piles, piers, and ‘eaissons, are treated in Chapters 8 to 12. The elaborate treatment of deep foundations is perhaps the speciality of this book. Chapters 13 10 18 ate somewhat disconnected but still cover useful topics of foundations in expansive sols, cellular cofferdams, machine foundations, reinforced earth and ground anchors, soil improvement and braced cuts, Overall, Dr Murthy has succeeded in laying a good foundation for the challenging subject of foundation engineering. In each chapter, a lange number of example problems have been worked out to help students, grasp the concepts. A number of problems have also been set for solution by the students, ‘when completed will enable them to understand the subject. The famous Chinese philosopher Confucius (fifth century BC) has said: “I hear, forgot; I see, I remember, I do, | understand.” With pleasure, I recommend the book to all interested in geotechnical engineering, K.S. Subba Rao Emeritus ProfessorPreface ‘dvanced Foundation Engineering is the second book in the series of Geotechnical Engineering, The first book in the series is A Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering written to satisfy the requirements of undergraduate students studying geotechnical engineering as a subject. The present book goes deeper into the various aspects of Foundation Engincering, To make the book self-sufficient in all respects, certain portions of the first book have been repeated. ‘The objective of writing this book is to bring all the relevant advanced theories on foundation engineering in a book form at one place. Many books are available on foundation engineering in advanced countries but the author has not yet come across a book based purely on the subject matter. Most of the books available are written just to satisfy certain categories of students or professional’s needs. It must be understood well that foundations have to be designed to simulate field conditions. With all the efforts put in by numerous reputed research workers and designers in the field, the author has still to come across one single theory that satisfies the field conditions. If that is the case, what could be the solution? As things stand, the only way is to try @ few more theories appropriate to the field conditions. Iti, therefore, essential thatthe consultants must be conversant with the theories that are available in this field and students also must know the available approaches. It is the opinion of the author that the present book ‘meets most of the requirements. Research work is another field of importance. The author has presented in detail his work on laterally loaded pile foundations to solve many of the problems confronted in this field. The approach is direct and simple as compared to the complicated methods proposed by many leading and well-known advocates in this field. It isthe author’s ardent opinion that there is always a simple solution to a complicated problem. Finally, the author wishes to convey through this book that he would be extremely happy if this book serves the purpose for which itis intended. V.N.S. MurthyAcknowledgements H CELE sincerely thank Mr S.K, Jain, Managing Director, and Mr Y.N. Arjuna, Publishing Director, CBS Publishers & Distributors, for the splendid work they have done in publishing my ‘book. [also thank their supporting staff members. I thank Prof. K.S. Subba Rao for his excellent Foreword to this book. He isan internationally known geotechnical engineer and his opinion on this book has a lot of weight. The review of this book has been done by an upcoming well-known geotechnical engineer Prof. T.G. Seetharam who is the Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. His analysis of the subject matter is highly appreciated. | thank him very much. V.N.S. MurthyDepartment of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Science Bangalore - 560 012, India Review TT[izbook sone ofthe bet referee books fo the undergraduat tens, pong students and working professionals in the area of foundation engineering. It presents both theoretical and practical knowledge of foundation engineering. Each topic has been developed in logical progression, exhaustive and up-to-date and it will be very useful to students, teachers and practitioners, Prof. Murthy has brought out a comprehensive review of all the relevant theories required for the practice of foundation engineering in his book. The book has 18 chapters, in which the author has comprehensively covered the topics of study for undergrad- uate curriculum on “foundation engineering” and also to some extent to the postgraduate cur- riculum, Prof. Murthy has developed a practical and pragmatic approach to the foundation design and suggested construction features at some locations keeping in view the safety and economics of the proposed methodology. Geotechnical properties and soil exploration have been covered in Chapters 2 and 3 respec- tively. Four chapters are devoted to shallow foundations and five chapters to deep foundations, Prof. Murthy has brought out the principles of soil mechanics, field and laboratory testing to highlight the importance of these topics ii foundation engineering design. Prof. Murthy’s own research work on vertical and batter piles has been brought out eloquently for advanced read- ing in Chapter 9. The other chapters presented are machine foundations, drilled pier founda- tions, caisson foundations, cofferdams, foundations on expansive and collapsible soils, braced cuts and drainage including soil improvement. He has covered extensively drilled pier founda- tions, caisson foundations and cellular cofferdams and this book is unique in this respect. A umber of chosen problems have been solved to illustrate the concepts in most of the chapters. ‘Also, relevant questions and problems are given at the end of some of the chapters for the benefit of students. Though the book is not designed for any one particular level of students, it is very useful for all levels of students duc to its clarity of presentation and list of problems solved. I strongly recommend this excellent book Advanced Foundation Engineering to the students, teachers, and practitioners. I feel this book will also serve as @ valuable reference for students who take competitive examinations like Graduate Aptitude Test for Engineers (GATE), UPSC examinations, and other national selection entrance tests/examinations. Prof. T.G. Sitharam pxn (canada), FIGS, FIE Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012 email: sitharam@eivilise.emtinPublisher's Note ‘The publishers thankful to ProfG Sitharam who has reviewed this book very objectively and given his comments on the coverage and presentation of the text. A brie biosketch of Prof Sitharam i given here Prof T.G. SITHARAM mo. rics re is eurentiy Profesor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore He obtained his BE (Civil Engg) from Mysore Univesity in 1984, Masters from Se, Bangalore, ‘in 1986, and PhD from University of Waterloo, Canada, in 1991. He was a postdoctoral researcher at University of Texas at Austin, USA, until 19, Prof Sitharam is an emerging national and international leader inthe ares of soil dynamics and earthquake geotechnical engineering, His esearch work on evaluation of dynamic properties of soils, liquefaction behaviour Of Indian soils, regional seismicity, site response and seismic microzonation of Bangalore city, are significant ‘contributions tothe county. He was responsible for the indigenous development of the state-of-the-art cyclic triaxial testing, piezo vibro cone system with «large calibration chamber, shake table fcilty and development of laminar box. He has successfully completed several sponsored research projec. He has published mote than 70 papers in international/national journals and presented 140 papers at internationalnational conferences, He has delivered letures invited / keynote lectures and also chaired cochaied tecnial sessions in several international’ national conferences, He is an active member of the task committee on “microzenation of Bangalore city” st up by Seismology Division of Department of Science and Technology (DST). Recognizing his contribution to this area, he has been inducted as Member, Programme Advisory and Monitoring Committee (PAMC), forthe nationally coordinated programme on Seismicity by DST, Government of India. Prof Sitaram is Associate Fito, ASCE Journal of Meterials in Chul Engineering, USA, and also Membes, Commitee on Sols and Rock Instrumentation (AFS 20), Transporation Rescarch Board of the National