Renewable Energy

There are many forms of renewable energy. Most of these renewable energies
depend in one way or another on sunlight. Wind and hydroelectric power are the
direct result of differential heating of the Earth's surface which leads to air
moving about (wind) and precipitation forming as the air is lifted. Solar energy is
the direct conversion of sunlight using panels or collectors. Biomass energy is
stored sunlight contained in plants. Other renewable energies that do not depend
on sunlight are geothermal energy, which is a result of radioactive decay in the
crust combined with the original heat of accreting the Earth, and tidal energy,
which is a conversion of gravitational energy.
Solar
This form of energy relies on the nuclear fusion power from the core of the Sun.
This energy can be collected and converted in a few different ways. The range is
from solar water heating with solar collectors or attic cooling with solar attic fans
for domestic use to the complex technologies of direct conversion of sunlight to
electrical energy using mirrors and boilers or photovoltaic cells. Unfortunately
these are currently insufficient to fully power our modern society.
Wind Power
The movement of the atmosphere is driven by differences of temperature at the
Earth's surface due to varying temperatures of the Earth's surface when lit by
sunlight. Wind energy can be used to pump water or generate electricity, but
requires extensive areal coverage to produce significant amounts of energy.
Hydroelectric energy
This form uses the gravitational potential of elevated water that was lifted from
the oceans by sunlight. It is not strictly speaking renewable since all reservoirs
eventually fill up and require very expensive excavation to become useful again.
At this time, most of the available locations for hydroelectric dams are already
used in the developed world.
Biomass is the term for energy from plants. Energy in this form is very
commonly used throughout the world. Unfortunately the most popular is the
burning of trees for cooking and warmth. This process releases copious amounts
of carbon dioxide gases into the atmosphere and is a major contributor to
unhealthy air in many areas. Some of the more modern forms of biomass energy
are methane generation and production of alcohol for automobile fuel and
fueling electric power plants.
Hydrogen and fuel cells
These are also not strictly renewable energy resources but are very abundant in
availability and are very low in pollution when utilized. Hydrogen can be burned
as a fuel, typically in a vehicle, with only water as the combustion product. This
clean burning fuel can mean a significant reduction of pollution in cities. Or the
hydrogen can be used in fuel cells, which are similar to batteries, to power an
electric motor. In either case significant production of hydrogen requires
abundant power. Due to the need for energy to produce the initial hydrogen gas,
the result is the relocation of pollution from the cities to the power plants. There
are several promising methods to produce hydrogen, such as solar power, that
may alter this picture drastically.
Geothermal power
Energy left over from the original accretion of the planet and augmented by heat
from radioactive decay seeps out slowly everywhere, every day. In certain areas
the geothermal gradient (increase in temperature with depth) is high enough to
exploit to generate electricity. This possibility is limited to a few locations on
Earth and many technical problems exist that limit its utility. Another form of
geothermal energy is Earth energy, a result of the heat storage in the Earth's
surface. Soil everywhere tends to stay at a relatively constant temperature, the

yearly average, and can be used with heat pumps to heat a building in winter
and cool a building in summer. This form of energy can lessen the need for other
power to maintain comfortable temperatures in buildings, but cannot be used to
produce electricity.
Other forms of energy
Energy from tides, the oceans and hot hydrogen fusion are other forms that can
be used to generate electricity. Each of these is discussed in some detail with the
final result being that each suffers from one or another significant drawback and
cannot be relied upon at this time to solve the upcoming energy crunch.
Can a Country Achieve 100% Renewable Energy?
If you think 100% renewable energy will never happen, think again. Several
countries have adopted ambitious plan to obtain their power from renewable
energy. These countries are not only accelerating RE installations but are also
integrating RE into their existing infrastructure to reach a 100% RE mix. Read our
article..
However, currently each of these energy forms is significantly more expensive
than fossil fuels, which will lead to economic dislocations and hardship if they
become the only power source for the future.
Several countries are pioneers in renewable energy. Iceland gets 85% of the
countrys electricity from earths heat. The countrys electricity supply is 100%
renewable and depends on geothermal and hydropower. Norway is around 98%
renewable and uses hydroelectric, geothermal and wind, to achieve its goal.
Portugal rely on hydroelectricity for 38% to 58% electricity, wind power
contributes one fifth, biomass 5% and solar around 1%.Scotland has a mandate
to become 100% renewable by 2020.Paraguay uses hydropower ,to provides
90% of its electricity and 19% of Brazils by using Itaipu dam. The dam took 30
years to build and costs $20 billion. It now helps in displacing 67.5 million tonnes
of CO2 a year. Denmark uses 30% wind and 15% biomass for its energy needs.
Germany already uses 98% renewable energy.

In a recent study known as The Solutions Project, Stanford professor Mark

Jacobson, has concluded that U.S can meet its 100% of energy demand through
renewable by 2050 through concentrated solar power, utility-scale and rooftop
PV, onshore and offshore wind, tidal and conventional hydropower and
geothermal wave. Study stays to achieve its goal, conscious efforts should be
made to obtain all new electricity generation by sunlight, water and wind. 100 %
Global transition to clean energy is possible both technically and economically;
the only barriers that exist are social and political.
What are the major barriers to achieve 100% renewable and how can
we overcome them?
For a country to become 100% renewable, it faces certain technical, economical
and political challenges.
- Technical challenges include building of a truly smart grid and integration of
storage and micro grid into it. An automated demand response has to be
developed to manage energy usage and large swing in supply during peak
electric demand, particularly in buildings. Last decade has seen the tremendous
development in low cost smart electronics, which will enable the necessary
energy management.
- Economic constrains also offers major challenge, as substantial investment is
required for the implementation of renewable energy on large scale. It requires
large investment in grid storage, transmission to redistribute power and to
smooth out intermittency. Among the storage methods available today, pumpedstorage hydroelectricity is most cost effective. Low cost electric motors can also
be encouraged as it offers the potential for substantial storage via vehicle-to-grid
architectures.
- Political challenges include creation of regulatory framework, setting standards
and offering incentives to economies to enable them to make dramatic shift in

their energy usage to renewables . Political will to accomplish such a challenging

goal must exist and political leaders should come together to plot a course that
make economic sense.
Renewable energy should be targeted in the most effective locations such as in
the areas without an extensive grid infrastructure, micro-grids should be created
and energy storage should be utilized. How to Achieve 100% Renewable
Energy By 2050
Half of the goal can be met by increasing the energy efficiency to reduce energy
demands and other half by producing electricity by switching to renewable
energy sources. Certain suggestions which can be followed to achieve the goal.
Energy conservation should be built into every stage of product design.
Carbon emissions price should be introduced as energy tax.
For all new buildings, strict energy efficiency criteria should be introduced.
Minimum energy efficiency standards should be introduced worldwide for
the products that consume energy, including buildings.
Developing countries should be provided with alternatives to
inefficient biomass burning,such as solar cooker, improved biomass
cooking stove and small-scale biogas digesters.
Communities, businesses and individuals should be encouraged to
increase efficiency and should be made aware about their energy
consumption.
Countries should invest substantially in public transport.
New buildings should be created using existing technology which will not
require conventional energy for heating or cooling but will achieve it
through sunlight, airtight constructions and heat pumps.
up to 3% of the global gross domestic product (GDP) should be diverted to
investment in renewable energy, investments in materials and energy
efficiency, and necessary infrastructure. This cost will gradually reduce in
future as countries will save money by reduced fossil fuel use.
By 2050, by making necessary changes, nearly 4 trillion Euros ($5.7 trillion) per
year can be saved on reduced fuel costs and energy efficiency savings.
These high upfront investments will be superseded by saving by the year 2040
or much sooner, if factors such as cost of climate change and impact of burning
fossil fuel on public health are considered. If implemented, this plan has the
potential to reduce energy-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 80% below
1990 levels by 2050, and will help us to avoid the 2C global warming "danger
limit.
Presently, when we talk about a country achieving 100% renewable goal, it is
quite possible for the country with abundant renewable resources which can be
utilized in a cost effective and reliable manner. Best example of which is Iceland,
which has made use of its local conditions to become 100 % renewable. But for
the countries not blessed with abundant natural resources, it is advisable that
instead of concentrating on achieving 100% renewable, countries should focus
on addressing the important issue of global warming and should aim to establish
lowest carbon emission system and in the process if they achieve 100%
renewable it will be the best solution for a cleaner environment.
What are renewable energy sources?
Solar power can be used directly for heating and producing electricity or
indirectly via biomass, wind, ocean thermal, and hydroelectric power. Energy
from the gravitational field can be harnessed by tidal power; and the internal
heat of the Earth can be tapped geothermally.
These tools and more can help make the transition from non-renewable to
renewable and environmentally friendly energy. However, none of these is

sufficiently developed or abundant enough to substitute for fossil fuels use.

Every one of these power sources (with the exception of hydroelectric) has low
environmental costs, and combined have the potential to be important in
avoiding a monumental crisis when the fossil fuel crunch hits. These energy
sources are often non-centralized, leading to greater consumer control and
involvement.
However, currently each of these energy forms is significantly more expensive
than fossil fuels, which will lead to economic dislocations and hardship if they
become the only power source for the future.
Solar Energy
The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. The sun, an average star,
is a fusion reactor that has been burning over 4 billion years. It provides enough
energy in one minute to supply the world's energy needs for one year. In one
day, it provides more energy than our current population would consume in 27
years. In fact, "The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day
period is equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy sources."
Solar energy is a free, inexhaustible resource, yet harnessing it is a relatively
new idea. The ability to use solar power for heat was the first discovery. A Swiss
scientist, Horace de Saussure, built the first thermal solar collector in 1767,
which was later used to heat water and cook food. The first commercial patent
for a solar water heater went to Clarence Kemp of the US in 1891. This system
was bought by two California executives and installed in one-third of the homes
in Pasadena by 1897.
Producing electricity from solar energy was the second discovery. In 1839 a
French physicist named Edmund Becquerel realized that the sun's energy could
produce a "photovoltaic effect" (photo = light, voltaic = electrical potential). In
the 1880s, selenium photovoltaic (PV) cells were developed that could convert
light into electricity with 1-2% efficiency ("the efficiency of a solar cell is the
percentage of available sunlight converted by the photovoltaic cell into
electricity"), but how the conversion happened was not understood. Photovoltaic
power therefore "remained a curiosity for many years, since it was very
inefficient at turning sunlight into electricity." It was not until Albert Einstein
proposed an explanation for the "photoelectric effect" in the early 1900s, for
which he won a Nobel Prize, that people began to understand the related
photovoltaic effect.
"Solar technology advanced to roughly its present design in 1908 when William J.
Bailey of the Carnegie Steel Company invented a collector with an insulated box
and copper coils." By the mid-1950s Bell Telephone Labs had achieved 4%
efficiency, and later 11% efficiency, with silicon PV cells. From then on, interest in
solar power intensified. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the space program
took an active role in the development of photovoltaics. "The cells were perfect
sources of electric power for satellites because they were rugged, lightweight
and could meet the low power requirements reliably." Unfortunately, the cells
were not practical for use on earth due to the high cost of making them efficient
and lightweight, so further research was necessary.
Solar energy may have had great potential , but it was left on the backburner
whenever fossil fuels were more affordable and available. "Only in the last few
decades when growing energy demands, increasing environmental problems and
declining fossil fuel resources made us look to alternative energy options have
we focused our attention on truly exploiting this tremendous resource." For
instance, the US Department of Energy funded the installation and testing of
over 3,000 PV systems during the 1973-1974 oil embargo. By the late 1970s,
energy companies and government agencies had invested in the PV industry,

and "a tremendous acceleration in module development took place." Solar

energy improvements were again sought during the Gulf War in the 1990s.
Considering that "the first practical solar cells were made less than 30 years
ago," we have come a long way. There have been more solar professional
companies designing unique and specific solar power systems for individual
homes, means there is no longer an excuse not to consider solar power for your
home. The biggest jumps in efficiency came "with the advent of the transistor
and accompanying semiconductor technology." The production cost has fallen to
nearly 1/300 of what it was during the space program of the mid-century and the
purchase cost has gone from $200 per watt in the 1950s to a possible mere $1
per watt today. The efficiency has increased dramatically to 40.8% the US
Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Lab's new world record as of
August 2008.
We still use solar power in the same two forms today, thermal and photovoltaic.
The first concentrates sunlight, converts it into heat, and applies it to a steam
generator or engine to be converted into electricity in order "to warm buildings,
heat water, generate electricity, dry crops or destroy dangerous waste."
Electricity is generated when the heated fluid drives turbines or other machinery.
The second form of solar power produces electricity directly without moving
parts. Today's photovoltaic system is composed of cells made of silicon, the
second most abundant element in the earth's crust. "Power is produced when
sunlight strikes the semiconductor material and creates an electric current." The
smallest unit of the system is a cell. Cells wired together form a module, and
modules wired together form a panel. A group of panels is called an array, and
several arrays form an array field.
There are several advantages of photovoltaic solar power that make it "one of
the most promising renewable energy sources in the world." It is non-polluting,
has no moving parts that could break down, requires little maintenance and no
supervision, and has a life of 20-30 years with low running costs. It is especially
unique because no large-scale installation is required. Remote areas can easily
produce their own supply of electricity by constructing as small or as large of a
system as needed. Solar power generators are simply distributed to homes,
schools, or businesses, where their assembly requires no extra development or
land area and their function is safe and quiet. As communities grow, more solar
energy capacity can be added, "there by allowing power generation to keep in
step with growing needs without having to overbuild generation capacity as is
often the case with conventional large scale power systems." Compare those
characteristics to those of coal, oil, gas, or nuclear power, and the choice is easy.
Solar energy technologies offer a clean, renewable and domestic energy source.
Photovoltaic power even has advantages over wind power, hydropower, and
solar thermal power. The latter three require turbines with moving parts that are
noisy and require maintenance.
Solar energy is most sought today in developing countries, the fastest growing
segment of the photovoltaics market. People go without electricity as the sun
beats down on the land, making solar power the obvious energy choice.
"Governments are finding its modular, decentralized character ideal for filling the
electric needs of the thousands of remote villages in their countries." It is much
more practical than the extension of expensive power lines into remote areas,
where people do not have the money to pay for conventional electricity.
India is becoming one of the world's main producers of PV modules, with plans to
power 100,000 villages and install solar-powered telephones in its 500,000
villages.
Solar power is just as practical in populated areas connected to the local
electrical power grid as it is in remote areas. "An average home has more than

