Åsa Sjöholm

Scandinavian Rock Carvings

and Sardinian Bronzes
Were their expressions of form born in the eastern
part of the Mediterranian?

Abstract
Expressions of form of Sardinian bronzes and rock carvings in southern Scan-
dinavia are similar during the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. Most
of them have the same origin. Although Sardinia as well as Scandinavia are
situated in the periphery of the Middle East and the Mediterranian cultures,
they were influenced by those cultures but expressed their offerings in differ-
ent materials. The expressions of form are used for different purposes. The
Sardinians asked for more water and the Scandinavians for less.

When, during a visit to Sardinia some years
ago, I was standing in front of Sardinian
bronze figures (bronzetti), I was captured
by their expressions of form which, in a way,
I was familiar with. Soon I understood why
– they were three-dimensional “copies” of
our rock carvings found in Bohuslän in south-
western Sweden.
Today, as well as during the Bronze Age,
Sardinia and Scandinavia are territories situ-
ated in the periphery of Europe. What is the
reason for finding nearly the same forms in
rock carvings and bronze statuettes so far
away from each other and made of different
materials during the Bronze Age and the
Early Iron Age, i.e. ~1800 – 500 B.C.?
I have been working with questions and two
of them are:
1. Are the similarities of the expressions of
form of the bronzes and the rock carvings
inspired by the cultures around the Eastern
part of the Mediterranian?
2. Is the worthiness of the forms similar in
Scandinavia and in Sardinia from the Middle
Bronze Age into the Early Iron Age?
The bronzetti
The bronze statuettes are cast with the lost
wax method and, according to Stary (1991:
120) the idea of making bronze warriors
arrived as a Phoenician import. There is a
difference between imported and locally pro-
duced bronzes. One big problem is that there
are few known warrior graves in Sardinia.
There are votive statuettes, but are they true
images of soldiers or are they just images of
upper class soldiers or perhaps gods?
The bronze figurines have been found mainly
at ritual places such as water temples, small
sanctuaries, tombs, and holy places but also
in the vicinity of dwellings, as hoards and as
casual finds. About 500 findings of bronzes
have been published but there might be