Academics, Division of National Research Council (NRC), USA, for the period 2007-08, He is also a member of TC 29 Laboratory Strest-Stain Strength Testing of Geomaterials, Inerational Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical [Enginecring (ISSMGE), for the year 2001-09, Prof Sitharam bas guided 8 PRD students, 3 MS (Engg) students and several ME project studems. Currently he has 7 doctoral students working under him Prof Sitharam has writen two textbooks: Applied Elasticity and Soil Mechanice and Foundation Engineering, and also guss-eited a volume on “Geotechnies and Earthquake Hazards" for Current Seience. He isan excelent Consultant and has carod out more than 50 project related to specialized geotechnical investigations (measurement ‘of dynamic properties and vibration isolation), slope stability in rooks and sil, underground spaces in rockssols tnd design of earth dams and tailing ponds for ash and vedmud including ground improvement,Contents Foreword by Prof K.S. Subba Rao vil Preface ix Review by Prof TG. Sitharam xi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Foundation engineering defined 1 4.2 The subject matter 1 4.3 Requirements for foundation design 2 1.4 The objective 2 Chapter 2 Geotechnical Properties of Soil 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 Soil weight 3 2.3 Index properties of soils 4 2.4 Sieve sizes 4 25 — Grain size distribution curves 5 2.6 Relative density and consistency 6 2.7 \dentification and classification of soil 8 28 — Hydraulic properties of soil 9 10 12 15 16 /olume relationship 2.9 Stress distribution in soils 2.40 Consolidation and settlement 2.11 Shear strength 2.42 Stress paths 2.13 Lateral pressures by theory of elasticity for surcharge loads oon the surface of backfill” 24. Chapter 3 oil Exploration 29 3.1. Introduction 29 3.2 Boring of holes 30 3.3 Sampling in soil 6 3.4 Rock core sampling 41xiv Advanced Foundation Engineering. —— 35 Standard penetration test 42 3.6 Corrections to observed SPT values in cohesioniess soils 6 3.7 SPT values related to relative density of cohesionless soils st 3.8 SPT values related to consistency of clay soil St 3.9 Static cone penetration test (CPT) 53 3.10 Pressuremeter 67 3.11 The flat dilatometer test 80 3.42 Field vane shear test (VST) 83 3.43 Field-plate load test (PLT) 83 3.14 Ground water conditions 83 3.18 Geophysical exploration 88 3.16 Planning of soil exploration 94 3.17 Execution of soil exploration programme % 3.48 Report 8 3.19 Problems 8 Chapter 4 Shallow Foundation 1: Depth of Foundation and Other Considerations 103 4.1 Shallow and deep foundations. 108 4.2 Requirements for a stable foundation 104 4.3 Foundation location and depth 106 4.4 Minimum depth for shallow foundation 106 4.8 Selection of type of foundation 409 Chapter 5 Shallow Foundation 2: Ultimate Bearing Capacity 1 5.1 Introduction 1 5.2 The ultimate bearing capacity of soil defined a1 53 Some of the terms defined 112 5.4 Types of failure in soil 113 55 An overview of bearing capacity theories 115 56 Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory 116 5.7 Skempton’s bearing capacity factor N_ 122 5.8 Effect of water table on bearing capacity 123 5.9 The general bearing capacity equation 192 5.10 Effect of soil compressibility on bearing capacity of soil 138 5.11. Bearing capacity of foundations subjected to eccentric loads 144 5.12 Ultimate bearing capacity of footings based on SPT values (N) 147 5.13 The CPT method of determining ultimate bearing capacity 147 5.14 Ultimate bearing capacity of footings resting on stratified deposits of soil 150 5.15A Meyerhot's method of computing ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on slopes 187 5.158 Bearing capacity of foundations on top of a slope 160—————- Contents xv 5.16 The pressuremeter method of determining ultimate bearing capacity . 163 5.17 Foundations on rock 172 5.18 Case history of failure of the transcona grain elevator 174 5.19 Problems 7 Chapter 6 Shallow Foundation 3: Pressure and Settlement 185 6. Introduction 185 62 Field plate load tests 186 + 63 _Effect of size of footings on settlement 198 6.4 Design charts from SPT values for footings on sand 194 65 Empirical equations based on SPT values for footings on cohesioniess soils 198 6.6 Safe bearing pressure from empirical equations based ‘on CPT values for footings on cohesioniess soil 199 6.7 Foundation settlement 200 6.8 Evaluation of modulus of elasticity 202 69 Methods of computing settlements 204 6.10 Elastic settlement beneaith the comer of a uniformly loaded flexible area based on the theory of elasticity 208 6.11 Janu, Bjertum and Kjaemsi’s method of determining elastic settlement under undrained conditions 206 6.12 Schmertmann’s method of calculating settlement in granular soils by using CPT values 207 6.13 Pressuremeter method of estimating settlement in cohesionless and cohesive soils 214 6.14 Estimation of consolidation settlement by using cedometer test data 219 6.15. Skempton-Bjerrum method of calcuiating consolidation settlement (1957) 220 6.16 Consolidation seitloment by Lambe’s stress path method 204 617 Problems 208 Chapter 7 Shallow Foundation 4: Combined Footings and Mat Foundation 233 7.1 Introduction 233 7.2 Safe bearing pressures for mat foundations on sand and clay 234, 7.3 Eccentric loading 235 7.4 — The coefficient of subgrade reaction 236 7.5 — Proportioning of cantilever footing 238 7.6 Design of combined footings by rigid method (conventional method) 239, 7.7 Design of mat foundation by rigid method. 244xvi Advanced Foundation Engineering 7.8 Design of combined footings by elastic line method 2at 7.9 Design of mat foundations by elastic plate method 242 7.10 Floating foundation 243 7.11, Problems 250 Chapter 8 Deep Foundation 1 Vertical Load Bearing Capacity of Single Vertical Pil 251 8.1 Introduction 251 82 Classification of piles 251 83 Types of piles according to the method of installation 252 84 — Uses of piles, 254 85 — Solection of pile 256 86 Installation of piles 256 8.7 Load transfer mechanism 259 88 Methods of determining ultimate load bearing capacity of a single vertical pile 263 89 General theory for ultimate bearing capacity 263 8.10 Ultimate bearing capacity in cohesionless soils 265 811 Critical depth 266 8.12 Tomlinson’s solution for Q, in sand 267 8.13 Meyethot’s method of determining Q, for piles in sand 269 8.14 Vesic’s method of determining Q, 270 8.15 Janbu's method of determining Q, 273 8.16 Coyle and Castello's method of estimating Q, in sand 273 8.17 The ultimate skin resistance of a single pile in cohesionless soil 274 8.18 Skin resistance Q, by Coyle and Castello method (1981) 275 8.19 Static bearing capacity of piles in clay soil 277 8.20 Bearing capacity of piles in granular soils based on SPT value 280 821 Bearing capacity of piles based on static cone penetration tests (CPT) 295 8.22 Bearing capacity of a single pile by load test 306 823 Pile bearing capacity from dynamic pile driving formulas 309 8.24 Bearing capacity of piles founded on a rocky bed 313 825 Uplift resistance of piles 314 826 Problems 316 Chapter 9 Deep Foundation 2 : Behaviour of Single Vertical and Batter Piles Subjected to Lateral Loads 319 9.1 Introduction 319 9.2 Winkler’s hypothesis 321 93 The differential equation 32Part A Venti Part B Batter I Piles Subjec 94 95 26 97 98 29 9.10 on 912 913 ana 915 916 917 9.18 9.19 9.20 Contems xvi -d To Lateral Loads Solution for laterally loaded single piles Modulus of subgrade reaction Closed-form solution for pile of infinite length Finite difference method of solving the differential equation for a laterally loaded long pile (Glesser, 1953) Non-dimensional method of analysis of vertical piles subjected to lateral loads Broms method for the analysis of laterally loaded piles (1964a, 1964b) Lateral defiections at working loads in saturated cohesive soils (Broms, 1964a) Uttimate lateral resistance of piles in saturated cohesive soils (Broms, 1964a) Lateral deflections at working loads in cohesionless soils, (Broms, 1964b) Utiimate lateral resistance of piles in cohesionless soils (Broms, 1964b) AA direct method for solving the non-linear behaviour of laterally. loaded flexible pile problems Case studies for laterally loaded vertical piles in sand Case studies for laterally loaded vertical piles in clay B-Y curves for the solution of laterally loaded piles Solution for the laterally loaded piles by the use of p-y curves Pressuremeter method to solve laterally loaded pile problems Poulos method of elastic analysis for laterally loaded single piles Piles in