enough roof area to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power
needs. With an inverter, which converts direct current (DC) power from the solar
cells to alternating current (AC), which is what most home appliances run on, a
solar home can look and operate very much like a home that is connected to a
power line."
Household energy supply is but one use of solar power. There are actually four
broad categories that can be identified for solar energy use: industrial, rural
habitation, grid-connected, and consumer/indoor. Industrial uses represent the
largest applications of solar power in the past 30 years. "Telecommunications, oil
companies, and highway safety equipment all rely on solar power for
dependable, constant power far from any power lines." Roadside call boxes and
lighted highway signs rely on the sun's energy in order to provide reliable
services without buried cable connections or diesel generators. Navigational
systems such as marine buoys and other unmanned installations in harsh remote
areas are also ideal applications for solar power because "the load demands are
well known and the requirements for reliable power are the highest." Rural
habitation includes "cabins, homes, villages, clinics, schools, farms, as well as
individually powered lights and small appliances." Grid-connected systems pair
solar power with an existing grid network in order to supply a commercial site
with enough energy to meet a high demand, or to supplement a family's
household supply. Consumer/indoor uses of PV cells include watches and
calculators; PV modules power computers and radios.
There are only two primary disadvantages to using solar power: amount of
sunlight and cost of equipment. The amount of sunlight a location receives
"varies greatly depending on geographical location, time of day, season and
clouds. While "solar energy technologies have made huge technological and cost
improvements, [they]are still more expensive than traditional energy sources."
However solar equipment will eventually pay for itself in 2 to 5 years depending
on how much sun a particular location receives. Then the user will have a
virtually free energy source until the end of the equipment's working life. The
best way of lowering the cost of solar energy is to improve the cell's efficiency,
Optimizing Solar PV Systems
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are quite possibly the most common type of
renewable energy systems. Feed-in-Tariff programs are being adopted by more
and more places around the globe, paying individuals a handsome rate for the
electricity that they generate from a renewable source. This demand is
encouraging PV manufacturers to streamline production and distribution which
the consumer is seeing as a reduced price for PV panels. The cost of power
production has dropped significantly to around Rs.4.50/watt hour. This includes
the cost of inverters and batteries for off-grid systems.
Installing a solar PV system is fairly straightforward. The confusion is in the
design and the lack of knowledge regarding how solar PV panels produce
electricity. Only after the PV system is installed, and the performance of the
system can be observed, does a poor design start to rear its ugly head.
Optimizing a PV system requires a look at the design. Specifically, verifying
voltages, inverter compatibility and array orientation. Most existing systems can
be made to work very well just by changing how the PV panels are connected
together.

The single most common mistake is

incorrect string design, resulting in the
PV panels operating at a voltage level
far less than their optimum range. PV
panels work sort of like an LED, but
backwards, light is shined into them and
electricity comes out. They have no
moving parts and are therefore very
reliable. Most manufacturers offer an
unheard of warranty in any other
industry, guaranteeing 80% of their
rated output after 25 years. But PV
panels have a limited power output, and
they work best over a narrow voltage
range, or point, called the Maximum
Power Point.
Figure 1 shows, in blue, the IV curve on which PV cells operate. At a PV panel is
maximum voltage, Open Circuit Voltage (Voc), it will produce no current. At a PV
panel is maximum current, Short Circuit Current (Isc), it will produce no voltage.
Power is the product of voltage and current and we want a PV panel to operate at
the point on the IV curve where it will produce its maximum power. This voltage
level, Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp) is crucial when designing PV strings,
especially for off-grid systems.
Inverters and charge controllers are available with a Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) function. This forces the PV panels to operate at their MPP in any
light condition. MPPT is most beneficial in off-grid systems because PV panels
that are connected to a voltage source, like batteries, will operate at the voltage
level of the source. If a PV string is not designed so that the Vmp is matched
closely to the battery voltage much of the power that the panels could generate
is wasted and it appears that the PV array does not work. And even then, the
voltage of lead-acid batteries varies depending on their State-of-Charge (SoC).
Is Solar Power Cheaper Than Grid Electricity?
In some countries - YES. But this solar power is heavily subsidized. This subsidy
is needed to cover the cost of uncertainties like future inflation rate, future
energy-inflation rate and the value of modules at the end of their life cycle.
These subsidies makes solar from being "probably economical" to "almost
certainly economical."
Solar Subsidy
The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (also known as the National
Solar Mission) is a major initiative of the Government and State Governments to
promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing Indias energy
security challenges.
The objective of the National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader
in solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the
country as quickly as possible. The immediate aim of the Mission is to focus on
setting up an enabling environment for solar technology penetration in the
country both at a centralized and decentralized level. The first phase (up to
2013) will focus on capturing of the low hanging options in solar thermal; on
promoting off-grid systems to serve populations without access to commercial
energy and modest capacity addition in grid-based systems. In the second
phase, after taking into account the experience of the initial years, capacity will
be aggressively ramped up to create conditions for up scaled and competitive
solar energy penetration in the country.

Timeline
The Mission under the aegis of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy will adopt
a 3-phase approach, spanning the remaining period of the 11th Plan and first
year of the 12th Plan (up to 2012-13) as Phase 1, the remaining 4 years of the
12th Plan (201317) as Phase 2 and the 13th Plan (201722) as Phase 3. At the
end of each plan, and mid-term during the 12th and 13th Plans, there will be an
evaluation of progress, review of capacity and targets for subsequent phases,
based on emerging cost and technology trends, both domestic and global. The
aim would be to protect Government from subsidy exposure in case expected
cost reduction does not materialize or is more rapid than expected.
Year-wise Target
To meet the scaled up target of 100,000 MW, MNRE has proposed to achieve it
through 40,000 MW through Rooftop Solar Projects and 60,000 MW through
Large and Medium Scale solar projects.
Year-wise Targets (in MW)
Category

2015 2016
-16
-17

2017
-18

2018
-19

2019
-20

2020
-21

2021
-22

Tota
l

Rooftop Solar
Project

200

4,800

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

40,0
00

Ground
Mounted Solar
Project

1,800 7,200

10,00
0

10,00
0

10,00
0

9,500

8,500

57,0
00

Total

2,000

12,00
0

15,00
0

16,00
0

17,00
0

17,50
0

17,50
0

97,0
00

The beta.ray
Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) describes a system generating electricity from
sunlight. Differing from conventional photo-voltaic systems, it uses lenses and
curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but very efficient, multi-junction (MJ)
solar cells. Additionally, these systems often use solar trackers, and sometimes a
cooling system, to further increase their efficiency. Ongoing research and
development is rapidly improving their effectiveness.

CPV systems using high concentrator photovoltaics (HCPV) are beginning to

become efficient enough to compete with the electrical grid. They currently have
the highest efficiency of all existing PV technologies, and having a smaller photovoltaic array also reduces production costs. Currently, CPV is far less common
than conventional photo-voltaic systems.
In 2013, CPV installations made up only 0.1 percent, or 50 megawatts, of the
annual global photovoltaic market of nearly 39,000 megawatts. However, by the
end of 2014, this number had increased to 330 MW, or roughly 0.62 percent.
Commercial HCPV systems have reached efficiencies of up to 42 percent and the
International Energy Agency sees the potential to increase this efficiency by up
to 50% by the mid-2020s.
HCPV competes with concentrated solar power (CSP). Both technologies are bestsuited for areas with lots of sunlight. CPV and CSP are often confused with one
another, despite being obviously different technologies. CPV uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electricity from sunlight directly, while CSP, often called
concentrated solar thermal, uses light from the sun to make steam for driving a
turbine, which then produces electricity using a generator.
Developed as a stand-alone power charging station, the Spherical Sun power
Generator uses a ball lens and specific geometry to improve energy efficiency by
twice as much, compared to existing photo-voltaic panels. Through a
combination symmetry and geometry, the transparent spherical globe acts as a
concentrator lens and emitter. The unique dual axis tracking system can be fully
incorporated into any building surface, improving efficiency and offering up to 99
percent transparency. This allows for deep building integration, particularly for
buildings with lacking interior wall, or with glass walls.
In contrast to other types of photo-voltaic dual-axis generators, the beta.ray
uses a fully rotational, weatherproof optical tracking device. This allows it to
operate on inclined surfaces and non-supporting walls, making it applicable in a
variety of building situations. This new concept also has the ability to
concentrate diffused daylight, or even moonlight, for a more effective
application. On cloudy days, the device produces four times more energy than a
conventional PV system.
The beta.ray can connect to both standard and hybrid collectors in order to
convert light and/or thermal energy into electricity.
The beta.ray's use of multi-junction cells helps to demonstrate the great
potential of this solar device. Multi-junction cells are designed for concentrator
systems. By using a high efficiency multi-junction cell, Rawlemon has succeeded
in reducing the cell surface down to 1 percent, as compared to the same power
output of a conventional silicon cell in optimal conditions. In combination with
the dual axis tracking system, their device is capable of generating twice the
yield of a conventional panel. In addition, the beta.rays smaller cell area has a
lower carbon footprint, because its production requires fewer precious
semiconductors.
There are a number of applications the beta.ray can be used for, such as electric
car charging stations, energy producing windows, autonomous power generators.
India is considered a prime market for solar hybrid power plants using Rawlemon
technologies.
The Future is not Green, it is Transparent is is the motto of Rawlemon. The
design is the brainchild of German Architect, Andre Broessel, who believes his
solution can squeeze more juice out of the sun, even during the night hours.
His invention could pave the way for efficient solar conversion in low-light areas.
Conventional photo-voltaic panels have to face the suns rays at a 90 angle for
maximum efficiency. Consequently, stationary solar panels have an inefficient
solar conversion. The size and cost of traditional photo-voltaic panels are high,

and sensitive to the impact of weather. The beta.ray uses its simple spherical
geometry to create an optical phenomenon. It concentrates the diffused light
from the sun through a ball lens to a collector which contains the solar panels.
The Rawlemon Spherical Sunpower Generator is about to make a huge impact on
the renewable energy world. In the most basic sense, the Spherical Sunpower
Generator is very much like starting a campfire with a magnifying glass.
Designed by the German architect, Andr Broessel, it was selected as a finalist in
the 2013 World Technology Awards. Solar panel technology has been evolving for
more than 40 years, but its not nearly as effective as this new design for
harnessing power from the sun. For example, unless the sun is tracked via
precision motors, todays most efficient solar panels can be 70% less efficient
than the Rawlemon Spherical Solar Generators in their prime. Also, the Spherical
Solar Generators produced by the Rawlemon company has drastically reduced
the overall size of given solar panel. Soon, these spherical generators may
replace the need for vast stretches of open fields for large numbers of solar
panels.
Curiously (or not), one of the biggest complaints comes from the anti-solar panel
portion of the population (a small group) who describe it as a gruesome
eyesore. Some people simply don't like the high-tech look of solar panel
technology.
UNSW Researchers Reach 40% solar energy efficiency milestone
University of New South Wales (UNSW) researchers reached a solar efficiency
milestone this year when they successfully demonstrated a system capable of
converting 40% of the sunlight reaching its photovoltaic cells into electricity in
the outdoors with commercial cells. Higher conversion efficiencies have been
reported before; however this marks the first time such efficiencies have been
demonstrated in the field. The solar prototype made headlines across science
news and media outlets after its revelation at the Australian PV Institute's AsiaPacific Solar Research Conference at UNSW Campus on Monday December 8,
2014.
Funded by the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA), the UNSW
researchers worked with RayGen Resources to create a concentrated solar
photovoltaic prototype that uses optical bandpass filters to split sunlight into four
different cells. The results were first achieved during outdoor trials in Sydney,
before being corroborated by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
at an independent testing facility in the United States. This revolutionary
development in solar energy comes nearly 25 years since UNSW created the first
photovoltaic system capable of reaching 20% solar efficiency in 1989.
UNSW Asia-Pacific Solar Research Conference
The breaking news that flooded headlines in the solar community on December
8, 2014 kicked off the start of one of the biggest weeks in solar energy in the
world. The inaugural Asia-Pacific Solar Research Conference was held in
association with the 2nd Annual Conference of the Australian Centre for
Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP) at the UNSW Campus in New South Wales,
Australia. Investors, researchers, academics, and industry players all gathered in
one place for three days to pour over the latest developments in Australian solar
research.
Papers up for presentation and peer review covered a wide variety of topics,
including photovoltaics, energy policy, low carbon buildings, solar thermal
energy, solar heating and cooling, and organic solar cells. To top it all off, the
event also featured an opportunity for students to present their work and
network with industry professionals. You would be hard pressed to find a better
place to reveal a new world record in solar efficiency.
Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP)

The Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP) is UNSW's hub for solar
power research. ACAP is made up of the Australian partners of the Australia-US
Institute for Advanced Photovoltaics (AUSIAPV), a joint effort between the United
States and Australia focused on making solar energy into a primary source of
power. ACAP's research program can be divided into four main components:
Silicon Cells, Organic and Earth Abundant Inorganic Thin-Film Cells, Optics, and
Manufacturing. ACAP holds the licensing rights for the world's most efficient
silicon solar cells, used all around the world and in places as diverse as Germany,
Korea, and China. In fact Suntech, the world's largest solar panel manufacturer
was founded by Dr. Shi Zengrong, a former student of ACAP's very own Professor
Martin Green.
Dr. Martin Green Director of ACAP
Meet Dr. Martin Green, the UNSW Professor and Director of ACAP. Green was
instrumental in the development of the world's first high efficiency silicon solar
cells. An author of six books and countless papers, Green has dabbled in areas as
diverse as semiconductors, optoelectronics, and microelectronics, in addition to
his expertise in solar energy. Professor Green holds critical acclaim
internationally as the 'Father of Photovoltaics' and his ACAP group already holds
the title for most efficient silicon solar cell in the world, one capable of 25% solar
energy conversion. With a man like Green at the helm, it is clear that the new
energy efficiency record stands on the foundations of decades of solar energy
research excellence at ACAP.
How did ACAP breach the 40% Milestone?
The solar prototype consists of two primary technologies, the concentrated
photovoltaic power tower and a triple junction cell. In a joint collaboration with
RayGen Resources, UNSW researchers used a concentrated photovoltaic power
tower to split and focus sunlight on a triple junction cell converting 40.4% of the
photons that hit the cell into electrical energy. In order to truly appreciate the
magnitude of what the ACAP researchers accomplished this year, it is first
necessary to understand how photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity.
What is a Photon?
Meet the photon; the quantum of light, the force carrier of electromagnetism,
and the light that brightens your day. The photon is a massless, elementary
particle that can only be described using quantum mechanics and Einstein's
theory of particle-wave duality. In quantum theory, a photon is a bundle of
energy called a quantum that is responsible for carrying out one of the
fundamental interactions of nature, in this case, electromagnetism. Visible light
is just one part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes radiowaves, Xrays and Gamma radiation.
Photoelectric Effect
In 1839, French physicist, Edmund Bequerel noticed that shining light on certain
metals could produce a tiny electrical current. In 1905 Albert Einstein expanded
upon and tied together the work of Bequerel, Max Planck and other physicists to
provide a more complete explanation of the phenomenon, that light has the
characteristics of both waves and particles. The electrons released when a light
shines on a metal are called photoelectrons. The energy of a photon in a beam of
light is proportional to the frequency of that beam of light. Metals have a
property called the threshold frequency, below which no photoelectrons will be
released. Light must exceed the threshold frequency in order to provide the
electrons within the outermost shell of a metal atom enough energy to leave
their bounded state. Another way of understanding photon absorption is to look
at the band gap. The band gap defines the minimum amount of energy required
for an electron to escape its bound state.
Photovoltaic Cell

A photovoltaic cell converts light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect, a
sister process to the photoelectric effect. It turns out that semiconductors are
particularly effective photoelectron emitters, albeit via a slightly different
mechanism. When a photon of light hits a semiconductor like silicon, electrons
present within its valence band absorb the energy and are elevated to an excited
state jumping to the conduction band. Instead of being ejected into a space, as
in the photoelectric effect, the electron becomes a charge carrier that jumps into
a conductor, completing the circuit and generating an electromotive force. In this
way, a device can be designed where a photon hits a specially treated
semiconducting wafer, an electric field is formed, and a current can be drawn
directly from the semiconductor, called a photodiode. The elegance of the
technology lies in the fact that at its core, there are no moving parts or waste
products. Energy can be converted directly into electricity without any further
downstream processing. Photovoltaics have made a number of interesting
renewable energy sources possible, all based on harnessing the power of the
sun.
How to Harness the Sun
There are many different ways to harness the sun's rays to produce useful work.
The traditional conventional method is to use flat silicon solar panels you
occasionally see on people's roofs. Sunlight can be subdivided into two parts for
solar collection purpose. The first component is the direct beam, which carries
roughly 90 percent of the energy in solar. The remaining 10% of the energy is
found in diffuse light which increases in cloudy weather. Since most solar panels
are flat, the angle at which sunlight hits the solar panel is very important. An 8
misalignment can correspond to as much as 8.3% loss in energy. To overcome
this dependency many solar panels also employ tracking systems that face the
panel directly towards the sun. Large scale solar farms will use similar tracking
systems on their mirrors and optics to focus light onto superefficient
multijunction photovoltaic cells. It may seem small, but tracking the sun is part
of the reason UNSW was able to achieve record breaking solar efficiency in
outdoor conditions. Their solar prototype used one of the highest efficiency
technologies available in the world of solar, concentrated photovoltaics.
Concentrated Photovoltaics
Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) is a technology that uses a set of lenses and/or
mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a multijunction cell. Even before UNSW
researchers achieved their latest solar efficiency milestone, CPV systems held
the highest solar conversion efficiencies among photovoltaic technologies. The
drawback of CPV systems is the inability to collect diffuse sunlight; a single cloud
could be enough to halt energy production making them difficult to integrate into
a grid. To partially overcome this deficiency, many CPV systems employ tracking
systems that follow the movement of the sun over the course of a day. CPV
systems can generate enough energy from peak solar activity during the
morning and afternoon to surpass even conventional photovoltaics in areas that
receive a lot of sun. The large capital cost associated with installing CPV keeps
them confined in a niche for large scale solar electricity generation projects.
RayGen Resources happens to be a leader in CPV technology in Australia. They
provided engineering support and CPV technology to the ACAP researchers in
this latest project. While the paper has yet to be released, it is likely that ACAP
used some version of RayGen Resource's existing solar power tower array. In it,
an array of sun-tracking low cost mirrors collects and focuses sunlight onto a
stack of high efficiency solar cells supported on the top of a tower. Focusing the
sun's rays on a single point generates a lot of heat. The solar power tower also
includes a closed loop cooling system to manage the heat.
Multijunction Cell

Most photovoltaic cells are single junction cells, meaning that the photon must
have enough energy to equal or surpass the bandgap of the material used in the
cell in order to create an electric field. The cell is therefore limited to photons in
the sun's spectrum that have more energy than the bandgap of the absorbing
material. A new type of photovoltaic device, a multijunction cell, uses multiple
cells and junctions with differing bandgaps to cover a broader spectrum of light.
The multijunction cell involves stacking multiple single junction cells on top of
one another. The cells are stacked by bandgap, with the higher band gap cells at
the top and the lowest band gap cell at the bottom. The higher energy photons
are absorbed at the top while the rest pass through to be absorbed by
subsequently lower band gap cells. Junctions between the cells facilitate the
movement of photons down the multijunction cell stack.
Spectrolab, a US subsidiary of Boeing, is one of the world's leading suppliers of
high efficiency multijunction solar cells. Some of their cells were utilized in the
high efficiency prototype's triple junction cell stack. The ACAP researchers used a
cell stack consisting of Gallium Indium Phosphide (GaInP), Gallium Indium Arsenic
(GaInAs), and Germanium (Ge) in combination with a commercial silicon CPV cell.
They also used an optical band pass filter at the top of the tower to split the
sun's rays and optimize how light hits the cell stack. Details of the exact
arrangement of the cells have yet to be released, however a paper is currently
slated to be published by the Progress in Photovoltaics journal.
The Future of Solar
December 2014, has proven to be an exciting month for the world of solar.
Soitec, a CPV company from France, announced a laboratory record 46% solar
efficiency in a test lab on December 1, 2014. Using a III-V semiconductor
material in a four-junction solar cell. The device was able to generate 50.8
W/cm2 with a solar concentration of 508 suns. The same system tested outdoors
only reached 36.7% efficiency, which is noticeably lower than APAC's outdoor
achievement; however the results point towards an upward trend in CPV
efficiency that is only sure to grow in the coming years. Dr. Green has his team
set on an immediate goal of reaching 42% solar efficiency within the next year,
but RayGen Resources CTO Dr. John Lasich is optimistic, setting his eyes on
reaching 45% solar conversion efficiency in outdoor sunlight within the next few
years.

Solar Energy for Low Income Group

Historically, solar has largely been seen as a technology mostly used by hard core
environmentalists and rich individuals. High solar installation cost, coupled with
unclear policies had put the solar out of reach of the majority of people. But in recent
years falling prices, tremendous development in solar technology, government
incentives in the form of tax credits and creative financial approaches have made
solar accessible to the large portion of the population. So there is a critical need now
to promote solar energy in the low income group as we cannot create a truly
sustainable future by alienating some people from access to clean living technique
and renewable energy. Melissa Giorgi, Environmental Ethics Fellow at the Markkula
Center for Applied Ethics sums it up, when she says. "If solar is to be a real
contributor to a sustainable future, then innovation and investment must focus on
improving equality rather than increasing divisions."
According to the American department of Health and Human Services, low income
group pay 9.2% more on their average electricity bill as compared to the average
house hold. These communities are also more susceptible to the hardships resulting
from extreme weather disaster and climate change due to their limited resources
and lack of economic stability. Solar energy can tremendously help these
disadvantaged communities by reducing their electricity bills, thereby improving
their quality of life.

Strategies for Low-Income Solar Programs

Certain enterprising organizations have adopted different types of approaches to
promote solar in low-to-moderate-income communities. These are group discount
programs, affordable leases and community solar installations. Currently, home
ownership and the credit score are the barriers that prevents low income
communities to take full advantages of the solar programs. So community solar
installations program has been designed to include tenants and property owners
whose houses are not suitable for solar panels.
Group Discount Programs
In this program, community members form a group and make a bulk purchase to
save on the total cost of going solar. This process can be structured in two ways-In
the first approach, group of house owners purchase the solar systems together and
select a single contractor to install the solar system in each of their building, thereby
saving on the cost. Each participants has his own contract with the installer and own
their own system. In second approach, solar panels are bought directly from the
manufacturer in bulk, and then participants complete the installations themselves by
helping each other or give the contract to the installer to install the panels.
These approaches provides economics of scale by enabling installer to install the
panel for less, drive down the prices by increasing the competition, more bids due to
larger size of the project and more negotiating power due to a larger project. This
process also saves time as you do not have to navigate multiple bids and scenarios
independently and can share work with group members.
Affordable Leases
Solar panels needs a large upfront investment for outright purchase and installation.
Many middle class families can afford this, given the long term energy saving, but is
difficult for low income communities to make a large upfront investment.
To overcome this problem, a solar leasing company called PosiGen, has developed its
model in Louisiana, which is now expanding to New York and New England. PosiGen
focuses on low-to-middle-income home owners, and takes a whole- home approach
by including both renewable energy and energy efficiency. The company offers a
solar lease product with no credit checking and guarantee certain percentage of
energy saving. They negotiate with the bank on client's behalf to provide favourable
leasing terms. PosiGen's solar leasing receives special consideration from banks as
banks are given points by their regulators for participating in community
redevelopment projects. PosiGen's approach has had a very high success rate in
Louisiana, where over 400 systems have been installed per month. PosiGen also
leverages tax credits when they are available as the third party ownership model for
low-income homeowners is creating tremendous opportunity.
Community Solar Installations
Home ownership is the primary requirement for installing solar panels. So,
community solar offers affordable alternative and is ideal for low-income individuals
who rent single-family and multi-family homes or tenants who wants to reduce their
electricity bills .Community solar doesn't require an personal solar installation and
offers the residents the option of buying solar power that is produced by the large
array of solar panels somewhere else. For this purpose, communities are building
large solar array in former brownfields. In Lowell, Mass, US solar array has even been
planted on a former landfill

Micro Parallel Inverters

Solar panels are the hot new home retrofit on the block, and if youre looking to
save money on energy costs, they make an excellent addition to your home. If
youve ever installed a solar panel on the roof of your house, you may have
noticed that all the wires coming from your solar panel have to be routed through
a little metal box before they can be routed into your houses electrical grid. That
box is called an inverter, and it is responsible for taking the DC current produced
from the photovoltaic effect in your solar panels and converting it into the AC
current used by your home. Choosing the right type of inverter for your solar
panels can have a huge effect on installation costs, cabling, and energy savings.
For a long time, solar panel users only had two types of inverters to choose from,
micro inverters and string inverters. Now a new type of inverter is on the block,
the micro parallel inverter could save homeowners up to 75% on solar
installation, cabling and activation. To find out how, let us first dive into the
basics of how inverters work.
Alternating Current vs Direct Current
Before we can dive into what an inverter is, you need to understand the two
types of currents: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Solar cells,
batteries, and many modern devices work with direct current, or the
unidirectional flow of electric charge. Charge flows in only one direction. In
alternating current, the flow of electric charge alternates or periodically changes
direction at a given frequency. The movement is often resolved with a sine wave,
although other wave forms may be used depending on the application.
The War of Currents Our story begins in the late 1880s with the War of
Currents, a battle between Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse over who
gets to power America and the rest of the world. In one corner we have the
incumbent, Thomas Edison the Wizard of Menlo Park and a major supporter of
using direct current to power Americas homes. In the other corner, you had