35
After Webster 1996:199
Fig. 1. Tabell (Stary 1991:134)
up to 1000 findings not yet published. Up
to now it has been difficult to date them,
but a dozen specimens are from Etruscan
tombs on the mainland of Italy from which
the firmest dates of eighth-sixth centuries
B.C. derive (Webster 1996:198). New finds
show that the statuettes were produced
around 1000 B.C. in Sardinia (Køllund 1998:
91). In his book from 1966 Giovanni Lilliu has
320 pictures of votive offerings in bronze, of
these are 57 % anthropomorphic forms, 40
% are zoomorphic, and the rest is a mixture
of votive tools, weapons, food, ceramics and
so on. The objects varied in size from 2 to
40 cms.
Webster has placed the bronzes in differ-
ent groups to find out if they are sacred or
profane objects. Out of 180 antropomorphic
statuettes 55 % are equipped with arms and
armours. All these warriors are men and of-
ten with many details and 20-40 cms high.
The rest are unarmed and unarmoured. Out
of these six are priests or priestesses. Their
dresses are well-done and the figures wear
long cloaks and wide-brimmed conical hats
or another form of headgear and long hair
braids. The hats differ from the high Hittitic
hats, which were worn by the gods (Larsson
1997:38) and the lower hats, which were the
symbols of the kings (Kristiansen 1999:541).
36
The tribal chieftain in Sardinia often wears
a headring. He also has a staff and a frame-
hilted dagger. The dagger is worn diagonally
across his chest (Santillo Frizell 1994a).
A priest from Abini in Sardinia and a military
priest, both made of bronze, have cone-
shaped hats with wide brims. They look like
the hats that Randsborg has described (1993:
114) from Schifferstadt in Germany.
Another group is the adorers of which 47
are male and 17 female. They often keep
the offerings in their outstretched palms.
The shepherds carry their animals like calves
and lambs, and musicians blow triple-reeded
pipes or horns.
In 1966 Lilliu noted 127 zoomorphic bronzes,
for example oxen, bulls, one cow, goats,
sheep, pigs, wild boars, deer, dogs, foxes,
birds, and horses. The animals are often
alone but not on the so-called boat-lamps
of bronze (Fig.12). Some ships have a stag-
head or a bullhead protome and different
animals like dogs on the gunwale and birds
even on the top of the mast.
Webster (1996:203ff) has compared the
votive animals with the bone remains at
one sanctuary and three settlements. The
sacrificed animals did not correspond to
bone remains. For example, bronze birds
are found – but no bones. One explanation
Fig 2. Different types of helmets on warrior statuettes (Stary1991:121).
has been proposed that in daily life the sta-
tus of the birds was lower than in the ritual
connections.
The routes of the expressions of form
Stary (1991:134) has constructed a table of
arms and armour of the late Bronze Age and
the Early Iron Age in Sardinia, in Egypt, in
the Near East , in the Mediterranian, and in
Europe (Fig. 1).
Warriors and perhaps gods are dated to1000-
700 B. C. both in Assyria and in Cyprus (Stary
1991:135). One lost bronze statuette from
Mallorca showing soldiers with horned
helmets is lost, but there are such soldiers
depicted on one stele in Corsica and on one
stele from south-western Iberia (Randsborg
1995:176). The horned helmets are also vis-
ible as rock carvings in Bohuslän, on bronze
statuettes in Sardinia, and the real helmets
from Viksö in Denmark.
The warriors are related to prototypes in
Urartu, Luristan, and Phoenician-Syrian cul-
ture (Stary 1991:120).
Horned helmets
To get an understanding of how the forms
of the helmets and the other types of forms,
which I have chosen to study, spread to Scan-
dinavia and to Sardinia, I tried to find the
oldest pictures and/or descriptions of them.
The horned helmets are derived from Mes-
opotamia, Anatolia, and from the Levant
(Sandars 1978:106). In this region bullhorns
were worn on a helmet or as a tiara by the
gods. Naram Sin, king of Akkad in Mesopo-
tamia (2291-2255 B.C.) is portrayed with a
helmet with bullhorns.
On a stele in Ugarit from the 14th century B.C.
there is another god with a horn-decorated
helmet (aa. 106ff).
Maybe it is Baal. A vase from Mycenae, too,
from the 10th century has warriors wearing
horned helmets (Stary 1991:133, Sandars
1978:189). On the wall reliefs at Medinet
Habu in Egypt there are fightings depicted
between pharao Ramessess III and the Sea
Peoples. According to the Amarna letters the
Sea Peoples appeared as mercenaries or as