Cohesionless Soils 921 9.22 9.28 924 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 ast Mechanism of failure of batter piles under lateral loads in cohesioniess soils Statement of the problem of batter piles subjected to lateral loads Mode! tests on instrumented batter piles in cohesionless soil (Murthy, 1965) Variation of soil modulus along batter piles Non-dimensional solutions for laterally loaded batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1965) Relative stiffness factor for batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1965) Uttimate lateral bearing capacity of batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1965) Lateral resistance of batter piles as a ratio to that of vertical pile in sand (Murthy, 1965) Coefficients of passive earth pressure for batter piles in sand Behaviour of laterally loaded batter piles in sand (Murthy, 1985) Problems 7 325, 325 326 329 332 339 351 351 356 360 967 374 378 383, 397 409 414 423, 423, 426 426 427 428 431 432 440 454xvill_ Advanced Foundation Engineering. Chapter 10 Deep Foundation 3: Pile Groups Subjected to Vertical and Lateral Loat 457 10.1. Introduction 487 10.2 Number and spacing of piles in a group 487 103 Pile group efficiency 459 10.4 Efficiency of pile groups in sand 460 10.5 Pile group efficiency equation 461 10.6 Vertical bearing capacity of pile groups embedded in sands and gravels 461 10.7 Bored pile groups in sand and gravel 462 10.8 Pile groups in cohesive soils 462 10.9 Settlement of piles and pile groups in sands and gravels 463 10.10 Settlement of pile groups in cohesive soils 465 10.11 Allowable loads on groups of piles 466 10.12 Negative friction on piles 466 10.13 Analysis of pile foundations comprising vertical and batter piles and subjected to vertical and lateral loads 469 10.14 Pile groups subjected to eccentric vertical loads 479 40.15 Anchor piles 481 10.16 Uplift capacity of a pile group 482 10.17 Examples 483 10.18 Problems 488 Chapter 11 Deep Foundations 4: Drilled Pier Foundations 491 11.1 Introduction 491 11.2 Types of drilled piers 491 11.3. Advantages and disadvantages of drilled pier foundations 492 11.4 Methods of construction 493 11.5 Design considerations 498 11.6 Vertical load transfer mechanism 500 11.7 Vertical bearing capacity of drilled piers 503 11.8 The general bearing capacity equation for the base resistance g, (= Gna.) 505 11.9 Bearing capacity equations for the base in cohesive soil 505 11.10 Bearing capacity equation for the base in granular soil 506 11.11 Bearing capacity equations for the base in cohesive IGM or rock (O'Neill and Reese, 1999) 508 11.12. The ultimate skin resistance of cohesive and intermediate materials 510 11.13 Ultimate skin resistance in cohesionless soil and gravelly sands (ONNelll and Reese, 1999) 513 11.14 Ultimate side and total resistance in rock (O'Neill and Reese, 1999) 514 11.15 Estimation of settlements of driled piers at working loads 514 44.16 Uplift capacity of drilled piers 526 11.17 Lateral bearing capacity of drilled piers 82711.18 Case study of a drilled pier subjected to lateral loads 11.19 Problems Chapter 12 Deep Foundation 5: Caisson undations: 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of wells or caissons 12.3 Stability analysis of well foundations 412.4 Limit equilibrium method of determining the grip, Length of wells in cohesionless soils 42.5 Grip lengths of wells in cohesive soils 12.6 Determination of scour depth in cohesioniess soils, 127 Thickness of steining of wells 128 Examples Chapter 13 Foundations On Collapsible And Expansive Soils Part A Collapsible Soils Part B E 13.1. General considerations 13.2 General observations 12.3 Collapse potential and settlement 18.4 — Computation of collapse settlement 18.5 Foundation design 186 Treatment methods for collapsible soils pansive Soils 13.7 Distribution of expansive soils, 18.8 General characteristics of swelling soils 139 Clay mineralogy and mechanism of swelling 13.10 Definition of some parameters Contents xix 534, 535 539 539 541 542 550 555 555 559 563 13.11 Evaluation of the swelling potential of expansive soils by single index method (Chen, 1988) 13.12 Classification of swelling soils by indirect measurement 13.13 Swelling pressure by direct measurement 13.14 Effect of initial moisture content and initial dry density on swelling pressure 18.15 Estimating the magnitude of swelling 18.16 Design of foundations in swelling soils, 13.17 Drilled pier foundations in expansive, soils, 13.18 Elimination of swelling 18.19. Problemsxx" Advanced Foundation Engineering Chapter 14 Cellular Cofferdams 593 14.1 Introduction 593 142 Cellular cofferdams 594 14.3 Components of cellular cofferdams 595 14.4. Dimensions of cellular cofferdam 596 14.5 Stability of cellular cofferdams 596 146 Examples 603 14.7 Questions and problems 607 Chapter 15 Machine Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Load 609 15.1. Introduction 609 152 Basic theories of vibration 610 15.3 Simple harmonic motion 610 154 Free vibration of a mass-and-spring system without damping «612 15.5 Free vibrations with viscous damping 615. 15.6 Forced vibrations of mass-and-spring system without damping 619 15.7 Forced vibrations of mass-and-spring system with viscous damping621 15.8 Forced frequency dependent exciting force with viscous damping 625 15.9 Properties of response curves 626 15.10 Machine foundations subjected to steady state vibrations 628 15.11 Vibration analysis of rigid circular footings by elastic half-space analog method 632 1.12. Elastic-soil-spring method of vibration analysis of foundations (Barkan, 1962) 646 15.13 Vibration analysis of foundations subjected to simultaneous vertical, sliding and rocking oscillations by elastic soil-spring method (Barkan, 1962) 654 15.14 Machine foundations subjected to impact loads (Barkan, 1962) 657 15.15 Design criteria for machine foundations 664 15.16 Screening vibrations 666 15.17 Examples 668 Chapter 16 Geotextiles Reinforced Earth and Ground Ancho! 683 16.1 Geotextiles 683 16.2 Reinforced earth and general considerations 685 16.3 Backfill and reinforcing materials 68, 16.4 Construction details 601 16.5 Design consideration for a reinforced earth wall 622 16.6 Design method 693 16.7 External stability 628 16.8 Examples of measured lateral earth pressures ™— Contents rt 169 Ground anchors m2 16.10 Problems 17 Chapter 17 Soil Improvement 721 17.1 Introduction 724 17.2 Mechanical compaction 722 17.3 Laboratory tests on compaction: 722 17.4 _ Effect of compaction on engineering behaviour 728 17.8 Field compaction and control 731 17.6 Compaction for deeper layers of soil 740 17.7 Preloading 7a 17.8 Sand compaction piles and stone columns 787 17.9 Soil stabilisation by the use of admixtures 748 17.10 Soil stabilisation by injection of suitable groups 749, 17.11 Soil stabilisation by electrical and thermal methods 750 17.12 Problems 751 Chapter 18 Braced-Cuts and Drainage 753 Part A Braced-cuts 753 18.1 General considerations 753 18.2 Lateral earth pressure distribution on braced-cuts, 754 18.3 Stability of braced-cuts in saturated clay 758 18.4 Bjerrum and Eide (1956) method of analysis 760 18.5 Piping failures in sand cuts 764 18.6 Problems 765 Part B Drainage 766 18.7 Introduction 768 188 Ditches and sumps 768 18.9 Well points 767 18.10 Deep-well pumps 769 18.11 Sand drains 769 Appendix A SI. Units in Geotechnical Enginecring 77 References 7 Index 793Advanced Foundation Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Series1.1 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING DEFINED Foundation Engineering is a subject built onthe basic principles of Soil Mechanics, Soil Hydraulies ‘and Structural Mechanies. All these three together may be considered as the pillars of Foundation Engineering. A wrong application of the principles of any one of the three subjects may lead to @ faulty design of the foundation, ‘Theories have been developed forthe design of foundations to suit ideal soil conditions, However, such conditions rarely exit in nature since sols found in natural conditions are mostly heterogencous in character. Theories may have to be modified or adjusted to suit field conditions. ‘A foundation i part ofa superstructure, The stresses and strains that are brought tothe foundation ‘rom the superstructure would lead to interaction between the foundation structural element and the soil surrounding it. Its this interaction which is very difficult to evaluate as this is quite a complex phenomenon. The theories that have been developed for ideal conditions do not take into account all the variables that would lead to the interaction between the soil and the foundation element. The presence of water table would make the interaction problem all the more difficult to solve. It is therefore essential that a design engineer should have a thorough knowledge of the theories he ‘wants to use for the design of foundations and also its limitations. A knowledge of the theories and its limitations by themselves would not lead to the design of a safe and sound foundation if the environmental conditions, the strength and settlement characteristics of the soil are not properly known in advance, An ideal design engineer, therefore, is the one who has a thorough knowledge of the theories and the field conditions and also who can modify or adjust the design to suit the field conditions. This requires therefore a practical and pragmatic approach to the problem of design and construction while keeping in view the safety and economics of the project. 