George Westinghouse of Westinghouse Electric, who had acquired many of Nikola

Teslas patents for alternating current, and had even hired the Tesla himself as
his consultant. As the inventor of the incandescent light bulb, Edison had already
established DC current as the standard for the United States electrical grid. He
held all the patents, and did not want to lose his royalties. Edison initiated his
infamous smear campaign, which culminated in the famous electrocution of an
elephant using AC voltage. The DC power grid required larger cables and made
transferring electricity over longer distances costly. With the development of a
transformer AC power could be delivered over long distances in smaller wires for
a much lower cost. The results were clear and AC current became the norm for
delivering power from power plants to homes.
How Inverters Work.Since the photovoltaic process within your solar cells
produces direct current, that is charge that flows in only one direction, this
presents a bit of a problem when it comes to integrating that flow into your
houses power grid, which uses alternating current. Thats where the inverter
comes in; taking your unidirectional flow of electric charge and reverses polarity
from positive to negative 50 60 times a second or 50-60 Hz. This is where the
mains frequency rating. The easiest way to conceptualize how an inverter works
is to imagine a simple circuit with a 9 volt battery hooked up to a volt meter.
When you line up the positive lead of your volt meter with the positive terminal
of the battery and the negative lead of your volt meter with the negative lead of
the battery, your meter will read 9 volts on the display. If you reverse the leads,
touching the positive lead to the negative terminal and vice versa, the volt meter
will read -9 volts. If your hands were deft enough to switch the wires in this
manner 50 times per second, you would effectively be serving as a crude
mechanical inverter that takes the DC current of the 9 volt battery and
transforms it into AC current at 50 Hz.
Square Waves vs Sine Waves
The simple mechanical inverter in our previous example would produce a square
wave. Since the current is switching polarity drastically, it creates a large
harmonic distortion or a dirty supply. While some devices like light bulbs
wouldnt notice the difference, a square wave can be damaging to many devices.
It is far better to aim for a sine wave, where the polarity changes gradually into a
nice smooth curve. Higher quality inverters produce waves that are closer to a
true sine wave. Your mains power supply from the power plant is delivered to you
as a sine wave, which is why you dont have to worry about what devices you
plug into your wall socket. Actual inverters use inductors and capacitors with
pulse width modulation to switch currents more gradually and produce a sine
wave.
Picking the Right Inverter for your Utility GridAs you might imagine, the
type of inverter you use to integrate a solar panel array into your houses
electrical grid needs to be able to match the frequency and sine wave of your
mains supply. If the crests and troughs of your inverter are out of phase with the
mains supply you get destructive interference where the two waves cancel each
other out. If the two waves are in phase you get constructive interference which
results in a large sine wave. In order for solar power to enter your electrical grid,
the two waves must be in phase. There for you need an inverter that is capable
of sensing the phase of your mains supply and matching it. This phase matching
capability is what differentiates grid tie inverters from regular inverters, and is
also why they tend to be more expensive. Now lets look at the two main types of
grid tie inverters used in the home solar retrofit industry.
String Inverters String inverters treat your entire solar panel array as a single
giant solar panel. Some of the benefits of string inverters include a lower initial
cost per peak watt price and easier install. Since string inverters accept DC

current from multiple panels, wiring tends to be easier on initial install. However
since string inverters treat the entire system as a single large panel, and
performance problems experienced by one panel are extended to the other
panels in the array.
Micro Inverters
Micro inverters take a more modular approach, and must be installed on each
solar panel in an array. Since multiple smaller units must be installed in tandem
with each solar panel, installation costs tend to be higher. The advantage of
using micro inverters is that if one solar panel fails or experiences more shade, it
does not affect the rest of the panels in the array. Micro inverters use maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) to monitor the environmental condition of a cell and
apply the proper resistance or load to ensure maximum power is obtained from
the panel. The modular design also makes it easier to locate points of failure.
Micro Parallel Inverters Technology Research Corporation TRC designed the
micro parallel inverter with the goal of combining the ease of installation of
string inverters with the ease of maintenance and efficiency of micro inverters. A
single micro parallel inverter contains four separate channels that can each be
hooked up to a separate solar panel. Each channel is like a modular micro
inverter, capable of using MPPT to maximize power output from the attached
solar panel. Unlike the string inverter, the micro parallel inverter is aware of the
status of each individual solar panel, and if performance drops from one panel
due to shade, performance of the rest of the panels will remain unaffected.
Simplified Installation
A study conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy revealed that installation
labor is the largest expense associated with solar power installations. The costs
of installing a solar power system often outweighed the price of the panels,
framing, and wiring themselves. Recognizing this issue, TRC designed the micro
parallel inverter with the installation technician in mind. The micro parallel
inverter gets its name from its ability to invert four panels in parallel. What this
means for the technician is that they can save the time spent installing four
separate micro inverters by routing all the cables to a single micro parallel
inverter. Each channel on the micro parallel inverter can be removed for
maintenance. The micro parallel inverter takes a plug-n-play approach to
installation and can easily be configured for grid tied, emergency backup, or off
grid applications. It can be mounted in 4.8 kW clusters in rows of four and may
be attached to the panel frame, panel array or directly to the roof. Quick
disconnects make routing solar panels to each of the four channels a snap.
Multiple micro parallel inverters can be connected to a single disconnect at the
breaker panel. Up to 16 solar panels maybe tied to a single disconnect, as
opposed to 16 separate disconnects for a conventional micro inverter system.
With such a drastic reduction in the number of installations it is clear how the
micro parallel inverter can save someone up to 75% on cost in certain situations.
Advanced Communication
The micro parallel inverter is a smart system that allows it to control four 300-W
solar panels at once via four separate channels. The modular architecture
supports individual fault knowledge, power sharing, health status and other
communications. The system can tell you when an individual panel needs to be
cleaned, if an inverter has failed, or if a channel requires a service visit. Even if
three out of the four panels fail, the micro parallel inverter will continue using
MPPT to invert the maximum power output from the remaining solar panel.
Electricity Monitor and Control (EMC)
The Electricity Monitor and Control (EMC) can provide self-mapping and
automated control to the micro parallel inverter. The EMC can be hooked up to
the breaker panel and may connect directly to the sites internet router or a

computer via an Ethernet cable. The EMC uses Power Line Carrier
Communication (PLCC) to communicate directly with the individual micro parallel
inverters which in turn relay information from the attached solar panels. As a
result micro parallel inverter system can map the physical locations of its
components automatically. The owner or installation technician can log in to the
EMC website and follow the instructions to complete installation, startup,
checkout and commissioning. The web interface also provides some of the
logistical data mentioned in the previous section, and can alert the user via email
in the event of a failure. TRCs micro parallel inverters have been ruggedized
with an internal thermal failsafe that protects the hardware against heat related
failures via a power output throttling circuit. When a panel reaches its limit, the
circuit can be throttled to prevent generation overages from occurring. Instead of
immediately cutting the circuit, throttling allows the panels to operate optimally
at higher temperatures with a reduced risk of failure. Finally the EMC offers
remote access to the owner, allowing them to activate or deactivate the system
remotely.
Summary: Micro Parallel Inverter- A New Class of Inverter?
It is clear that the micro parallel inverter effectively offers the best of both
worlds, but is it really a new class of inverter? The micro parallel inverter
effectively combines the benefits of string inverters and micro inverters into one
assembly. Whether you consider the micro parallel inverter to be four micro
inverters on a single panel, a smart string inverter with multiple channel
functionality, or an entirely new class of inverter, only one thing is for certain.
With enhanced ease of installation, modular design, and powerful logistics and
communications capability, the micro parallel inverter is sure to make your solar
panel installation technicians job go a lot quicker.
AORA Tulip Hybrid Solar Power System
On the quest to become carbon neutral by 2025, Ethiopia has enlisted the aid of
Israeli solar company AORA Solar to deploy giant solar collecting tulips to help
them reach their cleantech goals. While pilot Tulips have been tested in Israel,
Spain and the US, Ethiopia will mark AORA Solars first commercial deployment
of their novel clean energy system.
What is a Tulip
Named after their likeness to the popular garden flower, an AORA Tulip is a
hybrid solar power system that combines the technologies of concentrated solar
and biogas into a modular package that can provide energy to off-grid rural
locations. The hybrid system allows the Tulip to continue providing electricity
after the sun has set or in overcast weather conditions. A single can produce 100
kW of electricity and 170 kW of heat. Couple that with the fact that it only
occupies 3,500 square meters, and you have an efficient energy system with a
relatively high kWh per land than competing solar power systems. A single Tulip
can power 30-40 homes in the West which is more than enough energy required
to cover the needs of villages in the developing world.
How does the Tulip Work?
Past attempts to provide solar power to rural communities or villages in
developing countries have been thwarted by the inherent intermittency of solar
energy. These systems would cease providing power once the sun went down,
during overcast skies, or the rainy season. As a result, luxuries often taken for
granted in the Western world, like refrigeration or nocturnal lighting remained
unavailable to these rural off-grid communities. The Tulip tackles this problem by
taking a concentrated solar system and backing it up with biogas to continue
providing power when the sun is unavailable.
Concentrated Solar Tower

On the solar powered side of the equation, is a single tower, the Tulip
surrounded by a field of mirrors designed to track the sun. The suns rays are
concentrated onto the bulb of the Tulip heating the compressed air within to
extremely high temperatures. Steam generated from water within the bulb turns
a turbine providing power. Since water is often scarce in these rural
communities, the Tulip is extremely water efficient, only requiring 8% of the
water normally consumed by comparable concentrated solar power (CSP) steam
technologies.
Biogas and Alternative Fuels
When sun isnt available, the Tulip can use a biogas digester/storage tank to
convert organic feedstock from crops or animal manure into biogas, which can be
burned as fuel to turn the turbine and provide utility grade power generation.
This means the Tulip synergizes well with rural farms and can help developing
villages manage their waste. The Tulip can also accept alternative fuels to run as
a conventional power generator, and can seamlessly transition between the two
technologies.
Cold Storage Facility
Depending on the plant module, some installations also come equipped with a
cold storage facility for food refrigeration that utilizes 170kw of waste heat from
the tower to operate its absorption chiller. The Tulip was developed at the
Weizmann Institute, where Zev Rosenzweig, CEO of AORA and one of the lead
researchers at the school came up with the idea after seeing how people in rural
communities would lose much of their harvest due to the inability to refrigerate
fruits and vegetables.
Tulips Educating the Future
In addition to the power plants, AORA is also installing Tulips two universities in
Ethiopia to help advance education in renewable technologies in the country.
They will serve local communities and give students the experience and
knowledge they need to actively participate in the future of green technologies.
Spherical Sun Powered Generator
When it comes to green technologies on the market today, aesthetic appeal
usually isnt among the benefits of adopting a new source of clean energy.
Choices typically range from monolithic white windmills that obstruct ocean
views to obtuse black solar panels that line the rooftops of energy efficient
homes. Even the most promising of solar technologies, concentrated solar power
plants, resemble something more fitting for military installations than the art
districts of bustling metropolises. German architect Andre Broessel is hoping to
change all that with his Rawlemon, a solar panel that combines the best of both
form and function to squeeze more juice from the Sun.
Who is Andre Broessel?
Broessel first came up with the idea one sunny Sunday morning in Dusseldorf,
Germany, when his daughter put a marble in an eggcuphe was mesmerized by
how the focal point moved around the rounded surface. Broessel had been
tasked with fitting a building with solar panels, but the modern design left little
room for conventional solar panels to efficiently harness power from the sun. The
marble in the eggcup would eventually serve as inspiration for a novel solution,
the Rawlemon Beta.ray, a 180 centimetre tall proof of concept that combined
concentrated solar photovoltaics, sun tracking, and a multi-junction cell.
Rawlemon Product Lineup
Rawlemon has come a long way since its successful round of funding on
Indiegogo. They currently offer three classes of product that cover multiple scale
applications.
Beta.ey

The smallest in their lineup is the Beta.ey, of which there are currently three
models available in the store ordered here by increasing size: Beta.ey B, the
Beta.ey S and the Beta.ey XL. The Beta.ey series is priced for the commercial
market and serves as a table-top charger for all your USB 2.0 devices. It also
doubles as an LED lamp. The largest model, the Beta.ey XL comes complete with
a battery capacity of 55 Wh.
Solar 101: How Solar Really Works
Solar photovoltaic systems, often called solar PV for short, are made up of a
number of components, the biggest and most important being the solar panels,
solar inverters, mounting platforms and cabling infrastructure. Combined, these
components harness radiant light from the sun, convert it into electricity and
transmit it into homes and businesses to power electrical devices, like lights and
appliances, and provide heating and cooling via the electrical currents they
create. Here is a general overview of how solar PV systems work.
Solar Panels
The solar panels themselves are perhaps the most well-known of all the system
components, since they're the most visible part of the package, often perched
atop homes and businesses roofs. Solar panels are also considered the life blood
of a solar power system, because solar panels actually capture the sun's
radiation, thereby initiating the entire process of converting sunlight into an
electrical current. The job of solar panels is to essentially create the electrical
current.
Solar panels can come in all shapes and sizes, but are typically comprised of a
grouping of solar cells that are wired together and encapsulated by a glass
casing that protects the equipment against the elements. Solar cells are
essentially made up of semiconducting materials - often silicon - that are
sandwiched together between positive and negative charges. When sunlight hits
a cell, the photons within the sunlight knock electrons free from the
semiconducting material. This starts the flow of electricity. Then, conductive
plates made of metal on the sides of the cells gather the electrons and transfer
them through wires. At this point, these electrons can flow just like any electrical
current.
While there are a number of factors that determine the electrical output of a
solar power system, the number of solar cells and overall size of the solar panel
array, are the major determinants in how much electricity can be generated from
a solar system. The more solar cells and larger the solar panel array is, the more
electricity can be generated. They type of solar cells will also impact the
efficiency with which a solar panel generates energy. Generally speaking,
monocrystalline silicon is the most efficient material to use in solar cells.
Polycrystalline silicon and thin film cells are also commonly used and are less
expensive than monocrystalline.
Solar Inverters
Solar PV systems would be worthless without solar inverters - as such, many
consider solar inverters the "brains" of the entire system. The way they work is,
once radiant sunlight is converted into electricity, solar inverters transform the
electrical current from direct current (DC) power to alternating current (AC), so it
can actually be used in various applications.
This step is necessary, because solar panels cannot create AC power on their
own and in the United States, most electrical devices run on DC power. In a DC
system, the electrical current flows in one direction. By contrast, AC power is a
bit more complex, moving in both directions, backwards and forwards.
Since the U.S. grid system actually works on AC power, solar inverters have the
ability to convert electrical converts back and forth between DC power (used to
power devices in the home) and AC power (to put electricity back onto the grid).

Typically, solar inverters are about 95% efficient, so they only lose about 5% of
the electricity during the conversion process.
There are three general types of solar inverters:
Stand-alone inverters are those that do not need to be plugged in to an electrical device. Instead,
they draw their charge from a battery powered by the solar PV system itself. These are often a
good choice for non-grid tied systems.