enemies (O’Connor 2000:85, Vagnetti 2000:
319). Their homeland is unknown but Vag-
netti suggests that it might have been north
of Ugarit, present Ras Shamra, at the border
district between Turkey and Syria. There are
obvious similarities applying to weaponry,
i. e. helmets and round shields, swords and
bows between pictures from Egypt around
1200 B.C. and the bronze statuettes from
Cyprus during the 12th century B. C. and from
Sardinia from 800-700 B.C.
The two gods from Cyprus might have in-
spired to the helmet-dressed bronzes at fig.3,
Sardinia. They are the Horned God even
called The Horned Apollo and The Bearded
Ingot God, both from Enkomi. The first one
is cast in solid bronze and 54,3 cms high. It
is generally believed that it is from the 12th
century (Sandars 1978:148, Winbladh 1992:
31). The bronze shows a muscular anatomy,
37
Fig. 3a. The Horned God Fig. 3b. The Bearded Ingot God
(Anastassiades 2001:5) (Anastassiades 2001:3)
perhaps influenced by the Aegean or the
oriental art (Anastassiades 2001:2f).
The other god is a war god with a spear, a
shield, and a horned helmet. The figure is
a summarized shape and stands on an ox-
hide ingot. It is therefore regarded as the
protector of the copper mines which were
the base of the Cypriotic economy (aa:3).
The two gods were found in different tem-
ples in Encomi at the south-eastern part of
Cyprus. The war god and a bronze warrior
from Sardinia bear a resemblance close to
each other (Fig. 3b and 3c).
The Sea Peoples
During more than a hundred years scholars
have been arguing about the origin of the
Sherden people, i. e. if they are from Sardinia
or not. The Sherdens were described in the
Amarna letters from the 14th century B. C.
38
Fig. 3c. Sardinian warrior
(Lilliu1966:62)
as a warlike people and, if so, they cannot
be Sardinians as no traces of weapons are
found from that time.
”Moreover, in regard to the identification
of the Sherden with warriors of Sardinian
origin, a further difficulty arise from the
almost complete lack of evidence for ar-
mour and weapons in Sardinia in the local
Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Although this
is admittedly an argument ex silentio, it is
rather surprising that, if the Sardinians of
the 14th century were renowned warriors ….
No trace of weaponry has been preserved
in their supposed area of origin” (Vagnetti
2000:319).
High conical hats
Conical hats (Fig. 2:9) were common in the
Near East, in Egypt, in Hellas, in Italy, at the
Iberian peninsula, and in Central Europe.
However, only in Sardinia double-crested
helmets are found (Fig. 2:5). Please observe
that the helmets do not have two horns but
two crests.
Helmets with feathers were common in
Egypt, in Assyria at Assurbanipal’s palace in
Ninehve 668-627 B. C., and even in Cyprus.
Kardiophylakes
These round helmets (Fig. 2:8) were in use as
originals both in Luristan and in Urartu and
are shown as reliefs in Assyria. The helmets
of this type were found in Greek sanctuar-
ies too. This headdress was introduced in
central Italy in the early 7 th century B.C.
from the Middle East together with a strict
military discipline and some cultural influ-
ence. According to Stary the best analogue
representations of this protecting equip-
ment for soldiers were found in Assyria
(Stary 1991:135).
War chariots
There is only one bronze chariot known in
Sardinia. It is a miniature. To use war chariots
in bronze is presumably a natural develop-
ment from the heavy and clumsy wagons
which were pulled by oxen or donkeys. A
close connection between the Maikop cul-
ture in Caucasus and the northern part of
Mesopotamia is noted as early as during the
latter part of the 4th millennium B.C. (Lars-
son 1997:54f). A bronze wheel from around
3000-2500 B.C. with four spokes has been
found in a Kurgan grave nearby Maikop.
During Hattusilis’ reign, 1650-1620 B.C., his
military power was the war chariots with
four spoke-wheels of bronze.
The Trundholm chariot from Denmark, 1500
-1300 B.C., has three pairs of four-spoke
wheels. It is a cult wagon, pulling the sun
made of two bronze discs and one side is
gilded. In Sweden there is a rock carving
at the Kivik grave with a picture of two
horses pulling a two-wheel chariot with a
standing warrior. These two Scandinavian
chariots show that people knew about four
spoke-wheels in the early Bronze Age.
The Hallstadt wagons, HaC, were introduced
by the contact with the Traco-Cimmerian
complex which brought the Assyrian way of