1.2 THE SUBJECT MATTER ‘The subject matter pertaining to the field of foundation engineering has been dealt with in a logical manner. A brief review of geotechnical properties of soil is given in Chapter 2. Soil Exploration finds an important place in this book as the design of a foundation will be meaningless ifthe strength and settlement characteristics ofthe soil in-situ are not properly understood. This is possible only if the Soil Exploration is properly planned and executed by competent geotechnical consultants.2 Advanced Soundation Engineering § ———————__________ Shallow and deep foundations have been dealtwith in detail, Four chapters have been devoted to shallow foundations and five chapters to deep foundations. All the relevant basic theories have been discussed in detail for the benefit of students and teachers of technical colleges. The limitations of the theories have also been mentioned for the benefit of practising engineers. ‘The author's own research work on vertical and batter piles have been included in Chapter 9. Foundation soil improvements, the use of geoteatiles, reinforced earth and ground anchors have also heen discussed briefly ‘The other matters discussed are—machine foundations subject to vibratory loads, drilled pier Foundations, foundations on collapsible and expansive soils, caisson foundations, cofferdams, and braced cuts and drainage. 1.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR FOUNDATION DESIGN ‘When once a site is selected for a particular project, the job of the foundation engineer is to design the foundations for the structures. The following information is needed for this purpose. 1, A lay out plan of the project. 2. Aplan of load-bearing elements such as columns, walls, caissons, etc, with the estimated dead and live loads. 3. The strength and settlement characteristics of the subsoil 4. The hydraulic conditions of the site, The first two of the informations have to be provided by structural engineers. A detaited soil exploration provides the informations pertaining to the last two. Based on the above data, the depth and type of foundations have to be decided. Foundation engineer will be then be in a position to design a foundation, The foundations so designed should satisfy all the requirements of safety. 1.4. THE OBJECTIVE The objective of the author is to provide for the students, teachers and practising engineers a comprehensive review of ll the relevant theories in the field of foundation engineering in one book which is at present not available in any book published so far (2005). The book is, therefore, not designed for any one particular level of students and as such is useful for all levels of students.Geotechnical Properties of Soil 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘This chapter deals very briefly with the principal engineering properties of soil, and its strength and settlement characteristics. Readers may refer to Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by the same author for a detailed discussion on the subject. 2.2 SOILWEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP ‘The soil weight-volume relations that are of practical interest are the following, % Void ratio, ent en , he Porosity, n= SE 100 percent @2) Ve ‘The degree of saturation, $= 5" * 100 percent es) % where, = total volume of the mass, V, = volume of the voids, V, = volume of the solid particles, V,, = volume of water, ‘Water content, w= apr 100 percent 4) where, HW, = weight of water in a soil mass of volume F, W, = weight of solid particles in the same volume W _ Gro (+w) v ~~ (re (2s) Total unit weight, ue4 Advanced Foundation Engineering § where, W ~ total weight of a soil mass of volume V. th, Dry unit weight un 26) Saturated unit weight, W _ YolG+e) Ya" Fee en Specific gravity ofthe solids, G 28) to Tato C8 We where, —y, = unit weight of solids = y (2.9) 14 = init weight of water at 4° (G2 Submerged unit weight = Yhq,— Y= Y= wierd @.10) where, = Ythe unit weight of water for all practical purposes em Relative density D, = =" —— x 100 percent uy = Lat a7 Yam 199 percent (2.12) ya Yau Yam Where, gay ™ Voi ratio of soil in the loosest state having unit weight Yap, ‘min = Void ratio of soil in the densest state having unit weight Yui = void ratio ofthe soil in the field having unit weight vy The specific gravity of a mixture of soil varies from 2.50 to 2.70, For sandy soils G = 2.65 and clayey soils G = 2.70 may be assumed, 2.3. INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS ‘The various properties of soil which would be considered as index properties are, 1, The specific gravity. 2. The size and shape of particles. 3. The relative density or consistency of 2.4 SIEVE SIZES ‘The sieve and mechanical analysis gives an idea ofthe size and shape of particles. The sieve analysis is normally carried out on cohesionless soils and wet mechanical analysis (normally hydrometer analysis) on clay soils. Table 2.1 shows the standard ASTM (1961) and IS Sieves (1962).Certo chnical Propertios of Soil 5 Tabel 2.1 ASTM (1961) and the IS (1962) Sieves ‘ASTM __ Designation Aperture (nvm) Designation in 50.80 530,00 mma Vin 38.10 40.00 Yin 19.00 20,00 gin 931 10.00 4 4.76 475 7 283 2.80 10 2.00 2.00 “ La 140 6 Ly 118. is 00 1.00 30 0398 600.00 p 35 0.500 500.00 40 0.420 425.00 45 0354 355.00 © 0.250 250.00 0 0210 212.00 80 ort 180.00 100 0.49 130.00 120 ors 125.009, 170 0.088 90.00) 200 0.074 75.00 325 0.04 45.00 4 2.5 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES ‘The shapes of the grain size distribution curves indicate the nature ofthe soil tested, On the basis of the shapes, the soil may be classified as |. Uniformly graded or poorly graded, 2. Well graded, 3. Gap graded ‘The uniformity coefficient (C,), which isa ratio of Deo to Do, gives an idea ofthe grading of the soil as shown in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Soil grading according to Cy (= Deo! Dio) G. Type of soit <3 ‘Uniform size particles 5-10 Medium graded soil Dis ‘Well graded soit6 Advanced Foundation Engineering § 2.6 RELATIVE DENSITY AND CONSISTENCY Relative Density The cohesionless soils are classified according (o relative density D, as in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Classification of sandy soils Tipe of sand Relative density D,%6 Loose Medium Dense Consistency Based on Plasticity Index ‘The consistency isa term used to indicate the degree of firmness of cohesive soils. The consistency ‘of natural cohesive soil deposits is expressed qualitatively by such terms as very sof stiff, very stiff ‘and hard. The consistency of a soil can be expressed in terms of Atterberg limits and unconfined compressive strengths of soil, The Atterberg limits are liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits. The range of water content between the liquid and plastic limits which isan important measure of plastic behaviour, is called asthe plasticity index, Ip, Le. Ip ™ W)—Wps where, wy = liquid limit, w, = plastic limit According to the range of plasticity index, the sol is classified as per Table 2.4 Table 2.4 Soil classification according to plasticity index: Plasticity Indes ly Plasticity a Non-plastic <7 Low plastic 0 Medium plastic >IT Highly plastic A liquid limit greater than 100 is uncommon for inorganic clays of non-voleanic origin. However, for clays containing considerable amount of organic matter and clays of voleanic region, the liquid limit may considerably exceed 100, Bentonite, a material consisting of chemically disintegrated voleanic ash, has liquid limit ranging from 400 to 600, Degree of Shrinkage The shrinkge limit