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Notes
of Geography,
ABSTRACT
River-mouth process studies and comparisons of river-mouth
forms from contrasting environments suggest that sediment dispersal and accumulation patterns are governed by three basic effluent
forces and by tide- or wave-induced processes. Neglecting
modifications by tides or waves, effluent behavior and consequent
depositional patterns depend on the relative dominance of (1) outflow inertia, (2) turbulent bed friction seaward of the mouth, and
(3) outflow buoyancy. Inertia-dominated effluents are characterized by fully turbulent jet diffusion, exhibit low lateral spreading
angles and progressive lateral and longitudinal deceleration, and
produce narrow river-mouth bars. Under most natural circumstances, inertial effects are equaled or exceeded by either turbulent
bed friction or effluent buoyancy.
Shallow depths immediately basinward of a river mouth enhance
the effects of bed friction, causing more rapid deceleration and
lateral expansion. Triangular "middle-ground" bars and frequent
channel bifurcation result. Low tidal ranges, fine-grained sediment
loads, and deep outlets favor strong density stratification within the
lower reaches of the channels. Under such circumstances, effluents
are dominated by the effects of buoyancy for at least part of the
year. Buoyant effluents produce narrow distributary mouth bars,
elongate distributaries with parallel banks, and few bifurcations.
In macrotidal environments where tidal currents are stronger
than river flow, bidirectional currents redistribute river sediments,
producing sand-filled, funnel-shaped distributaries and causing
linear tidal ridges to replace the distributary mouth bar. Powerful
waves promote rapid effluent diffusion and decleration and produce constricted or deflected river mouths.
INTRODUCTION
River mouths are the dynamic dispersal points of river-derived
sediments which contribute to delta formation. They are consequently the most fundamental elements of deltaic systems.
River-mouth processes involve a variety of interactions between
riverine and marine waters. These processes acting in combination
determine the patterns by which effluents from river mouths
spread, decelerate, and deposit their sediment load. The geometries
of river-mouth sediment accumulations, together with the associated distributions of grain size and primary sedimentary structures, reflect these effluent diffusion patterns.
The depositional morphologies and sedimentary sequences of
river-mouth systems are among the most varied of all coastal accumulation forms. Multivariate analysis of 34 major deltaic systems (Wright and others, 1974) suggests the existence of a finite
number of river-mouth types. In addition, there have been numerous theoretical, laboratory, and field investigations of river-mouth
processes, including studies by Credner (1878), Gilbert (1884),
Samoilov (1956), Bates (1953), Crickmay and Bates (1955), Axelson (1967), Bonham-Carter and Sutherland (1963), Borichansky
and Mikhailov (1966), Mikhailov (1966, 1971), Jopling (1963),
Takano (1954a, 1954b, 1955), Bondar (1970), Kashiwamura and
2006
(1)
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 8 5 7 - 8 6 8 , 8 figs., June 1977, Doc. no. 70614.
857
mou
Uo
<5
channel
annel 2
bank \ SSSSi zone of ji&ii-iiiii
^>5flow establishment?:
6 0
6
fi
effluent
a
&
n
9
(o * (b
-Q
fully turbulent
^
_
r
-0
&
&
U max'
&
Plan view
U max
Figure 1.
river-mouth
jet.
rapid seaward
deceleration
Plan view
Uo
mouth
E F F L U E N T
laterally
homogeneous
effluent
(fresh water)
s u p e r o on
of lighter effluent
drives secondary flows
reloHv.
- u -
..
U max
I approximately constant
U max
dece'erates
F1 < 1
^JSsltS^
^fwedge^
intrusion
Longitudinal cross section
Figure 3.
(2)
where U is the mean outflow velocity of the upper layer (in the case
of stratified flows); y is the density ratio
y = I - (P/'PS)
where p, and ps are respectively the densities of fresh water and sea
water, g is the acceleration of gravity, and h' is the depth of the
density interface. Low values of F' suggest dominance of the
buoyant forces; high values indicate inertia dominance. Inertia and
turbulence are suppressed when F' is near or less than 1 but in-
river-mouth
effluents.
860
Turbulent jets consist of two zones: (1) a zone of flow establishment characterized by a seaward-diminishing core of constant velocity and (2) a zone of established flow within which turbulent
eddies dominate the entire width of the effluent, and centerline flow
undergoes a progressive seaward deceleration. Transverse to the
effluent within the zone of established flow, the time-averaged
speeds decrease from a maximum (U m a x ) at the centerline to zero at
the effluent boundaries; the velocity profile conforms to a Gaussian
distribution in the ideal case (Fig. 1).
The idealized d e p o s i t i o n a l p a t t e r n resulting f r o m inertiadominated effluents is shown in Figure 4. Because of the low
spreading angles, the lateral dispersion of sediments is confined to a
narrow zone, at least in the region immediately seaward of the
outlet. The coarsest material is initially deposited at the end and
along the lateral margins of the core of constant velocity. This
results in the formation of the narrow lunate-type bar originally
described by Bates (1953). This lunate form is quite subtle and is
largely distinguished by sediment-sorting patterns. Bonham-Carter
and Sutherland (1968) conducted computer simulation studies on
the sediment transport and deposition patterns produced by turbulent jet diffusion. Their results indicated the development of a narrow platform which ascends very gradually seaward but then de-
TYPE A'
INERTIA
DOMINATED EFFLUENTS
/
/
/
channel
y /
y /
/ y
coarsest sands
/
/
Plan view
mouth
_
The 'Gilbert type' profile
channel
Figure 4.
bar crest
steeper
bar front
'
series of laboratory experiments that deceleration and lateral expansion increase as depths seaward of the outlet decrease. Since
friction is accompanied by plane turbulent jet diffusion, the transverse velocity distribution is Gaussian in the early phases of bar
development (Borichansky and Mikhailov, 1966).