producing chariots (Kristiansen 1998:243).
A comparative study of the expressions of
form of the bronze figurines and the rock
carvings
I wish to stress the expressions of form, not
the symbolic language, of both the bronzes
and the rock carvings. Sometimes it is difficult
to separate them from each other because
we think that we know the meaning of the
form. A line is a line. A cross is also a cross
but can also be deciphered as a Christian
symbol and I think that it is the context that
can show us how we can understand this
sign. It is the forms I am studying and they
do not always have the same value. A high
conical hat in Sardinia was worn by a priest,
but it was a sign of a divinity in the Hittite
kingdom. The form is the same but the value
is not necessarily the same.
The climate changed in Scandinavia during
the last millennium B.C.. It became cooler
and more humid (Coles 1990:9). Research
about the local use of the soil during this
time is still going on – but maybe it had an
influence on the harvest (Lagerås o Regnell
1999:273).
My opinion is that the weather in the cold,
misty North forced people to carve their of-
ferings and prayers in stone – figuratively
speaking – in order to receive more sun and
warmth and in Sardinia they asked for water
and cooler weather. They built water temples
where they offered bronze statuettes to the
water gods. It was a period of draught. The
remarkable thing is that they used the same
expressions of form, in different materials
however.
Adorers
The bronze figurine (Fig.4a) is one of three
similar figures. They are adorers or ceremo-
nially greeting fighters or soldiers. Fig. 4b is
an adorer from Rished, Bohuslän together
with the cloak-dressed man (Fig. 5b) and a
wagon pulled by two oxen. Adorers are of-
ten close to ships, wagons, or other objects
(Coles 1990:25).
39
Fig. 4a (Lilliu 1996:55). Fig. 4b (Coles 1990:71).
Cloak-dressed men
The bronze figure (Fig. 5a) is a tribal chief-
tain since he wears a cloak, a headring, a
frame-hilted dagger, and a staff.
Variations of helmets
Fig. 6a is a small bronze head, just 6.5 cms
high with a plume helmet. I think that it
brings to mind the rock carving from Bro,
(Fig. 6b). Both also have a distinctively marked
nose or bill. Fig. 6c shows a man walking in
Fig. 6 a (Lilliu 1966:98) Fig. 6b (Adoranten 1996)
40
Fig. 5a (Sjöholm 1997) Fig. 5b (Coles 1990:71)
a procession in a long row. All with very
high hats. Randsborg (1993: 114) compares
these with the hats from Schifferstadt in
Germany and with a hat from Avanton
in France. I think a plume helmet can be
proposed too.
Men with horned helmets
Fig.7a represents an adorer or a warrior with
a shield but it is the horned helmet which is
of interest. This bronze warrior has earlier
Fig. 6c (Coles (1996:cover)
 Fig. 7a (Lilliu 1966:62)
been compared with the War God from
Cyprus (Fig. 3b). The rock carving (Fig.7b) is
from Utmark, Bohuslän. More rock figures
from the same place wear horned helmets
– but not all of them
Round shields
In fig. 8a you see a soldier with a shield. The
well known Greek historian and geographer
Strabon described the shields from Sardinia
as small, light and made of leather. (Stary
1991:131) considers that even if Strabon lived
during the first hundred years B.C. it was
probable that the weapons were similar at
that time. The bronze figurine is generally
believed to be a soldier, but with a peculiar
face. The head is very skilfully shaped on the
upper part, but the lower part looks more
Fig. 7b (Coles 1990:85)
like an owl’s head. The rock carving from
Hede in Bohuslän, (Fig. 8b), is a man with
both a shield and a horned helmet and the
last picture (Fig. 8c) is one of the shields of-
fered at Kålland in Västergötland.
Archers
Both the bronze archer from Sardinia (Fig.8a)
and the rock carving (Fig.8b) from Kville,
Bohuslän, have, presumably, small recurve
bows used by the equestrian peoples from
Central Asia. These archers are solidly stand-
ing on the ground and almost never riding
their horses. Longbows have been found in
the Scandinavian finds. There is, however,
one exception. The Sardinian bronzes have
long and short bows but the Sardinians evi-
dently did not use horses in battles (Stary
1991:121).
Men on horses
The bronze man (Fig. 10 a) is probably a hero,
an acrobat, or a divinity, who is carried by
a horse in the sky, launching sunrays in the
41
 Fig. 8 b (Hygen& Bengtsson Fig.8c (Hygen & Bengtsson 1999:82;
1999:109; photo by Utne) photo by Utne)