Grid-tied inverters are compatible with the utility grid. They're designed to shut
down automatically in a black out situation due to safety concerns. As such, gridtied inverters cannot provide backup power during an outage situation.
Battery backup inverters also draw energy from a battery, but what is unique
about them is they're designed to export excess energy back to the utility grid. In
this way, they can supply AC currents during utility outages.
Cables and Wires
Next, a series of cabling infrastructure is necessary to actually bring the
converted power into homes and business. In essence, the solar cable is an wire
that interconnects all parts of the solar PV system.
Cabling networks can vary, but typically are designed to be UV and weather
resistant and capable of dealing with extreme fluctuations in temperature (both
heat and cold), since one common factor for these system is that they're used
outdoors. The most common type of cabling used is a DC voltage of 1.8 kV and a
temperature range from - 40 degrees Celsius to 90 degrees Celsius.
Another important feature of the solar cable is that it must be insulated well
enough to withstand the thermal and mechanical loads. To achieve this, most
solar cables use plastic that are cross-linked using electron beams. This protects
against the weather elements, including the sun's radiation and humidity that
would otherwise erode the system over time.
Mounting System
Finally, the mounting system is the skeleton of the solar power system. Mounting
systems are the platforms upon which solar arrays reside. Most commonly, home
and business owners mount their solar systems on top of their roofs so that they
can gain greater access to direct sunlight. However, mounting systems can also
be built on the ground or on other erected structures, like a pole.
Solar mounting systems must be installed according to local building codes.
However, generally speaking, rooftop PV arrays are generally mounted parallel to
the surface of the roof with just a few inches of space between the system and
roof. Arrays are mounted at angles that enable them to optimize sunlight capture
- i.e. closest to a 90 degree angle with the sun.
Ground mounted systems are typically used by utility companies to generate
larger amounts of electricity to be deployed onto the grid. Ground based
mounting systems include pole mounts, foundation mounts and ballasted footing
mounts to secure the arrays firmly to the ground. In some cases, ground
mounted systems are designed to provide some type of shade, such as a patio
cover or even a parking garage cover.
Beta.ray
The Beta.ray is Rawlemons flagship product and the model that most resembles
Broessels prototype. Currently available in two sizes, the Beta.ray 1.00 and
Beta.ray 1.80, this series sports a hybrid collector that converts both solar and
thermal energy into electricity. It also doubles as a high powered lamp, and can
be used as an off-grid energy source, building integration and electric vehicle
charging station.
MicroTrack500HV
This novel approach to building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) is a plug and play
frame consisting of an array of ball lenses intended to line the windows of sky

rises, hotels, spas and galleries. Each ball lens comes complete with
photovoltaics and tracking capabilities of Rawlemons larger products.
How does the Rawlemon work?
Instead of mirrors or conventional flat lenses, the Beta.ray used a giant
transparent orb shaped like a lemon that focuses the suns rays onto a single
solar panel. Its unique dual axis tracking system ensures that the panel
maintains an optimum angle with the focal point of the sun as it travels across
the sky.
Tests in Central Europe have revealed that Rawlemons concentrated
photovoltaic system can lead to up to 95% more energy conversion than
conventional solar panels. The spherical geometry also nets a bonus 15%
increase in yields under overcast skies due to its natural ability to gather and
concentrate diffuse light. Since it uses 75% less cell surface area, the Beta.ray
can use higher quality solar panels at a fraction of the cost of a conventional
panel array. Altogether Rawlemon marks the first attempt by a company to bring
concentrator solar module to city building integration.With 99% transparency,
the Beta.ray makes Rawlemons slogan all the more fitting: the future is not
green, its transparent.
Selecting the Right Solar Photovoltaic System
There is not a "one size fits all" solar photovoltaic (PV) system. In fact, solar PV
arrays can vary considerably both in their general design, size and application.
That is why it's important for consumers to clearly understand what they're
looking for when shopping for a solar array. The two biggest considerations that
consumers should take into account when selecting their solar PV system are
related to the size of their system and what type of solar cell it has.
Right Sizing a Solar PV System
Selecting the right solar PV system can be everything from an investment
standpoint - too small of a solar system and buyers, energy demands aren't met,
too large of a system and buyers will over spend on a system that generates too
much power and potentially fails to generate a return on their investment. So
what should consumers do in order to get it right and select a solar PV system
that meets their needs?
The first step consumers should take is to identify how much electricity they
need or want their system to generate. Contractors may try to sell buyers as
much generation capacity as will fit on their roofs, but buying too large (and
expensive) of a system is one of the biggest pitfalls a consumer can make.
That said, some consumers may actually want to purchase an array that will
cover their entire roof. This option is most suitable for consumers who want to
take advantage of net metering policies. Net metering policies are utility rates
that enable home and business owners to actually sell excess electricity
generated by their solar PV system back to their utility company at an agreed
upon rate. Typically, the rate is equal to what they pay per unit of electricity.
Most states have net metering policies, although rates will vary state to state. In
this way, the solar PV investment will not only meet some household energy
demands, but also serve as an income generator for the solar PV owner. It's
important to keep in mind that installing solar PV panels everywhere may not be
effective since panels must be properly positioned to capture sunlight and kept
out of any areas where there are obstructions or shade.
Rather than fill their entire rooftop, most consumers will want to purchase a
system that offsets all or a portion of their electric bill. According to the United
States Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2011, the average American
household used approximately 11,300 kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per
year. However, since there are many factors that can make energy usage much
higher or lower than that - building size, climate, heating and cooling type,

number of luxury appliances, etc. - the best way to determine a home's unique
energy demand is to review recent utility bills for that household. If consumers
don't have their bills on file, they can also request this analysis from their utility
company.
Electricity is typically measured in kilowatt hours. The first step is to find out
what the household's annual kWh usage is. Since electric consumption may vary
by season, it's important to look at an entire year's worth of bill payments to
understand ebbs and flows in electric demand from month to month and season
to season. For instance, consumers with electric air conditioning units may see
huge spikes in electricity demand during warmer months whereas those in cooler
climates with electric heating may have different demand patterns. Another
major factor affecting energy usage is consumer behavior. Changes in the
number of occupants in a household can cause electricity usage to go up or
down, since more people means more water and appliance usage. Whatever the
case, consumers should determine what their peak demand for energy usage is peak energy usage is the amount of energy that the household consumes at the
highest point throughout the year. Utility companies can send this data to
customers if they have not have kept their utility bill statements on file.
Beyond overall demand, consumers will also want to consider what times of day
they actually use the most power - morning, midday, or evening. This is
important, because solar PV systems only generate power during daylight hours.
The only exception to this is if a homeowner has or wants to invest in some type
of energy storage system that enables them to use electricity generated from
their solar PV system at any time of day. However, assuming a standard solar PV
system without energy storage, buyers should identify what their electricity
demand is during daylight hours so they can select a system that meets their
demand during these hours. Daylight hours will vary by geographical location
and even by season so consumers should understand local conditions. There are
many websites online that can provide information about average daylight hours
and changes in daylight hours by geographic location.
As a general rule of thumb, the cost per kilowatt hour of a system goes down
slightly as it increases in size, so consumers should also take this into account.
This is largely because inverters - an essential component of a solar PV system
package that converts the electricity to the right type of current - are often sized
to accommodate a solar PV system that is larger, say 5 kW. In this way, the same
inverter is often used for a smaller systems, such as a 3 kW system - so the costs
for the inverter might be slightly more for the smaller model. This is something
to factor in when considering the size of a system to buy.
Selecting the Right Solar Cell
Another major consideration is what type of solar cell you want within your PV
system since different modules generate different levels of electricity per square
foot than others. At a very basic level, monocrystalline silicon systems have
traditionally been known for being the most efficient type of solar cell generating the most electricity relative to size; however, they are also the most
expensive. Polycrystalline silicon cells are less efficient than monocrystalline
arrays, but they're also less costly. And they are a particularly good choice for
climates that have more overcast days. Finally, thin film technologies are also a
new option that are becoming increasingly popular - they're typically as efficient
as polycrystalline models and are very cost-competitive. And with lots of
research and development being put towards thin film technology, this type of
solar cell is likely to drop in cost even further in future years.
Taking the First Step
The best way for consumers to determine what solar PV system is right for them
is to hire an energy auditor who is cross-trained in solar PV. These professionals

can provide a detailed assessment of a household's energy usage and offer tips
that are tailored to the consumers' individual needs. Energy audits typically cost
just a few hundred dollars. And many utility companies or state energy offices
now offer rebates that cover some or all of the costs of energy audits - this level
of analysis can give consumers the answers they need when selecting the right
size and type of solar PV system to buy.
Passive Solar and Energy Efficient Home Design
Many consumers who invest in solar photovoltaic systems make the mistake of
not considering how energy efficient their home is to begin with. Energy
efficiency is defined as delivering the same value with less energy input. In other
words, an energy efficient home will enable someone to do the same things heat and cool their home and power appliances in the same manner - but using
less energy. Optimizing the energy performance of a building therefore makes
sense before investing in a solar PV system, because a home will consume less
energy and therefore require a smaller, less costly PV system. So where should
one begin to make their home more energy efficient?
Energy Audit
The first step is getting an energy audit. Energy audits are assessments of
building's energy performance. For just a few hundred dollars, trained
professionals will perform a series of diagnostics on a building to determine
where energy loss is taking place or where opportunities exist to improve the
energy performance of the home. At the end of an audit, the energy auditor will
give a written report that outlines the most cost-effective ways to save energy.
By some estimates, following through on energy audits, save the typical
homeowner up to 30% on their energy bill.
Air Sealing and Insulation
One of the biggest inefficiencies in most buildings occurs due to air leaks in the
building envelope that cause air to flow between outside and inside. Air flows
from hot to cold locations so a building with a lot of air leakage will lose
considerable amounts of treated air. In other words, hot and cold air is lost so a
heating or air conditioning system has to work over time to maintain an optimal
temperature. The result is that the building consumes more energy that it might
need to should those leaks be sealed. One way to tell if a building is leaky is if
temperatures are inconsistent in different rooms or areas. Adding insulation to a
home's walls, attic and crawl spaces and sealing these air leaks is therefore one
of the most cost-effective ways for someone to improve their home's energy
performance. This minimizes heat transfer with the outdoors.
Windows and Doors
A lot of heat transfer also occurs through windows and doors, particularly in older
homes with outdated windows and doors. As such, another way to improve the
energy performance of a home's building shell is to make upgrades to its
windows and doors. Newer models are designed to reduce convective and
conductive heat transfer and for windows, block or trap radiant heat from the
sunlight. Keep in mind that replacing energy inefficient windows and doors is
typically a less cost-effective way to make energy improvements than sealing air
leaks and adding insulation simply due to the higher price tag associated with
windows and doors - insulating and air sealing products are very cheap and have
higher returns on investment.
Lighting
Lighting makes up approximately fifteen percent of most homes, electricity
usage. Many homeowners use outdated bulbs, like incandescent bulbs, that
consume large amount of energy. Switching to high efficiency light bulbs, like
compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs), halogens, and light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) is an easy way to reduce electric consumption. According to the United

States Department of Energy, these high efficiency alternatives use 25-80% less
energy than older bulbs and last 3-25 times longer. CFLs are commonly used in
regular lamps. LEDs and halogens are best suited for recessed light fixtures or
ballasts.
Appliances
Most Americans have dozens upon dozens of electrical devices plugged into
sockets throughout their home. From dishwashers and stoves to refrigerators and
televisions, electrical devices are prevalent in most households and account for a
considerable amount of energy usage. Fortunately, appliance manufacturers are
constantly increasing the energy efficiency of the appliances that go to market.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created a brand called
ENERGY STAR that serves as a way to signify the most efficient products on the
shelf. In other words, by looking for appliances with the ENERGY STAR label,
homeowners can make upgrades to their electrical devices and save big on
electricity. Visit ENERGY STAR's website for the full list of products.
Heating and Cooling
Nearly half of all the energy a typical home uses goes towards heating and
cooling expenses. As such, optimizing heating and cooling appliances is another
major way to improve the energy performance of most homes. As a general rule
of thumb, if a furnace, water heater or air conditioner is more than ten years old,
it's probably pretty outdated and using way too much energy. Simply upgrading
to an ENERGY STAR model can cut energy usage considerably.
In addition to upgrading heating and cooling appliances, it's also important to
maintain your devices. Air filters should be changed every three months to make
sure air intake and output are optimal. This also prevents dust and sediment
from accumulating in the system, which can help extend the appliance's lifetime.
Furnaces and air conditioning systems should also receive annual tune-ups from
trained professionals - this ensures they're running optimally from an energy and
comfort standpoint.
Passive Solar
Finally, before investing in a solar PV system, homeowners should also attempt
to naturally harness the sun through passive solar design. Passive solar design is
essentially designing your home to optimize the sun's radiant heat naturally. This
might mean maximizing radiant sunlight capture (in cooler climates or during
winter) and/or minimizing radiant sunlight penetration (in warmer months or
during summer). If done properly, passive solar design can reduce or even
eliminate the need for heating and cooling systems.
Since North American homes receive sunlight mainly through the south side of
buildings, most of the passive design takes place here. The type of design will
depend on the building's climate.
During winter or in cooler climates that have high heating loads, a passive
design will attempt to capture as much heat as possible from natural sunlight
flowing into the south-facing windows and store it. This sunlight can also be used
to provide adequate lighting to the home during the daylight thereby reducing
the need for artificial lighting. Passive design systems here include a few basic
elements. First, the windows must be properly oriented at approximately 30
degree of true south. Second, the windows should be unobstructed by objects
like buildings or trees so they can maximize light capture during daylight hours.
Third, thermal mass is a home's ability to store this captured heat. It's commonly
stored by materials like concrete, brick, stone or tile on floors and/or walls.
Finally, a distribution system should be installed to help transfer the heat to
other parts of the home.
During summer months or in cooler climates, passive design works differently.
Namely, homeowners will want to block out the sun light's penetration into the

home to keep the home cool. Good passive design systems will have some type
of control strategy that helps provide on demand shading over south facing
windows. This can be done through sensing devices, like thermostats that signal
some type of coverage - blinds, shades, awnings. Or it can even be using proper
shrubs and trees that provide coverage via their foliage during the warmer
months.
Common Types of Solar Cells
Hundreds of solar cells (also called photovoltaic cells) make up a solar
photovoltaic (PV) array. Solar cells are the components of solar arrays that
convert radiant light from the sun into electricity that is then used to power
electrical devices and heat and cool homes and businesses. Solar cells contain
materials with semiconducting properties in which their electrons become
excited and turned into an electrical current when struck by sunlight. While there
are dozens of variations of solar cells, the two most common types are those
made of crystalline silicon (both monocrystalline and polycrystalline) and those
made with what is called thin film technology.
Silicon Solar Cells
The majority of the solar cells on the market today are made of some type of
silicon - by some estimates, 90% of all solar cells are made of silicon. However,
silicon can take many different forms. Variations are most distinguished by the
purity of the silicon; purity in this sense is the way in which the silicon modules
are aligned. The greater the purity of the silicon molecules, the more efficient the
solar cell is at converting sunlight into electricity. The majority of silicon based
solar cells on the market - about 95% - are comprised of crystalline silicon,
making this the most common type of solar cell. But there are two types of
crystalline - monocrystalline and polycrystalline.
Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
Monocrystalline solar cells, also called "single crystalline" cells are easily
recognizable by their coloring. But what makes them most unique is that they
are considered to be made from a very pure type of silicon. In the silicon world,
the more pure the alignment of the molecules, the more efficient the material is
at converting sunlight into electricity. In fact, monocrystalline solar cells are the
most efficient of all; efficiencies have been documented at upwards of 20%.
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of what are called "silicon ingots," a
cylindrically shaped design that helps optimize performance. Essentially,
designers cut four sides out of cylindrical ingots to make the silicon wafers that
make up the monocrystalline panels. In this way, panels comprised of
monocrystalline cells have rounded edges rather than being square, like other
types of solar cells.
Beyond being most efficient in their output of electrical power, monocrystalline
solar cells are also the most space-efficient. This is logical since you would need
fewer cells per unit of electrical output. In this way, solar arrays made up of
monocrystalline take up the least amount of space relative to their generation
intensity.
Another advantage of monocrystalline cells is that they also last the longest of all
types. Many manufacturers offer warranties of up to 25 years on these types of
PV systems.
The superiority of the monocrystalline cells comes with a price tag - in fact, solar
panels made of monocrystalline cells are the most expensive of all solar cells, so
from an investment standpoint, polycrystalline and thin film cells are often the
preferred choice for consumers. One of the reasons monocrystalline cells are so
expensive is that the four sided cutting process ends up wasting a lot of silicon,
sometimes more than half.
Polycrystalline Solar Cells