w, indicates whether a sol isa swelling type o not. The soil having a shrinkage limit around 10 is of highly swelling type. The degree of shrinkage is expressed as 13) where, ¥, = original volume, = final volume at the shrinkage limit, TThe type of soil according to the degree of shrinkage may be classified as per Table 2.5,Geotechnical Properties of Soil 7 Table 2.5 Soil classification according to S, S36 Quality of soit <5 Good s-10 Medium good 10-15 Poor pas Very poor ‘The soils that belong tothe montmorillonite group, such as black cotton soil in India, shrink more than the soils of the Kaolinite and illite groups. These soils are of expansive type also when in contact with water Activity of Soil Skempton classifies the various swelling characteristics of sols based on a number ealled as active ‘mumber, A. The activity of a clay soil may be expressed as Plasticity index, 1 Percent finer than 2 micron Table 2.6 gives the type of soil according to the value of 4, The clay soil which has an activity value greater than 14 can be considered as belonging to the swelling type. Table 2.6 Soil classification based on activity number Soil ype Inactive Normal Active Consistency Based on Uncontined Compressive Strength ‘The method that is recommended is to express consistency qualitatively on the basis of unconfined compressive strength q, as per Table 2.7. Table 2.7 Consistency based on q, Consistency ee Pa Very soft <25 Soft 25-50 Medium 50-100 su 100-200 Very sift 200-800 Hard > 4008 Advanced Foundation Engineering § Classification of Soil Based on Sensitivity The degree of disturbance of undisturbed clay sample due to remoulding can be expressed as Ge, undisturbed Sensitivity - * 8° sremoulded When qi,is very low as compared to q,, the clay is highly sensitive. On the basis ofthe values of 5), clays can be classified as in Table 2.8. Table 2.8 Classification of sol on the basis of S, (Aiter Skempton and Northey) Nature of clay Insensitive 1-2 Low sensitive elays 24 Medium sensitive clay's 48 | Sensitive clays 8-16 Exara sensitive clays 216 Quick clays 2.7 IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL The coarse grained soils can be identified primarily on the basis of grain size since these soils are rnon-plastic. The classification of the soil on the basis of IS: 1498-1970 is as per Table 2.9, Table 2.9 Classification of soil as per grain size IS: 1498-1970 Grain size (mm) Soil ype > 300 Boule 80-300 Cobble 475-80 Gravel 0.075-4.75 Sand 2-475 Coarse sand 0475-20 ‘Medium sand 0075-20 Pine sand <0.078 Finer Factions silt and elay The identification of clay sol in the field is based on dry strength test, shaking test, plast ty test and dispersion test. The characteristics of clay soil is based only on the plasticity of the soil. The Unified Soil Classification System is the one that is used for classifying coarse grained and fine grained soils. ‘The classification systems do not take into account the properties of intact materials as found in nature. Since the foundation materials of most of the engineering structures are undisturbed, the properties of intact materials only, determine the soil behaviour during and after construction. The classification of a soil according to any of the accepted systems does not in itself enable detailed studies of soils to be dispensed with altogether,- —- Geotechnical Properties of Soil 9 2.8 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF SOIL Inter-granular and Porewater Pressures ‘The pressure transmitted through grain to grain atthe contact points through a soil mass is termed as inter-granular or effective pressure. Ifthe pores ofa soil mass are filled with water, and if pressure is induced the porewater tres to separate the grains, then this pressure i termed as porewater pressure or neutral stress When in a soil mass, i the effective pressure reduces to zero due to the increase inthe porewater pressure the soil willbe ina state of quicksand condition. This phenomenon is also known as boiling, Capillary Phenomenon Ifthe lower part of a mass of dry soil comes in contact with water, the water rises inthe voids to a certain height above the free water surface. The upward flow into the voids ofthe sol is attributed to the surface tension in the water. The height to which water rises against the force of gravity is called as capillary rise. The water held in the pores of the soil above the free water surface is retained in a state of reduced pressure, and this pressure is called as capillary or soll moisture suction pressure Permeability of Soil Methods of Determining coefficients of Permeability of soils ‘The normal laboratory methods are: 1. Constant head permeability test. 2. Falling head permeability test. ‘The field methods are: 1. Pumping tests. 2. Bore hole tests. The constant head permeability test is normally used for determining the coefficients of permeability in cohesionless soils, whereas the falling head method is used for cohesive soils A rough method that is normally used for cohesionless soils for computing & is the equation k= CDi @.14) where Ca factor taken as equal to 100 and Dio is the effective grain size in em at 10 percent finer. Pumping test is normally used in major projects and bore hole tests in smaller projects for determining The coefficients of permeability of coarse grained soils vary from a minimum of 10°4 em/sec (clean sand and gravel mixtures) to 10? em/see (clean gravels) For very fine sand is around 10°$ cm/sec, for silt 10° em/see, and for clay soils less than 1077 cmisec. Seepage Flow ‘The computation of seepage loss under or through a dam, the uplift pressures caused by the water on the base ofa concrete dam and the effect of seepage onthe stability of earth slopes ean be studied by constructing flow nets Piping failures caused by heave can be expected to occur on the downstream side of a hydraulic structure when the uplift forces of seepage exceed the downward forces due to the submerged weight of the soil,10 Advanced Foundation Engineering § 2.9 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS Introduction Estimation of vertical stress at any point in a soil mass due to external vertical loadings are of great significance in the prediction of settlements of buildings, bridges, etc. Equations have been developed to compute stresses at any point in a soil mass on the basis of theory of elasticity. The equation that is quite popular isthe Boussinesq’s equation which has been extended from point loads to distributed loads. The basic equation of Boussinesq is os 4 PE [ea] wie, Q™= pont ladon the surface, depth of point where the vertical stress 0, is required, radial distance of the point from the axis of symmetry. 2.15) ‘The Stress Under the Corner of a Rectangular Foundation The stress below the corner of a footing may be computed by making use of the graph in Fig, 2.1 The vertical stress 6. at a depth z below the comer of a footing may be expressed as o. = ql 2.16) where, q = stress per unit area = influence value for any known values of mand n m= blz, where b= width of footing n= I/z, where [= length of footing ‘The stress below any point Q, either within the loaded area or outside may be calculated with reference to Fig. 2.2 When the point O is inside. 6, = 9(hththth) where, /, fa, 4 and fy are the influence values for rectangles 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. When the point O is outside ~ath-h-b+ hy where, 1, fa 45 and [refer to rectangles OB,CD,, OB,BD;, OD\DA, and OA, AD, respectively: Pressure Isobars Pressure isobars of square, rectangular and circular footings may sometimes conveniently be used for determining vertical pressure, ¢_at any depth z below the base of the footings. The depth = from the ground surface and the distance (or x) from the centre ofthe footing are expressed as a function of the width of the footings # (or B/2 = b) o radius R,. Figures 2.3 and 2.4 gives the pressure isobars for square and long footings, and circular footings respectively.Geotechnical Properties of Soll 11 ‘mand n are interchangeable 0.12] Values of 1 0.10] — 0.08} 0.06) - 0.04! 