The depositional response to plane-jet diffusion initiates a shortlived sequence of positive feedback; shoaling seaward of the mouth
causes an increase in the friction-induced deceleration and effluent
spreading, which in turn increases the shoaling rate. Stability is
ultimately regained by the establishment of divergent bifurcating
channels along the margins of the effluent. Reconcentration of outflow into channels reduces the frictional effects and minimizes the
total work done by the outflow. These channels are separated by a
triangular "middle g r o u n d " shoal over which bed shear stresses
and turbulent friction effects are relatively low. The overall result
of this process is the formation of a pattern similar to that shown in
Figure 5. The crevasse-splay "subdeltas" of the modern Mississippi
Delta (Welder, 1959), Coleman and Gagliano, 1964, Coleman and
others, 1969; Arndorfer, 1971) are examples of friction-dominated
river-mouth deposition. Friction influences also appear to be responsible for the morphology of flood-tide deltas formed lagoonward of tidal inlets (Wright and Sonu, 1975).
In the case of the Mississippi subdeltas, deposition begins when a
crevasse breaks through the levee of a major distributary into a
PRIMARY R I V E R - M O U T H DEPOSITIONAL
861
EFFLUENTS
ee
.s W .
-r-ji"
. v;.;^^
..-..yo-" -'
. . ^ v v C ' '. ''..
111 M 11 j 111
. _
_
'. -
subaerial
11 M i 11 M 11
'middle ground1
Vbar .
. .
channel
' ' M l | |
subaerilal levee -
:..
I I I I II I I 1111
I I I IMMi Iu I ^
.
'jjfsl- coarsest sands
. ' .
v.*.
Plan view
mouth
channel
Longitudinal profile
Figure 5.
Bifurcating channel and m i d d l e - g r o u n d bar patterns associated with friction-dominated river-mouth effluents.
L. D. WRIGHT
Figure 6.
L. D. WRIGHT
Figure 7.
Sand-filled, bell-shaped channel and linear tidal ridges associated with m a c r o t i d a l river m o u t h s .
Figure 8.
cidence.
865
Depositional p a t t e r n s characteristic of river m o u t h s influenced by strong wave activity. A. N o r m a l wave incidence. B. Oblique wave in-
866
TABLE 1.
Dominant
force
Inertia
Dynamic
conditions
F'o
r 0 = moderate
to large
P R I M A R Y R I V E R - M O U T H PROCESSES A N D T H E I R
EFFECTS
Ideal river-mouth
environment
Effluent behavior
Depositional and m o r p h o l o g i c
patterns
C o n s t a n t , low spreading
angle (12.5 for fully turbulent jets); progressive
lateral and longitudinal
deceleration; Gaussian
lateral velocity distribution
Turbulent
bed
friction
F'0>>1
t0 = very
large
M o d e r a t e to high
o u t f l o w velocities;
negligible o u t l e t
stratification; shallow outlet; shallow
water basinward
of outlet; high bed
load
Lateral t u r b u l e n t diffusion
enhanced b y b a s i n w a r d increasing frictional resistance
Buoyancy
F'o= 1
T 0 = low
Intermediate o u t f l o w
velocities; strong
outflow density stratification; deep outlet; m o d e r a t e w a t e r
depths b a s i n w a r d of
outlet (relative to outflow width); finegrained sediment
load; low bed load;
small tidal range
MOUTHS
M O D I F Y I N G M A R I N E PROCESSES A N D T H E I R
867
EFFECTS
N a t u r e of modifications
t o effluent
Behavior of modified
effluent
Depositional a n d
morphologic patterns
Tides
Bidirectional sediment
t r a n s p o r t by tidal currents, causes significant
u p s t r e a m return of sediment into channel; mutually evasive flood- and
ebb-dominated sediment
t r a n s p o r t s in and seaw a r d of the m o u t h converge to f o r m linear elongate ridges
Bell- or funnel-shaped
lower river courses are sand
filled with flared m o u t h s ;
large tidal ridges aligned
parallel to flow constitute
m a j o r bar f o r m .
Waves
W a v e reworking causes
s h o r e w a r d return of sand
over s u b a q u e o u s levees
as swash bars; m o u t h becomes constricted; rew o r k i n g may also transf o r m bar crest into swash
bar d u r i n g low flow;
s h o r e w a r d return of sand
m a y occasionally seal
mouth
Constricted m o u t h fronted
by s u b a q u e o u s deposits
similar to the ebb-tide
deltas of tidal inlets; b r o a d ,
shoal-like s u b a q u e o u s
levees capped by swash bars
converge slightly s e a w a r d ;
regular, crescentic riverm o u t h bar located at short
distance seaward of outlet
Modifying
force
L. D. WRIGHT
280.
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7 4 7 p.
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