Polycrystalline solar cells, also known as polysilicon and multisilicon cells, were
the first solar cells ever introduced to the industry, in 1981. Polycrystalline cells
do not go through the cutting process used for monocrystalline cells. Instead, the
silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, hence the square shape of
polycrystalline. In this way, they're much more affordable since hardly any silicon
is wasted during the manufacturing process.
However, polycrystalline is less efficient than its monocrystalline cousin.
Typically, polycrystalline solar PV system operated at a 13-16% efficiency - again,
this is due to the fact that the material has a lower purity. Due to this reality,
polycrystalline is less space-efficient, as well. One other drawback of
polycrystalline is that has a lower heat tolerance than monocrystalline, which
means they don't perform as efficiently in high temperatures.
Thin Film Solar Cells
Another up and coming type of solar cell is the thin film solar cell with growth
rates of around 60% between 2002 to 2007. By 2011, the thin film solar cell
industry represented approximately 5% of all cells on the market.
While many variations of thin film products exist, they typically achieve
efficiencies of 7-13%. However, a lot of research and development is being put
into thin film technologies and many scientists suspect efficiencies to climb as
high as 16% in coming models.
Thin film solar cells are characterized by the manner in which various type of
semi-conducting materials (including silicon in some cases) are layered on top of
one another to create a series of thin films.
The major draw of thin film technologies is their cost. Mass production is much
easier than crystalline-based modules, so the cost of mass producing thin film
solar cells is relatively cheap. The product itself is also flexible in nature, which is
leading to many new applications of solar technologies in scenarios where having
some type of flexible material is advantageous. Another perk is that high heat
and shading have less of a negative impact on thin film technologies. For these
reasons, the thin film market continues to grow.
One major drawback is that thin film technologies require a lot of space. This
makes them less of an ideal candidate for residential applications where space
become an issue; as a result, thin film is taking off more in the commercial
space. And thin film solar cells have a shorter shelf life than their crystalline
counterparts, which is evidence by the shorter warranties offered by
manufacturers.
Thin film technology using various photovoltaic substances, including amorphous
silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium and gallium selenide. Each type of
material is suitable for different types of solar applications.
Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
Thin film solar cells made out of amorphous silicon are traditionally used for
smaller-scale applications, including things like pocket calculators, travel lights,
and camping gear used in remote locations. A new process called "stacking" that
involves creating multiple layers of amorphous silicon cells have resulted in
higher rates of efficiency (up to 8%) for these technologies; however, it's still
fairly expensive.
Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells
Cadmium Telluride is the only of the thin-film materials that have been costcompetitive with crystalline silicon models. In fact, in recent years, some
cadmium models have surpassed them in terms of their cost-effectiveness.
Efficiency levels result in a range of 9-11%.
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cells
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide cells have demonstrated the most promise with
respect to their efficiency levels that range from 10-12%, somewhat comparable

to crystalline technologies. However, these cells are still in the nascent stages of
research and have been commercial deployed on any wide scale. That said, the
technology is most used in larger or commercial applications.

The Hyperloop
by Keith D. Foote

Source: Edit1306
The Hyperloop is a theoretical high-speed transportation system. It incorporates
reduced-pressure tubes with pressurized capsules/pods riding on a cushion of air. It
resembles a train, but travels in a tube. A hyperloop system could reduce energy use
costs and travel time. Travel speeds could easily reach 750 mph (1,200 km/h)
between cities, with electricity/propulsion being provided by renewable energy
sources. Entrepreneur Elon Musk popularized the concept in a research paper in
2013.
An early, preliminary design was made public in August of 2013. This design included
a preliminary estimate for a passenger-only version costing $6 billion, while a
separate version transporting passengers and vehicles was estimated to cost $7.5
billion. Transportation engineers found the sum too low, given the scale of
construction and that this was an unproven technology.
Hyperloop Technologies Inc. named Rob Lloyd, formerly of Cisco Systems, as its chief
executive. They named former Snapchat Inc. chief operating officer and Emily White
as a board of directors "observer. Rob Lloyd has also invested in the company,
which was publicly launched in March. At that time, it was announced early SpaceX
employee Brogan BamBrogan and several prominent tech and political leaders were
going to raise more than $8 million needed to to get the business going. Investors
include Jim Messina, Pres Obamas former deputy chief of staff, the X Prize
Foundation, Peter Diamandis, and Silicon Valley's venture capitalists Shervin Pishevar
and Joe Lonsdale.
Lloyd said he became a believer after he saw the companys progress.
At Cisco, he pushed expansion into video, cloud computing and other emerging
business lines made possible by the Internet. He retired in June after he was a
surprise snub for the CEO job.

Now he said he plans to take on a new network.

A network that doesnt carry bits but transports atoms -- people and things -- all
around the world, he said. The customers well serve will be governments,
enterprises, transportation companies, and I have been doing business with them for
15 years.
At present, the are discussions about building a Hyperloop train capable of shuttling
people between Los Angeles and San Francisco in only 30 minutes, just sped a bit
closer to reality.
Construction of the Hyperloop will begin next year. The technology is available and
they are currently organizing the necessary licenses. The system should be open to
the public in 2018 or 2019. The goal is to transport over 10 million passengers each
year. Elon Musk described the Hyperloop as a fifth mode of transport. One that will
be fast, safe and largely powered with electricity by its own solar panels. Mr. Musk
told CNN Money the project was not really all that difficult.
At present, the company Hyperloop Transportation Technologies Inc. (which is not
connected with Elon Musk or Tesla) has signed contracts with landowners in
California to build the first Hyperloop test track. They are planning to build the 8 km
(5 mile) test track alongside California's Interstate 5. (Originally, they had planned to
build the test track in Texas.)
The passenger pods will move inside tubes using a partial vacuum. It will be
accelerated using magnets, and a set of fans at the bottom will allow the train to rest
on a cushion of air. The hyperloop will be powered by solar panels placed along the
outside of of the tube.
Each passenger pod, or HyperPod, has its own compressor at its front. This
compressor sucks in the air in front of it, creating a slight vacuum at th front. This
significantly minimizes the drag as it travels through the tube. They are developing a
unique compressor technology designed to operate at very high-speeds and they
have built a customized wind tunnel capable testing a wide variety of speeds &
pressures.
The HyperPods use of "air bearings" allows the train to float on a cushion of air.
There are no wheels. They are also exploring some alternatives, such as a passive
magnetic levitation (maglev) design.
The HyperPods are sent through the tube using electric linear motors. The same
motors are used to break the pods during normal operation, allowing them to
recapture much of the energy. They are trying to optimize their system by exploring
a variety of innovations. These innovations include advanced energy storage, highpower drives & power electronics, high-speed controls, and a custom
electromagnetic motor.
The tube structure is still in the design stage, and materials haven't been decided
on.
The Hyperloop could be the fastest, cheapest and most energy-efficient form of
travel. But is the technology is feasible or safe? One problem is the tubes have to be
very, very straight. The guideway/tube has to be built to incredibly fine tolerances.
Should the tube wall shift by just a few thousandths of an inch, the pod would crash.
The Hyperloop tubes also have be able to maintain a low air pressure. If the vacuum
is lost in the tube, the pod, and everyone in it, will crash. Powell said. It is crucial the
vehicle's compressor, which pumps out the the air cushion carrying the pods, does
not fail. If it does, the pods will smash into the tube walls. The Hyperloop pods will
need redundant backup compressors
The whole Hyperloop system requires extreme perfectionism. A crack or hole in the
tube's shell, or an earthquake (not exactly rare in California) could shift the tube just
a fraction of an inch. Both scenarios would cause the pods to crash. A
superconducting maglev, where the magnets are very stable and reliable, might end
up being the safer choice.
The Problems With Solar Water Heating
by Keith D. Foote

Two trends have severely damaged the solar water heater industry in the United
States. The 1st is the rapid drop of natural gas prices since 2008 and the
simultaneous fall of photovoltaic system prices. The combination of effects are
making solar water heater too expensive. The SDHW (solar domestic hot water)
industry is simply not cost effective at this point in time.
Even before natural gas prices dropped in 2008, solar water heaters could not
compete with natural gas water heaters. California's program for rebates,
combined with ITC incentives, kept the SWHW industry from evolving and
becoming competitive with natural gas water heaters. A yearly average of $275
for water heated by natural gas is hard to compete with.
During the same time, residential photovoltaic systems have dropped in price
from $8.50 per watt in 2008 to less than $3.50 per watt in 2015. Photovoltaic
module prices have dropped from $2.25 per watt to $0.75 per watt. It is
predicted they will reach will reach $0.50 in 2018. The majority of residential
photovoltaic systems residential, at present, average sell for between $15,000
and $38,000 for 3 kilowatt to 12 kilowatt systems.
An installed solar water heating system normally costs from $7,000 to $14,000,
with the prices rising each year, due to the increasing cost of metals. The same
solar water heater system cost between $3,500 and $7,000 in 1985. The costs
for photovoltaic systems are taking the opposite direction. Today, if a 6 kilowatt
grid-tied photovoltaic system sells for $20,000, it is smarter to use the $9,000 to
be spent on an solar water heater system and increase the size of the current
system by 3 kilowatts to offset the cost of buying an electric water heater.
In hot and humid southern climates heat pumps costing $2,200 to $3,000,
installed, are the optimum choice. Testing by the Florida Solar Energy Center, in
Florida, showed heat pumps are more efficient than solar water heating systems.
The solar water heating industry will completely close down if the 30 percent ITC
program expires. There are still uses for solar heated water in the commercial
and industrial markets.
Solar pool heating is one area of solar water heating that is proving successful.
Solar pool heating, using low temperature collectors, has a long history of
success without the need for tax credits. This industry has continued to grow
since the 1970s, and experienced only small drops during economic slow downs.
People are building much smaller swimming pools than they did the 1980s,
making solar pool heating even more efficient.
The solar thermal industry is often described as being its own worst enemy. A
large number of bad articles in the news hasn't helped. One large problem in the
industry has been the failure provide systems training in the way manufacturers
did during the 1980s. At that time, they provided some excellent training. The
Interstate Renewable Energy Council has begun offering a certification program
for solar thermal contractors. While there are a number of old-school
professionals, a a large number of training schools used unqualified trainers.
They steadily eroded the knowledge base, training the technicians to be
incompetent. Astonishingly, trainers with just a few years of experience were
writing books and teaching their own courses.
The promotion of evacuated tubes for solar water heating systems has been
damaging. Evacuated tubes don't work well. They have numerous problems
when under pressure, as in pressurized water. Evacuated tubes have had some
success in China, using thermosyphon systems with unpressurized water.
However, something called "flat-plate selective-coated collectors" can out-heat
evacuated tubes by 140 degrees F.
An additional problem in the industry has been the promotion of glycol systems
under pressure, in combination with evacuated tubes, instead of using a drainback system. Many new solar thermal contractors quickly gave up on solar water

heating after trying, and failing, with pressurized glycol systems. Because of poor
training in the first place, they recieved a number of callbacks. They stopped
installing solar water heaters, and focused on photovoltaic systems. They were
easier to install and more profitable.
In spite of these factors, the New York State Energy Research and Development
Authority has expanding its Solar Hot Water Program. It now includes projects
designed to displace water heated by natural gas, propane, oil, and wood. The
program had previously only focused on the displacement of hot water heated by
electricity. These changes in the program are predicted to attract a larger
number of businesses and households wanting to install solar hot water heaters.
Under the new guidelines, the Solar Hot Water Program is now offering incentives
as high as $6,000 for eligible family homes and as much as $150,000 for eligible
commercial, agricultural, government facilities, and not-for-profits. This program
has a $4.3 million budget available for the project. They began taking
applications for the newly expanded Solar Hot Water Program on March 20.
Biomass Energy
The term "biomass" refers to organic matter that has stored energy through
the process of photosynthesis. It exists in one form as plants and may be
transferred through the food chain to animals' bodies and their wastes, all of
which can be converted for everyday human use through processes such as
combustion, which releases the carbon dioxide stored in the plant material. Many
of the biomass fuels used today come in the form of wood products, dried
vegetation, crop residues, and aquatic plants. Biomass has become one of the
most commonly used renewable sources of energy in the last two decades,
second only to hydropower in the generation of electricity. It is such a widely
utilized source of energy, probably due to its low cost and indigenous nature,
that it accounts for almost 15% of the world's total energy supply and as much
as 35% in developing countries, mostly for cooking and heating.
Biomass is one of the most plentiful and well-utilised sources of renewable
energy in the world. Broadly speaking, it is organic material produced by the
photosynthesis of light. The chemical material (organic compounds of carbons)
are stored and can then be used to generate energy. The most common biomass
used for energy is wood from trees. Wood has been used by humans for
producing energy for heating and cooking for a very long time.
Biomass has been converted by partial-pyrolisis to charcoal for thousands of
years. Charcoal, in turn has been used for forging metals and for light industry
for millenia. Both wood and charcoal formed part of the backbone of the early
Industrial Revolution (much northern England, Scotland and Ireland were
deforested to produce charcoal) prior to the discovery of coal for energy.
Wood is still used extensively for energy in both household situations, and in
industry, particularly in the timber, paper and pulp and other forestry-related
industries. Woody biomass accounts for over 10% of the primary energy
consumed in Austria, and it accounts for much more of the primary energy
consumed in most of the developing world, primarily for cooking and space
heating.
It is used to raise steam, which, in turn, is used as a by-product to generate
electricity. Considerable research and development work is currently underway to
develop smaller gasifiers that would produce electricity on a small-scale. For the
moment, however, biomass is used for off-grid electricity generation, but almost
exclusively on a large-, industrial-scale.
There are two issues that affect the evaluation of biomass as a viable solution
to our energy problem: the effects of the farming and production of biomass and
the effects of the factory conversion of biomass into usable energy or electricity.
There are as many environmental and economic benefits as there are detriments