0.02) 0.57 Oo 2 4 6 80) 2 4 6810 3 4 #10 Values of n= lz Fig. 2.1. Graph for determining influence value /for vertical normal stress a at point Plocated ‘beneath one corner ofa uniformely loaded rectangular area (after Fadum, 1941) 1 of 3 fa 4 i = c (2) When the point is, (6) When the point 0s within th retangle outside the rectangle Fig. 2.2 Computation of vertical stress below a point12 Advanced Foundation Engineering, $$ BQ=b see ab St 3b Spm q1B 2B 3B 09/09 I » = we ( NE \ | 2b 0.3 i 2B fo. ei % 8 | | a Se “8 5 3B «,/q=0.05+-——~| & eB e.lg= 005 1b 1 1B Fig. 2.3 Pressure isobars based on Boussinesq|s equation for square and continuous footings Principal Stresses c, and c, at any Point in a Soil Mass Due to External Uniform Loading q Per Unit Area on a Circular Footing Figure 2.5 gives chars for computing the principal stesses 0} and a3 assratios ofthe uniformly distributed external load g on a circular area. Atong the vertical fine @; = 0, and a3 = a4 = Ky ‘where K, = coefficient of earth pressure for the at rest condition. These charts help to compute the principal stesses (excluding the geostatic stresses) at any point inthe soil mass due toa uniformly distributed vertical load g ona circular footing 2.10 CONSOLIDATION AND SETTLEMENT Introduction ‘When a saturated clay-water system is subjected to an external pressure, the pressure applied is, initially taken by the water in the pores resulting thereby an excess porewater pressure, With the advance of time, a portion of the applied pressure is transferred to the soil skeleton, which in turn, causes a reduction in the porewater pressure. This process, involving a gradual compression occurring, simultaneously with a flow of water out of the mass and with the gradual transfer of the applied. pressure from the porewater to mineral skeleton is called consolidation, The settlement of a structure founded on soil is due to the consolidation of the underlying clay strata, The total compression of a clay strata. under excess effective pressure may be considered as the sum of 1, Immediate compression, 2. Primary compression, 3, Secondary compressionGeotechnical Properties of Soil 13 —f | 1 os | | 03 2, } a | | [0.15 | tn ho 4 4 a 5 6 1 ~ a 7S Ry Fig. 2.4 Pressure isobars based on Boussinesq's equation for uniformly loaded circular footings The immediate settlement occurs in clay soils without any change in the water content, The primary compression is due to the expulsion of water. The secondary compression starts after the primary compression ceases (except in organic soils where the primary and secondary compressions ‘may overlap). At the present time (2005), there is no satisfactory way of computing secondary compression, Computation of Consolidation Settlement The equation that s nonmally used for computing consolidation settlement 5, is pe+dp ine flew Qn where, C, © compression index to be.determined in the laboratory or calculated from some equations, 5 = in situ void ratio, Ho~ thickness of clay strata, ‘Py ~ effective overburden pressure at the centre of clay strata, Ap = increase in pressure at the middle of clay strata due to extemal loading from clastic theory (Section 2.9),14 Advanced Foundation Engineering. —— sd TE ¢ Re 2 kosott Eo.60" ] 040 I 03 2/Ryf- 0.207 bo.10: “| Eos } 0.025 oq .5 Principal stresses o, and 3 under uniform load on circular area If the thickness of the clay strata is too large, the strata may be divided with smaller layers of thickness less than 3 m. The net change in pressure p at the middle of each layer will have to be determined, The compression index C, may have to be found out for each of the layers if required, The equation for the total consolidation settlement is © Pot Op DAH os 5 Som DH TS bee (2.188) Equation (2.17) may also be expressed in a different way as 5. = BH, (mp) (2.186) where, m, = coefficient of volume compressibility, /E., where E, is called as the compression modulus. The value of C, may vary from 45 for peat to less than 0.03 for hard clay. The value of compression modulus E, may vary from about 0.1 MPa for peat to more than 15 MPa for hard clay. Empirical Relationships for Computing C, Skempton's (1944), formula for remoulded clay G_ = 0.007 (v7 ~ 10) (2.192)Geotechnical Properties of Soll 15 Terzaghi and Peck formula for normlly consolidated clays C, = 0.009 6, ~ 10) 2.196) Azzouz et al formula (1976) 0.37 (e, + 0.003 1) + 0.0008 w,,~ 0.34) 2.19) Hough's (1957) formula Ce= 03 (¢5 0.27) 2.198) ‘Nagaral and Srinivasa Murthy formula (1983) C= 0.234¢) (2.192) 0.39e,, 2.199) where, Ww, = liquid limit, w,, = natural moisture content, €, = initial void ratio, ) > void ratio at liquid limit, 2.41 SHEAR STRENGTH Coulomb Equation ‘The fundamental shear strength equation proposed by Coulomb is, s=ctotang 220) where, ¢ = cohesion, ‘6 ~ total normal pressure on the failure plane, 4 ~ angle of shearing resistance Equation (2.20) may be expressed in terms of effective stresses as se" +(o-w) tang’= ec! +o7tan 6! 2 where’ ~ apparent cohesion in terms of effective stresses, = total normal pressure on the failure plane, = porewater pressure, = angle of shearing resistance in terms of effective stresses. Types of Laboratory Tests The laboratory tests for determining shear strength parameters of soils may be on 1. undisturbed samples for cohesive soils, 2. disturbed samples on cohesiontess soils. Inthe ease of cohesive soils, the soil may be lly saturated or partially saturated, For cohesiontess soils, it does not make much difference ifthe sol is fully saturated or fully dry (but it should not be partially saturated),16 Advanced Foundation Engineering. —— The various type of tests normally used are 1, Undrained or quick tests, 2. Consolidated undrained or consolidated quick tests, 3. Drained or slow tests ‘The drainage condition of a sample is generally the deciding factor in choosing a particular type of test in the laboratory. The purpose of carrying out particular tes sto simulate the field conditions as for as possible. Because of high permeability of sand, consolidation occurs relatively rapidly and is usually completed during the application of the load. Tests on sand are therefore generally carried ‘out under drained conditions 2.12 STRESS PATHS Definition of Stress Path ‘Siress path is path that depicts graphicaly the state of stress inthe test specimen or ina soil mass at any stage of loading from the equilibrium state to the failure state, Stress path gives a better insight into soil behaviour at any stage or successive stages of loading. There are a number of ways by which the locus of stresses or the stress paths can be depicted graphically. Only two methods are discussed briefly in this book. The methods are 1. Lambe’s p-g diagram (1964, 1967) 2. Rendulic’s diagram (1937), Lambe’s p-q Diagram Itis often necessary to depict the changes in stresses at a point in a soil mass or ina test specimen under different stages of loading, One way of doing itis to draw a series of stress circles as shown in Fig, 2.6 (b). However, a diagram with many circles ean become quite confusing, especially ifthe results of several tests are plotted on the same diagram, An alternate method for plotting the state of| stress isto plot only a series of stress points a, 6, cand d, as shown in Fig. 2.6 (b), and connect these points with a line or curve, Such a line or curve is called a stress path The various stress circles designated as 1,2, and 3 in Fig. 2.6 (b) ae obtained forthe different stages of loading of a specimen shown in Fig. 2.6 (a). The lateral pressure ois assumed as constant for the duration ofthe test. The different stages of loading marked as 1, 2 and 3 on the stress~strain curve in Pig. 2.6 (a) are shown as the corresponding stress circles in Fig. 2.6 (b). The points b,c, and d give the maximum shear stress for the corresponding stages of loading. The stress circle 3 is the Mohr circle of failure. The point a on the abscissa represent the initial condition of the specimen before the application of the deviator load on the specimen. The points a, 6, cand d[Fig, 2.6 (b)] may be plotted as ap-g diagram as shown in Fig, 2.6 (c). The coordinates of the points may be found out from the equations, (2.22) ge =o (2.226) The line connecting the points a, 6, cand d in Fig. 2.6 (¢) isa stress path and the diagram as such is called as p-g diagram. The stress paths may be plotted by using either total or eflective stresses. Ifeffective stresses are used, we have . Gi'=os" = - 3 Fm g0rg (2.232)Geotechnical Properties of Soil 17 or (2.230) Kline sin §= tan a ‘Mobr envelope Shear stress + () Fig. 2.6 Lambe's stress path for normally consolidated clay sol: (a) Stress~strain curve, (©) concept of strees path, (c) stress paths18 Advanced Foundation Engineering The use of effective stress coordinates simply shifts the p-q plot along the p-axis by the magnitude ‘of the pore-pressure u Itshould be noted that the p, g, coordinates represent the centre and radius of the stress circles respectively. The stress path fora specimen where 6; = 