Fig.8a (Lilliu 1966:247)

form of arrows. In fig. 10 b one man is trying Deer

to separate the horses and another one
is riding. None of the men in these pictures
look like fighting men. Presumably ritual
activities are depicted.
The bronze deer (Fig. 11a) is a gracile statu-
ette in early geometric style. The rock art
deers (Fig.11b) are from Tanum, Bohuslän.

Fig. 9a (Lilliu 1966:70) Fig. 10a (Lilliu 1966 :311).

Fig. 9b (Coles 1990:57)

Fig. 10b (Bengtsson 1995:64).

42
Fig. 11a (Lilliu 1966:34)
Ships
The ships (Fig.12a &12b) are bronze boats
from Sardinia, looked upon as oil lamps.
The rock carving (Fig. 12c) is from Åby,
Bohuslän. According to Coles (1990:84f)
the standards may be big battle-axes, holy
mushrooms, leaves, or spearheads. One of
the standards is similar to the seal belonging
Fig. 12
a (Lilliu 1966:409) b (Lilliu 1966:427)
c (Coles 1990:18) d (Sjöholm 1996 )
a
Fig. 11b (Gudnitz 1962) Fig. 11b (Gudnitz 1962)
to Suppiluliuma (Fig. 13) from Hattusa in the
12th century B.C. (Ceram 1956:80).
The rock art ship from Fossum, Bohuslän,
(Fig.12d) makes me think of the Sardinian
oil lamp, (Fig.12b). Both ships have animal
protomes at the prow and they also have
c
43
Fig.13 Suppiliuma’s Seal (detail)
birds above and sun symbols in form of either
rings or shields.
Studies of the ships in Sardinia show that
they were used as both votives and ordinary
lamps.
The symbol “Sonnenbarkenvogel” during the
Urnfield culture was common in many parts
of Europe and it shows the common tradition
in this area (Kristiansen 1998:65, 169ff).
The Sea Pepoles at Medinat Habu used boats
with seabirds at the prow and at the stern.
To find parallels to them we have to look
at Central Europe. The first “birdships” are
dated to 1250-1200 B.C. in Velem in Hungary
and Satu Mare in Romania (Bouzek1999:59;
Wachsmann 2000:122).
Interpretation of my questions
1. The answer is both yes and no. During
the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age
there are many indications of contact between
Sardinia and the Middle East, but the island
has even had contacts to the west and to the
north. It has an original culture as well, from
which we can see their houses, the nuraghes,
and their special water temples in which peo-
ple offered the bronze votives with sometimes
endemic forms or details.
The rock carvings are described by many au-
thors and many of them have deduced the
forms from the Mediterranian area including
44
Anatolia. That means that Scandinavia has
been influenced by many cultures in differ-
ent ways, directly or indirectly.
2. The answer is yes and no. The problem
is that we either do not understand all the
forms or think that we do understand some
of them. I have chosen pictures that illustrate
similarities of the expressions of form. These
can have different value according to my
way of looking at them.
The Worthiness of the Forms
The adorers in figure 4 show the same worth-
iness of subservience in front of the holiness
or the authorities.
The cloak-dressed men ( Fig. 5) are more
difficult to have an opinion on, because I
do not know if the cloak in Scandinavia is
a sign of a chieftain, a priest, or someone
else. However, the bronze statuette is con-
sidered to be a tribal chieftain, because he
is wearing a cloak, a frame-hilted dagger,
and a head-ring.
Lilliu finds the bronze statuette (Fig.7a)
to be either an adorer or a warrior. If the
figure is an adorer like the ones described
above (Fig.4a) the worthiness is probably
the same in Sardinia as in Scandinavia. We
think that the rock carvings are expressions
of social-religious myths and rituals (Hygen
& Bengtsson 1999:166ff). We look upon the
helmets as warrior equipment. If, instead, the
Water temple in Perfu-
gas (Sjöholm 1997).
Please, imagine the
dome above.
bronze figurine is looked upon as a warrior,
then his helmet is a sign of that and not as a
deity attribute as in the Middle East and in
Cyprus. If so, the worthiness of the helmet
is different.
The shields (Fig. 8a—c) are common in the
whole Mediterranian area as well as into
Scandinavia. The bronze figure is maybe
wearing a shield of leather as protection.
The head of the soldier is a mixture of a hu-
man and a bird’s head. That might be due
to religious reasons. In Scandinavia we look
upon the bronze shields (Fig.8c) from Kål-
land as sun symbols and they were offered in
the water. If they were sun symbols and the
bronze soldier wore protection, it seems to
be different worthinesses of the shields.
Fig. 9a, 9b &10a are archers. The first two
have short, easy bows like the Central Asiatic
equestrian peoples, but both men are safely
standing on the ground. These archers are
used in ritual situations both in Sardinia and
in Scandinavia.
The bronze statuette (Fig. 10a) is standing
on horseback and is tied together with the
horse. There is only one riding archer in the
rock carvings in Tanum in Bohuslän. If the
interpretation of the bronze divinity is cor-
rect and the bow is a short Asiatic one, it is
possible to see all three as ritual attributes
with the same worthiness.
In the Hittite lands the deer was a god and
its name was Kurunta. The Celts called their
god Cernunnos (Hygen & Bengtsson 1999:36).
In Scandinavia we saw the deer as a symbol
of life, renewal, rebirth, and passage of time
(aa:115). The deer is truly a holy animal in
Scandinavia and perhaps even in Sardinia.
I have written about the chariots and to
be observed wheels are common on rock
carvings but nearly non existing in antique
Sardinia As far as I know there are only one
miniature wheel with four spokes and one
miniature chariot with two four-spoked
wheels. Because of these few finds of wheel
crosses that form cannot have the same im-
portance at Sardinia as in Scandinavia.
Summary
I have tried to find out why Sardinian bronzes
and Scandinavian rock carvings during the
Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age have
the same expressions of form.
I have been working with two questions.
1. Are the forms inspired by the cultures
in the eastern part of the Mediterranian
area?
2. Is the worthiness of the forms similar in
Scandinavia and in Sardinia during these
periods?
Sardinia has not been part of the earlier
cultures like the Minoan or the Mycenaean
45
cultures. There have been sporadic contacts.
Not until the Phoenicians founded trading
places on the island, permanent contact was
established. Water temples are only found
among the Nuraghic people. They were prob-
ably built during a period of draught. Above
all in these temples the bronze statuettes
were offered, forms which I often find similar
to the rock carvings in Bohuslän.
It is fascinating that people in Sardinia had
a lack of water. Up in the damp and cold
Nordic countries people expressed themselves
in the same forms but in a different mate-
rial. In my opinion the Sardinians prayed to
their gods for more water and in the north
people asked for less water with the same
sign language.
With my pictures I have shown many similari-
ties of the forms but there are differences
too, of course. One of them is, for instance,
all the details of the equipment of the
warriors and that the bronzes are three-
dimensional.
I find it very probable that ideas and ex-
pressions of form were born in the cultures
around the eastern part of the Mediterra-
nian and were handled in different ways in
Sardinia and in Scandinavia.
Åsa Sjöholm
sjoebert@telia.com
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