to each issue, which presents a difficult challenge in evaluating the potential

success of biomass as an alternative fuel. For instance, the replacement of coal
by biomass could result in "a considerable reduction in net carbon dioxide
emissions that contribute to the greenhouse effect." On the other hand, the use
of wood and other plant material for fuel may mean deforestation. We are all
aware of the problems associated with denuding forests, and widespread clear
cutting can lead to groundwater contamination and irreversible erosion patterns
that could literally change the structure of the world ecology.
Biomass has to be considered in the search for an alternative source of
energy that is abundant in a wide-scale yet non-disruptive manner, since it is
capable of being implemented at all levels of society. Although tree plantations
have "considerable promise" in supplying an energy source, "actual commercial
use of plantation-grown fuels for power generation is limited to a few isolated
experiences." Supplying the United States ' current energy needs would require
an area of one million square miles. That's roughly one-third of the area of the 48
contiguous states. There is no way that plantations could be implemented at this
scale, not to mention that soil exhaustion would eventually occur. Biomass
cannot replace our current dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas, but it can
complement other renewables such as solar and wind energy.
According to Flavin and Lenssen of the Worldwatch Institute , "If the
contribution of biomass to the world energy economy is to grow, technological
innovations will be needed, so that biomass can be converted to usable energy in
ways that are more efficient, less polluting, and at least as economical as today's
practices." When we have enough government support and have allotted enough
land for the continuous growth of energy crops for biomass-based energy, we
may have a successful form of alternative energy. But "as long as worldwide
prices of coal, oil and gas are relatively low, the establishment of plantations
dedicated to supplying electric power or other higher forms of energy will occur
only where financial subsidies or incentives exist or where other sources of
energy are not available." Although it is currently utilized across the globe,
biomass energy is clearly not capable of sustaining the world's energy needs on
its own.
Wind Energy
Societies have taken advantage of wind power for thousands of years.
The first known use was in 5000 BC when people used sails to navigate the Nile
River . Persians had already been using windmills for 400 years by 900 AD in
order to pump water and grind grain. Windmills may have even been developed
in China before 1 AD, but the earliest written documentation comes from 1219.
Cretans were using "literally hundreds of sail-rotor windmills [to] pump water for
crops and livestock."
The Windmill
The Dutch were responsible for many refinements of the windmill, primarily for
pumping excess water off land that was flooded. As early as 1390, they had
connected the mill to "a multi-story tower, with separate floors devoted to
grinding grain, removing chaff, storing grain, and (on the bottom) living quarters
for the windsmith and his family." Its popularity spread to the point that there
were 10,000 windmills in England. But perfecting the windmill's efficiency to the
point that it "had all the major features recognized by modern designers as being
crucial to the performance of modern wind turbine blades" took almost 500
years. By then, applications ranged from saw-milling timber to processing spices,
tobacco, cocoa, paints, and dyes.
The windmill was further refined in the late 19th century in the US; some designs
from that period are still in use today. Heavy, inefficient wooden blades were
replaced by lighter, faster steel blades around 1870. Over the next century, more

than six million small windmills were erected in the US in order to aid in watering
livestock and supplying homes with water during the development of the West.
The first large windmill to produce electricity was the "American multi-blade
design," built in 1888. Its 12-kilowatt capabilities were later superceded by
modern 70-100 kilowatt wind turbines.
Wind Energy Sources
Today, people are realizing that wind power "is one of the most promising new
energy sources" that can serve as an alternative to fossil fuel-generated
electricity.
With today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America's electricity
(or about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less
than 1% of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be
occupied by wind equipment-the remaining 95% could continue to be used for
farming or ranching. By the year 2020, 10 million average American homes may
be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO2 emissions
every year. Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all
living things, and wind energy can do just that.
The 3 billion kWh of electricity produced by America's wind machines annually
displace the energy equivalent of 6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million
tons of carbon emissions, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that
cause smog and acid rain. In other words, "more wind power means less smog,
acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions."
Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not imagined
that wind power would become affordable enough to compete with fossil fuels.
Indeed it has. In fact, many utility services around the world offer windgenerated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3 cents per kWh. If a household used
wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or $5 dollars per month
for it and the price is still dropping.
Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh
for nuclear power. Wind energy is therefore "cheaper than any other new electric
generation except natural gas.[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for
every kilowatt-hour of electricity it generates." The success of this energy is in
part due to the fact that its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the
early 1980s." Even lower prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost
dropping by an additional 20 percent to 40 percent by 2005."
Electricity from wind
Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, India and Australia are among the world's
leading nations in the acquisition of wind energy. Wind generated energy is
growing in leaps and bounds.
Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source and has also
become one of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of roughly $3
billion in 2008. Major offshore developments are likely in northern European
waters in the early part of the next century.
This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic
increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential
to deliver substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of
the other renewable energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than
on land
As of 1999, global wind energy capacity topped 10,000 megawatts, which is
approximately 16 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. That's enough to serve over
5 cities the size of Miami , according to the American Wind Energy Association.
Five Miamis may not seem significant, but if we make the predicted strides in the
near future, wind power could be one of our main sources of electricity. "With
today's technology, wind energy could provide 20% of America 's electricity (or

about the amount nuclear power provides) with turbines installed on less than
1% of its land area. And within that area, less than 5% of the land would be
occupied by wind equipment the remaining 95% could continue to be used for
farming or ranching." By the year 2010, 10 million average American homes may
be supplied by wind power, preventing 100 million metric tons of CO 2 emissions
every year.
Lessening our dependence on fossil fuels is critical to the health of all living
things, and wind energy can do just that. "The 3 billion kWh of electricity
produced by America's wind machines annually displace the energy equivalent of
6.4 million barrels of oil and avoid 1.67 million tons of carbon emissions, as well
as sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions that cause smog and acid rain." In other
words, "more wind power means less smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas
emissions."
Windmills may have been around for almost 1500 years, but it was not
imagined that wind power would become affordable enough to compete with
fossil fuels. Indeed it has. In fact, many utility services around the world offer
wind-generated electricity at a premium of 2 to 3 cents per kWh. If a household
used wind power for 25% of its needs, it would spend only $4 or $5 dollars per
month for it and the price is still dropping. Compare this to 4.8 to 5.5 cents per
kWh for coal or 11.1 to 14.5 cents per kWh for nuclear power. Wind energy is
therefore "cheaper than any other new electric generation except natural
gas[which] emits one pound of greenhouse gases for every kilowatt-hour of
electricity it generates." The success of this energy is in part due to the fact that
its costs have gone "down by more than 80% since the early 1980s." Even lower
prices are expected, as "industry analysts see the cost dropping by an additional
20 percent to 40 percent by 2005."
Germany, the US, Spain, Denmark, and India are among the world's leading
nations in the acquisition of wind energy. According to Chris Flavin, a speaker at
the World Oil Forum held in Denver , Colorado , on October 30, 1998, " Navarro ,
Spain , is utilizing wind power to generate 23% of its electricity needs." Denmark
now generates 8 percent of its electricity from wind power. Flavin, a vice
president and senior energy policy analyst at the Worldwatch Institute, reported
that wind generated energy is growing in leaps and bounds. In fact, according to
Worldwatch Institute Online , "The world added 2,100 megawatts of new wind
energy generating capacity in 1998, a new all-time record, and 35% more than
was added in 1997. Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source
and has also become one of the most rapidly expanding industries, with sales of
roughly $2 billion in 1998." Major offshore developments are likely in northern
European waters in the early part of the next century. This will be the next major
step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in decentralized
electricity generation. Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial
quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable
energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land.
According to an April 1999 press release, "Worldwide, wind energy capacity
has expanded at an annual rate of 25.7% during the 1990s, with the total
doubling every three years and the cost of production declining steadily as each
doubling occurs and economies of greater volume are realized." Christophe
Bourillon, executive director of the European Wind Energy Association, remarked
that Europe has emerged "as a world leader in wind energy development" in the
1990s, which he expects this to continue.
As far as the wind industry in the US is concerned, June of 1999 signaled
the end of the best year yet. The executive director of the American Wind Energy
Association attributes this "wind rush" to "progressive state policies and growing
consumer demand for 'green' (low-environmental-impact) power." Many states

now require that part of their energy production come from renewable sources.
And utilities are now offering people "the choice of buying green power at a
premium over power from conventional, environmentally-damaging sources such
as fossil fuels. In most cases, wind, as one of the lowest-cost renewable energy
sources, is the primary beneficiary." Utilities as well as policymakers are
continuously surprised by the public's positive response to the availability of this
green power.
Bird fatalities on wind farms are a concern. A study in the Altamont Pass
Wind Resource Area in California found 182 dead birds, 119 of which were
raptors. In response to this, the wind industry is committed to modifying the
equipment in order to make the area safer for birds. Ideas include reducing the
number of perches on turbines, spacing turbines far apart and in the direction of
migration, painting patterns on blades that contrast with landscape colors, and
even broadcasting a radio frequency to keep birds away altogether. Amidst its
efforts to take responsibility in this issue, the industry quietly points out how
many millions of species are killed annually during the acquisition and
distribution of most conventional sources of energy.
Overall, the advantages of wind power heavily outweigh the disadvantages.
Although it can only supplement other sources of energy for now, it provides
skilled jobs for people in rural communities, replaces environmentally harmful
energy sources, and is inexhaustible." It will never be subject to embargoes or
'price shocks' caused by international conflicts," and "unlike oil fields, wind
energy is renewable, year after year, forever."
Appliances
Having household appliances makes our life easier. Back in the days, you would
have to boil a kettle over an open fire or wash your clothes by hand in the river.
As humankind advanced, innovative products were created to assist in easing
our lives such as the washing machine, electricity, light, stoves and ovens to
heaters, air conditioners, electric kettles, cars, boats, aero planes and hair
dryers. This not only cut down the time spent on household duties, it also meant
we could live more luxuriously. Unfortunately the consequences of adapting to
this lifestyle mean it has produced green house gases and released carbon
emissions which have been detrimental to our environment. By becoming aware
of the negative effects that our leisurely lifestyle has caused, we can fix what we
have slowly destroyed. By merely becoming more environmentally aware and
using environmentally friendly alternatives, we are able reduce our personal and
societys waste of material and energy. Furthermore it will decrease your bills in
the long term if you use products that are environmentally friendly.
Since a Renewable Energy (RE) system can be expensive, it is wise to invest in
energy efficient appliances for your home. Every dollar you spend on efficient
appliances will save you about three dollars in system components. For example,
get rid of your electric water heater in favor of solar, propane, or natural gas. It
takes many photovoltaic modules to run an electric water heater, stove, clothes
dryer, or any other appliance that uses a heating element. Put all thermal loads
on a non-electric source. The average household produces approximately 15
tones of greenhouse gases annually however if you have an energy smart
household, it cuts a third of emissions.
Lighting is another important place to save energy. A 20 watt compact
fluorescent will put out as much light as a 75 watt incandescent bulb, and last a
lot longer. Outfitting an entire home with energy-efficient lighting will save you
hundreds or even thousands of dollars worth of extra photovoltaic modules. The
same is true for efficient refrigerators and freezers--efficient units use less than

1/4 the energy of inefficient units. Every watt-hour of energy you don't consume
is a watt-hour you don't have to produce, convert, and store.
We are not talking about sitting and freezing in the dark, but doing whatever we
choose to do in the most efficient manner possible. Energy efficiency pays big
dividends in renewable energy systems.
Back Up Power
When the sun doesn't shine and the wind doesn't blow...
Backup power is needed for those times when your system's batteries are
discharged, usually when you've consumed too much energy or when there has
not been enough renewable energy coming into your system. This happens to
photovoltaic (PV) systems during long periods of cloudiness, especially during
the shorter days of winter. It can happen to hydro systems during the dry season,
or to wind systems during calm. If you live outside of town in a remote area, a
generator is vital in case you run out of power.
There are basically two kinds of generators used in RE systems. The most
common is the standard 120/240 VAC generator you can buy at a hardware or
department store. Since they produce alternating current, they require a battery
charger to change it to DC for your batteries. This is not the most efficient way to
do things. First, most battery chargers cannot take advantage of the full power
available from an AC generator, causing them to run at less than their full
efficiency. Second, the charger itself has built-in inefficiencies, especially if it has
a large transformer.
The other kind of generator is low voltage DC. These generators are capable of
putting nearly their full power into a battery bank, since no additional charger is
required. The disadvantage of these is that they cannot be used independently of
an inverter-based system as household 120 VAC backup.
If you have access to any combination of solar, hydrogen, and wind, you have
the advantage of access to complimentary systems. Often when one isn't able to
produce, the other is at its prime. Hydrogen can be used as a source of energy
and has hardly any detrimental effects on the enivronment. Research a variety of
renewable energy sources you can utilize to ensure minimum consequences
including biomass and geothermal power.
Backup power can come either from a generator or from the utility grid. Most
renewable energy users have the goal of not using backup power. In the case of
a generator, it's a noisy, pollution-belching machine, and in the case of the utility
grid... well, you're avoiding that for a reason, right?
Essentially, if you need back up power, your best option is a solar powered
generator as they are more environmentally friendly. Any invention, whether it
be a vehicle or a household appliance, that can benefit the environment should
be the more appealing choice.
Battery Storage
For when the sun doesn't shine...
A battery stores electrical energy in a reversible chemical reaction. The
renewable energy (RE) source (PV, wind, or hydro) produces the energy, and the
battery stores it for times of low or no RE production. Most batteries employed in
renewable energy systems use the same electro-chemical reactions as the leadacid battery in your car. But, unlike your car battery, they are specifically
designed for deep cycling. And most renewable energy systems have batteries
which store between ten and hundreds of times more energy than a car battery.
This doesnt guarantee you will have a consistent performance with batteries.
One should consider backup power in case your batteries become discharged
due to lack of renewable energy in the RE system or an over consumption of
energy.