63 a the initial stage of the test, and 6 is increased while keeping 0} constant, isa 45°-line as shown in Fig 2.6 (c). The stress paths forthe other variations of g, and G3 are also shown in the figure. Now in Fig. 2.6 (b), the line joining the origin of coordinates ‘0° to point dis called as Ky-tine ‘which makes an angle «with the horizontal axis. This line is applicable both for granular soils and normally consolidated clay soils From Fig. 2.6 (b), we have (ex-oy)/2 tana = Gytay)72 eg _ (Oy -934)/2 sng = Rone Je” (oy Fexj\/2 ‘Therefore, tan & = sing (2.24) p-q Diagram for One-Dimensional Consolidation Test Equations for Kg: Consider a case where a sol specimen is subjected to one-dimensional consolidation as shown in an oedometer type of loading test [Fig. 2.7 (a)]. We may write for this case as, Shear stress, + ‘Normal stress @ () Fig. 2.7 Determination of Kg-line: (a) Consolidation test, (b) Kline 93 = Ky oj (2.25) where Ko is the at-rest earth pressure coefficient which can be expressed as (Jaky 1944), Ky = 1-sing (2.26a) for both granular soils and normally consolidated (NC) clays. For normally consolidated clays, Brooker and Ireland (1965) proposed Ky = 095~ sin (2.260)— ootechnical Properties of Soil 19 Alpan (1967), expresses a relationship between Ky and J, (plasticity index) for normally consolidated soils as Ky = 0.19 +0.233 log fy (2.266) Since Ky varies with over-consolidation ratio, Ky for ever-consolidated (OC) clays has been expressed as Ko (OC) = Ko(NC) Rs. (2.264) where R,,= OCR; the value of the exponent m for cohesive soils has been expressed as ae 0 26 re (2.262) Wroth (1975), analysed a numberof soils reported in literatures by others and proposes for Ky as » 2.260) b= 0.23 +0.003 J, 2.268) ‘There are, therefore, many equations that have been suggested by different investigators at different times, The user must apply his own engineering judgement to decide what value to use for Ky Equations for p and q For the soil in-situ condition, {= ofand of ‘Therefore, ge 270) (2.27) Hence, tan B= (2.27) IF Ky where’ and gare the effective stress coordinates of pointe on the Mohr ecle in Fig. 2.7 (b), and the line Oc called asthe Kq-line which makes an angle B with the horizontal axis Forth purpose of comparison, the Karle is also drawn in Fig. 2.6(b). Itis obvious from this figure thatthe Ky-line falls below Mohr envelope, and the Kline below the Kj-line. Te latter is obvious since Ky is an equilibrium insiu stress state and Kis a failure state Stress path ‘The stress path for consolidation test as shown in Fig, 2.8 (a) may be explained as follows: 1. Let point 4 represent the state of effective stress at the end of primary consolidation for a particular load increment in a consolidation test. Let the effective vertical pressure at point 42. ‘Normal stress ‘4u,= Pore pressure at C Pi Po Pa ) Fig. 2.8 Stross path for consolidation test (a) Stress circles, (b) stress path be o}, The corresponding lateral pressure may be expresses as o' Kyo}, Therefore for point 4, p, q coordinates may be expressed as , Sti (1+ Ko) Aa | (l= Ke) Let Aqy be the next load inerement applied instantaneously. Since drainage occurs only after sometime, there will be no change in volume and correspondingly no change in shearing stress including the maximum value q during this period. Thus ae ail) remains unchanged but causing the diameter ofthe circle at point [Fig. 2.8 (a)] displaced to position B by an amount equal to the change in vertical pressure. For the vertical increment ‘Aq, the pore-pressure developed is equal fo Ao, = Aw for saturated clay soils. The p,q coordinates of point B areGeotechnical Properties of Soll 21 9! (1+ Ko) = OH) ag, a, _ 2 aK) w= 3. As drainage takes place, the pore-pressure decreases and effective stress increases as indicated by circles Cand D after some elapsed times. Circle is the effective stress state when primary consolidation under the load increment Ao, is complete, Now in Fig. .8 (b), the path ABCD represents the total stress path (TSP) for the increment of load Ac from the initial position A and line AD represents the effective stress path (ESP). The horizontal distance between AD and BCD represent the residual excess pore pressure at some instant of time, for example, at point Con BD, the excess pare pressure is represented by the distance CC’, The p-g coordinates of point D are ai'(l+ Ky) | Aor’ (1+ Ko) pe > ei'(t- Ki) _dev'(t-K) 958 Stress-Path for Normally Consolidated Clay Under Consolidated Undrained Condition Consider a clay specimen [Fig. 2.9 (a)] consolidated under an all-round pressure 0 ~0' ina triaxial test apparatus represented as point « in Fig. 2.9 (b). When deviator stress Agy is applied on the ‘Mohr envelope Shear stress ‘Axial strain 0 Ra porp’ @ © Fig, 2.9 Stress path for consolidated undrained triaxial test for normally consolidated clay22. Advanced Foundation Engineering. ——— — sample under no drainage condition, there will be an increase in the pore water pressure equal to ‘Au. The major and minor effective principal stresses for this stage of loading may be written as follows: Consider the stress-strain curve given in Fig. 2.9 (a) for the sample tested. The first stage of loading is marked as 1 on the stress-strain curve and the corresponding total stress circle also as 1 in Fig. 2.9 (b). Let the pore water pressure measured at this stage be Au). The effective principal stresses for this stage may be written as of 1 Amy 505 = 0 — Amy ‘The effective stress circle marked as I’ in Fig. 2.9 (b) is shifted to the let by an amount equal t0 ‘uy. In the same way the effective stress circle 2 for the peak strength can be obtained. Let points b and ¢ represent the maximum shear stresses on the stress circles I’ and 2" respectively. Now the fective stress path (ESP) is represented by the curve abe which is the path for the undrained condition ‘with constant water content, The total stress path (TSP) and the effective stress path (ESP) are given in Fig. 2.9 (c) as a p-g diagram. Characteristics of Stress Paths Under Undrained Conditions Some of the characteristics of effective stress paths for normally consolidated clays are The effective stress paths also indicate the contours of constant water content. The stress paths are geometrically similar as shown in Fig, 2.10, If points are marked on each of the stress paths representing equal axial strains, and if the points of equal strains are joined, the contours of equal strains are more or less straight lines passing through the origin of coordinates Fig. 2.10 200 ¥ Nim’ 100 ° ° 100 200 300 ’ kNim Fig. 2.10 Typical effective stress paths of a normally consolidated clay under undrained condition Stress-Paths for Over-Consolidated Clays Kr-line + The Ky-line for over consolidated clays on a p-q diagram is shown in Fig. 2.11. From Fig. 2.11, the iniercept a of K-line on the vertical axis can be obtained as follows: From triangle Ofed, Woxed Therefore a= TyGrote chnical Properties of Soil 23 . Mohr envelope 4 a Kline 8 ew i eos oo % © 3 Fig. 2.11: Krline of over-consoldated clay From triangle 0'ce, sin = Therefore, O'e = ind ‘The equation for a may now be written as OOxedsing = oosing Since 010 cot, we have a= ceothsing=c cos} 2.28) It is obvious from Fig. 2.11 tana = sing Stress path ‘The stress paths for over-consolidated clays for drained and consolidated undrained tests are given in Fig. 2,12 on the p-q diagram. ‘The stress path ad in Fig. 2.12 (a) for drained testis not only a TSP but also an ESP. For over- ‘consolidated clays, the shape of ESP for the consolidated undrained test [Fig. 2.12 (b) is different from that for normally consolidated clays [Fig. 2.9 (e)] a porp’ pop @ ©) Fig. 2.12 Stress paths for over-consolidated clays: (a) Drained test, (b) consolidated undrained test24 Advanced Foundation Engineering Stress Paths for Compression and Extension Tests ‘The following types of triaxial tests can be carried out ina triaxial test apparatus 1, Increase of vertical pressure by Keeping the lateral pressure constant (standard compre- ssion est). 2. Decrease of lateral pressure by keeping the vertical pressure constant (compression test with decreasing lateral pressure). 3, Decrease of vertical pressure by holding lateral pressure constant (Extension test~ decreasing. vertical pressure). 