There are many brands and types of batteries available for RE systems. It is
important to find the right battery for your situation and wallet. The two most
common batteries are the L-16 and golf cart sizes. With proper care, RE system
batteries have a lifetime of five to ten years, but there are more expensive
batteries that are warranted to last ten to twenty years.
Battery capacity is rated in amp-hours. 1 amp-hour is the equivalent of drawing 1
amp steadily for one hour, or 2 amps steadily for half an hour. A typical 12 volt
system may have 800 amp-hours of battery capacity. This battery can draw 100
Amps for 8 hours if fully discharged and starting from a fully charged state. This
is the equivalent of 1,200 watts for eight hours (watts = amps x volts), or about
the same power consumed as running a small hair dryer for eight hours.
However, completely discharging your battery decreases its longevity, and can
ruin it in short order. Most home power users will only tap into a portion of
available capacity to keep their batteries alive longer. Opinion varies as to the
appropriate depth of discharge, but most agree that 50% (and many say 30%) is
the maximum a battery should be routinely discharged. Never go below 80%
depth of discharge. 50% means that the above 1200 watt hair dryer would only
be used for 4 hours instead of the 8 indicated by the maximum capacity of the
batteries.
Batteries typically are encased in plastic and need to be wired together in series
and parallel strings by the installer. Some larger batteries are pre-wired and
encased in steel containers.
Batteries do not belong inside your living space. They have dangerous chemicals
in them, so they must be contained to avoid spills. They also put out hydrogen
and oxygen gas while being charged, so they should be vented to the outdoors.
Their tops and connections must be periodically cleaned to avoid energy losses.
Batteries must also be routinely topped off with distilled water. Finally, they need
to be "equalized" with an occasional controlled overcharge to keep the individual
cells at equal states of charge.
Using DC Power
Using the power directly from the source...
Low voltage DC appliances (mostly 12 VDC) can be operated directly from
batteries or photovoltaic modules. For many years good inverters to power the
standard 120 VAC appliances common to most modern homes did not exist.
Many DC appliances were developed to accommodate these systems, including
DC incandescent and fluorescent lighting, televisions, stereos, refrigerators, and
even vacuum cleaners and washing machines. These are mostly 12 volt, though
some appliances are available in 24 volt models.
Inverters are greatly improved now, making 120 VAC appliances the standard,
but many off-the-grid homes still use low voltage DC appliances. Using DC loads
is a more efficient use of energy because inverters have a 50 to 95 percent
efficiency, depending on the amount of power being consumed through the
inverter and the make/model of the inverter. Due to declining demand, fewer DC
appliances are being manufactured. Most of these are being used in third-world
applications where inverters and other sophisticated electronics are still beyond
the financial means of the users.
Molten Salt Battery
When it comes to green energy, the intermittent nature of renewable sources like
wind, solar, and tidal power presents a difficult problem for the electrical grid
management. Peak energy production often doesnt correlate well with peak
energy demand, necessitating a means of storing excess energy when
consumption is low. As renewable energy sources become more prevalent, and
the need to curb fossil fuel emissions continues to increase, finding a new grid
energy storage solution has never been more important. It is the final piece of

technology required to bring about wide scale adoption of renewable energy

sources like solar panels and wind turbines.
What is a Molten Salt Battery?
Molten salt batteries, especially liquid metal batteries, are increasingly gaining
interest from the energy community as a grid energy storage solution for
renewable energy sources. Combining high energy and power densities, long life
times, and low cost materials, they have the potential to meet the unique
demands of grid scale energy storage. A molten salt battery is a class of battery
that uses a molten salts electrolyte. The components of molten salt batteries are
solid at room temperature, allowing them to be stored inactive for long periods
time. During activation, the cathode, anode and electrolyte layers separate due
to their relative densities and immiscibility. The molten salt layer in the middle
serves as an electrolyte with a high ionic conductivity, and is the medium
through which the ionic species travel as the battery charges and discharges.
Advantages of Molten Salt Batteries
Molten Salt Batteries carry several inherent advantages over their solid state
contemporaries. Since some (or all in the case of liquid metal batteries) of the
components are liquid, the batteries possess a higher current density, longer
cycle life, and simplified manufacturing scheme in large scale applications. Since
no membranes or separator systems are involved, cycle life is higher and energy
efficiency can be retained over a longer period of time. The grid scale energy
storage company Ambri has previously shown that a lead-antimony and lithium
liquid metal battery should retain 85 percent of its initial efficiency over a decade
of daily charge/discharge cycles. Since the battery is essentially a container
containing 3 liquid phases, construction is as simple as pouring the heavier metal
into the bottom, the electrolyte in the middle, and the lighter electrode on
top.The major drawback of this design is the high operating temperature
required to keep the components in the liquid state. However in a grid scale
application these elevated temperatures can easily be maintained using the heat
generated during the charge and discharge cycles.
History of the Molten Salt Batteries
The first molten salt batteries actually weren't intended to operate for very long
periods of time at all, but were instead used as single activation primary
batteries for bombs and rockets. Invented by German WWII era scientist Georg
Otto Erb, the first practical cells were called thermal batteries and while they
were never used during the war, the United States Ordnance Development
Division would eventually acquire the technology and use it to power rockets,
bombs, and even nuclear weapons. These early batteries could last indefinitely
(over 50 years) in the solid state while supplying a huge burst of power. Today
thermal batteries are still used as the primary source of power for missiles like
the AIM-9 Sidewinder, BGM-109 Tomahawk and the MIM-104 Patriot.
In 1966 Ford Motor Company invented the Sodium-Sulfur (NaS) liquid metal
battery for electric vehicle application. The high power density and high energy
capacity looked promising but the high operating temperature of 290-390 C
caused Ford to drop research and development. In 1983, Tokyo Electric Power
Company (TEPCO) and Nippon Gaishi Kaisha (NGK) realized the potential for NaS
battery system as a solution for grid storage and began research and
development of the technology. In 1993 the first large-scale prototype of such a
system was field tested at TEPCOs Tsunashima substation. The system consisted
of three 2 MW, 6.6 KV battery banks. This laid the groundwork for NGK/TEPCO
consortiums current line of grid storage NaS batteries, which produce 90 MW of
storage capacity every year.
Meanwhile in Pretoria, South Africa, 1985, the Zeolite Battery Research Africa
Project (ZEBRA) led by Dr. Johan Coetzer at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research, invented the first sodium nickel chloride battery. It had a
specific energy of 90 Wh/kg, a notably stable beta alumina solid electrolyte, and
enhanced corrosion resistance over NaS. This design, while novel, has yet to see
large scale commercial grid storage applications and remains a hot topic in
battery research and development. They have however been deployed by FIAMM
Sonick and used in the Modec Electric Van.
Different Types of Molten Salt Batteries
Thermal (Non-Rechargeable) Batteries

The thermal batteries used to power rockets and missiles are primary batteries
and intended to deliver a high power over a short period of time, on the order of
a few seconds to a little over an hour. There are generally two types of design.
The first involves the use of a fuze strip, consisting of zirconium metal powder
and barium chromate in a ceramic paper along the edge of heat pellets to ignite
the burning process. The fuze strip is ignited by a squib which applies an electric
current. The second involves a hole at the center of the battery stack that fills
with a mixture of incandescent particles and hot gases upon electrically
triggered ignition. This process is faster, on the order of tens of milliseconds
versus the hundreds of milliseconds with the fuze strip design. Todays thermal
batteries utilize cathodes of made up of iron disulfide or cobalt disulfide with
lithium silicon or lithium aluminum alloys. Older chemistries however made use
of magnesium or calcium anodes and calcium chromate, tungsten oxide or
vanadium cathodes. All of these designs used a molten salt electrolyte layer,
normally consisting of lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Eutectic
electrolytes have also used lithium bromide and potassium bromide have also
been employed to increase cycle life.
Sodium-Sulfur Batteries
Sodium-Sulfur (NaS) batteries are fabricated from inexpensive and abundant
materials. The typical design involves a solid electrolyte membrane between the
anode and cathode encased in a steel cylinder protected with a chromium and
molybdenum interior. Molten sodium at the heart of the cell serves as the anode
that donates electrons to the external circuit. The sodium core is encased in a
beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE) cylinder which facilitates the movement of
Na+ ions to the exterior sulfur electrode which serves as the cathode while
preventing the two electrodes from shorting. NGK currently runs a line of
successful grid storage NaS batteries, and is considered the worlds largest gridscale battery supplier serving North America, Asia, and Europe. Each 1 MW x 6
MWh standard battery system contains 20 modules capable of supplying 50 kW
AC in an operating temperature range of 300-350 C.
Sodium-Nickel Chloride Batteries
Sodium Nickel Chloride (Na-NiCl2) Batteries also use a molten sodium core, but
instead uses the nickel as the positive electrode in the discharged state and
nickel chloride in the charged state. Both forms of nickel electrode are insoluble
in their liquid states and a sodium conducting beta alumina ceramic is used as
the separator. In place of the pure elemental sodium found in NaS batteries, a
tetrachloroaluminate (NaAlCl4) core is preferred. Na-NiCl2 batteries are
sometimes called sodium metal halide batteries and in addition to boasting long
operating life spans, the ability to be assembled in the discharged state, and a
safer chemistry than NaS. Normal operating temperature range of Na-NiCl2
batteries are in the 270-350 C range, but one company, Sumitomo was able to
develop a similar chemistry using a salt that melts at 61 C and operates at 90
C; they had initially slated commercial trials for late 2015 so only time will tell
how they function in the market.
Liquid Metal Batteries

A liquid metal battery is a new type of molten salt battery designed for grid
storage applications. First proposed by Donald Sadoway, a Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) materials professor, in 2009, the liquid metal
battery consisted of a current collecting container filled a molten antimony
cathode at the bottom, a salt electrolyte for the middle layer, and liquid
magnesium metal anode at the top. Magnesium was initially chosen for its low
cost and low solubility with molten salt electrolyte, but the higher operating
temperature of 700 C prompted him to switch the chemistry to a Lithium based
anode in 2011. The higher operating temperature was undesirable because it
resulted in higher rates of corrosion, lowering total storage efficiency, and
increasing costs over the batterys lifetime. The current design thus uses a liquid
lithium anode, a molten mixture of lithium salts as an electrolyte and a led
antimony cathode capable of operating at a reduced temperature of 450 C
thanks to the lower melting points of the new electrodes.
Liquid Metal Batteries
Sadoways liquid metal battery is particularly attractive for grid storage
applications because of the low cost of its materials and high energy efficiency.
Antimony (Sb), currently priced at about $1.23 USD per mol, yields a high cell
voltage when used with alkaline-earth negative electrodes. When coupled with a
lithium (Li) electrode, the liquid metal chemistry can achieve an average cell
voltage of 0.92 V when measured under a 200 mA /cm2 galvanostatic discharge.
Li melts at a significantly lower temperature of 180 C, exhibits low solubility
with lithium halide salts, which subsequently reduces the probability of self
discharge. This gives it an edge in energy efficiency over alternative sodium (Na)
based molten battery chemistries.
How does a Liquid Metal Battery Work?
While information on Ambris current Li and Sb-Pb application is scarce, Sadoway
has publicly confirmed that it is similar to his initial magnesiumantimony (Mg||
Sb) chemistry. In the original 2012 design, a negative Mg electrode and positive
Sb electrode are separated by a molten salt electrolyte of the formula MgCl2-KClNaCl. Density differences form the three distinct layers of anode, electrolyte and
cathode. When discharged, Mg undergoes oxidation reaction to yield Mg2+
which dissolves into the electrolyte and 2 free electrons which are released to an
external circuit. The Mg2+ cations are simultaneously reduced to Mg and
deposited into the Sb cathode where they combine together to form a Mg-Sb
liquid metal alloy. During charging, the reverse occurs, and electric current drives
Mg the Mg-Sb alloy and returns it to the top negative electrode as liquid Mg. This
expanding and contracting of the liquid electrodes is unique to liquid metal
batteries, and allows the electrodes to effectively be regenerated with each
charge and discharge cycle effectively increasing lifetime of the battery.
The Future of Grid Storage and Molten Salt Batteries
Companies like Donald Sadoways Ambri, NGK, and Sumitomo are continuing to
push the boundaries of molten salt chemistries as investors and the energy
industry at large begin to recognize the importance of better batteries for grid
scale energy storage. Ambri plans to ship six 10 ton prototypes to a pilot grid in
Alaska, wind and solar plants in Hawaii, and a substation in Manhattan. NGK and
Mitsubishi Electric Corp are building a 50,000 kilowatt battery system for Kyushu
Electric Power Company in a bid to support a Japanese national initiative to
switch to solar power. In a recent 2015 publication by MIT titled The Future of
Solar Energy it was revealed that humanity today consumes 15 terawatts of
power from a variety of energy sources. The report also revealed that solar
technology has already reached the point that humans need to harness the
energy of the sun and meet this energy demand. In Germany, Italy, and Spain,
solar power has already achieved grid parity, with Germany in the lead

generating 45% of its power from the sun. It has become clear that energy
storage is the last piece of the puzzle for the world to fully reap the benefits of
renewable energy sources. Money spent on investment into grid scale energy
storage will carry more weight than money spent in better renewable energy
technologies.