4, Increase of lateral pressure by holding vertical pressure constant (Extension test with constant vertical pressure). The stress paths for the above four types of triaxial tests on p-g diagram are shown in Fig, 2.13. The initial stress condition is represented by point 4 on the p-axis for all the types of tests +4 Vertical ‘compression Vertical +p extension Fig. 2.18 Stress paths for triaxial compression and extension tests 2.13 LATERAL PRESSURES BY THEORY OF ELASTICITY FOR SURCHARGE LOADS ON THE SURFACE OF BACKFILL ‘The surcharges om the surface of a backfill parallel to the retaining wall may be any one of the following: 1. A.concentrated load, 2. Aline load. 3. A strip load. Lateral Pressure at a Point in a Semiinfinite Mass due to a Concentrated Load on the Surface Tests by Spangler (1938), and others indicate that lateral pressures on the surface of rigid walls can bbe computed for various types of surcharges by using modified forms of the theory of elasticityGeotechnical Properties of Soil 25 equations. Lateral pressure on an element ina semi-infinite mass at depth z from the surface may be calculated by Boussinesq theory for a concentrated load Q acting al a point on the surface. The equation may be expressed as Q 2p cost LL 2H) c08°B py = <2 |Ssintp coe'p - L2H) cor 0.29 P= ae Pane Tr eos em) ‘Figure 2.14 (a) gives the notations used in Eq. (2.29) Ifwe write r= xin Fig 2.14, and redefine the terms as x= ll and: nll where = height of rigid wall and take possion’s ratio 4 = 0.5, we may write Eq. (2.29) as Pe mF 230) Equation (2.30) is strictly applicable for computing lateral pressures at a point in a semi- infinite mass. However, this equation has to be modified ifa rigid wall intervenes and breaks the continuity of soil mass. The modified forms are given below for various types of surcharge loads, Lateral Pressure on a Rigid Wall Due to a Concentrated Load on the Surface Let Q be the point load acting on the surface as shown in Fig. 2.14, The various equations are (@) Form>04 ite 2.319) 0 aap e319 P mH Pressure * distribution | ® © © Fig, 2.14 Lateral pressure against a rigid wall due to a point load: (a) Vertical pressure within an ‘earth mass, (b) vertical section, (c) horizontal section26 Advanced Foundation Engineering (©) Form04 noite ony | (2.322) ©) Fornso4 oof fptty o agfunit length — = Fig. 2.15 Lateral prossure against a rigid wall due to a line load Lateral Pressure on a Wall Due to Strip Load Astrip load is load intensity with a finite width, such asa highway, railway line or earth embankment which is parallel to the retaining structure. The application of load is as given in Fig. 2.16.Geotechnical Properties of Soil 27 [ssa a Fig. 2.16 Lateral pressure against a rigid wall due a to a strip load ‘The equation for computing p, is 24 py = = (sin cos 20) @ where f is in radians.3.1. INTRODUCTION The stability of the foundation ofa building, abridge, an embankment or any other structure built on soil depends onthe strength and compressibility characteristics ofthe subsoil. The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the essential information on the subsoil is called Soil Exploration ‘or Soil Investigation. Soil exploration happens to be one of the most important pars of Foundation Engineering and at the same time the most neglected part of it. Terzaghi in 1951 (Bjerrum et al 1960) had rightly remarked, that Building foundations have always been treated as step children. His remarks are relevant even today: The success or failure of a foundation depends essentially on the reliability ofthe various soil parameters obtained from the field investigation and laboratory testing, and used as an input into the design of foundations. Sophisticated theories alone will not ‘give a safe and sound design. Soil exploration is a must inthe present age for the design of foundations of any project. ‘The extent ofthe exploration depends upon the magnitude and importance of the project. Projects such as buildings, powerplant, fertilizer plants, bridges, et. are localized in areal extent. The atea ‘occupied by such projects may vary froma few square meters to many square kilometers. Transmission lines, railway lines, roads and other such projects extend along a narrow path, The length of such projects may be several kilometers. Each project has to be treated as per its requirements. The principle of soil exploration remains the same forall he projects but the programme and methodology ‘may vary from project to project. ‘The elements of soil exploration depend mostly onthe importance and magnitude of the project, ‘but generally should provide the following: 1, Information to determine the type of foundation required such as a shallow or deep foundation. 2, Necessary information with regards to the strength and compressibility characteristics of the sulsoil to allow the Design Consultant to make recommendations on the safe bearing pressure or ple load capacity Soil exploration involves broadly the following 1, Planning ofa programme for soil exploration. 2, Collection of disturbed and undisturbed soil or rock samples from the holes drilled in the field, The number and depths of holes depend upon the project.30 Advanced Foundation Engineering 3. Conducting all the necessary in-situ tests for obtaining the strength and compressibility characteristics of the soil or rock direetly or indirectly. . Study of ground-water conditions and collection of water samples for chemical analysis, Geophysical exploration, if required. Conducting all the necessary tests on the samples of soil /rock and water collected. Preparation of drawings, charts, ete. “Analysis of the data collected. Preparation of report, 3.2 BORING OF HOLES ‘Auger Method Hand operated augers Auger boring is the simplest of the methods. Hand operated or power driven augers may be used. ‘Two types of hand operated augers are in use as shown in Fig. 3.1 Helical augers} | Extension od S| Post hole auger Fig. 3.1 Hand augers ‘The depths of the holes are normally limited to a maximum of 10m by this method. These augers are generally suitable forall types of soil above the water table but suitable only in clayey soil below the water table (except forthe limitations given below). A string of drill rods is used for advancing the boring. The diameters of the holes normally vary from 10 to 20 cm. Hand operated augers are not suitable in very stiff to hard clay nor in granular soils below the water table. Hand augering is not practicable in denses and nor in sand mixed with gravel even ifthe strata lies above the water table. Power Driven Augers In many countries the use of power driven continuous flight augers is the most popular method of soil exploration for boring holes, The flights act as a screw conveyor to bring the soil to the—— Soil Exploration 31 surface. This method may be used in all types of soil including sandy soils below the water table but is not suitable if the soil is mixed with gravel, cobbles, ete. The central stem of the auger Aight may be hollow or solid, A hollow stem is sometimes preferred since standard penetration tests or sampling may be done through the stem without lifting the auger from its position in the hole. Besides, the flight of augers serves the purpose of casing the hole. The hollow stem can be plugged while advancing the bore and the plug can be removed while taking samples or conducting standard penetration tests (to be described) as shown in Fig. 3.2. The drilling rig ean bbe mounted on a truck or a tractor. Holes may be drilled by this method rapidly to depths of 60 m Auger shaft _ Angers [.-~ Sampler rod Sampler Fig, 3.2 Hollow-stem auger: (a) Plugged while advancing the auger, and (b) plug removed and ‘sampler inserted to sample soil below auger Shell and Auger Method Shell and auger method of drilling holes is a popular method of boring in India. Shell, which is also called as a sand bailer, is nothing but a heavy duty pipe with a hard cutting edge and a fat valve which opens only inside as shown in Fig. 3.3. The length of the shell vary from I to 3 m or more depending on the weight required for cutting the soil in the hole. The weight may range from 30 to 60 kg or more. Sinker bars are sometimes added to increase the weight of the bailer. Sinker bars are nothing but solid rods fixed on the top ofthe baile. The outside diameter of the baile is less than the inside diameter of the casing pipe by at least 25 mm for easy operation. Boring is always started first with augering. When further boring by the use of auger is not possible, the shell is used for advancing the bore. Boring by shell consists of raising it above the bottom of the hole and allow it to fall freely. The impact of the drop cuts the soil and pushes it into the tube. This process is continued tll the shell is practically filled with the soil. The shell is then