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DPM
18,4

Towards setting a sustainable

manufacturing safety programme
in Nigeria

388

K.A. Adebiyi
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria, and

O.E. Charles-Owaba
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Purpose The manufacturing industry in Nigeria often perceives government safety standards as
an attempt to increase production cost. This is due to lack of acceptable template for setting an
attainable standards and safety programme to the manufacturing industry. It is the goal of this work
to develop such a template for an effective and sustainable manufacturing safety programme.
Design/methodology/approach A total of 30 manufacturing firms were examined and five
experienced manufacturing, and three safety engineers interviewed for information on types of SP
activities. Review and synthesis of literature was carried out.
Findings Four types of accidents are identified as fatal, serious, minor and trivial wounds.
Accidents causing factors are classified into human factor, deficient maintenance of facilities and
environmental factors. The prevention activities were categorized into training, guarding, awareness,
incentive, accident investigation and personal protective equipment (PPE).
Practical implications This study provides baseline information for academics, industry and
safety practioners to setting an attainable and effective manufacturing safety programme.
Originality/value The paper suggests a mathematical approach for developing a manufacturing
safety programme.
Keywords Accidents, Safety measures, Accident prevention, Nigeria
Paper type Research paper

Disaster Prevention and Management

Vol. 18 No. 4, 2009
pp. 388-396
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0965-3562
DOI 10.1108/09653560910984447

Introduction
One area in which the concern for safety is growing rapidly is the manufacturing
industry. Apart from cost due to downtime, overtime work, loss of wages and
equipment and hospitalization, the tragedy associated with personal injury, disability
and fatality is enormous (Duignan, 2002). In respect of fatalities, industrial accidents
take the third place after vehicular accidents and homicide (Watch Tower, 2000). In the
USA, it is about 6,500 fatalities per year; 9 million of deaths and disabling injuries
(Roland and Moriarty, 1990). In the UK, 1.6 million of injury accidents and 27 million of
non-injury accidents are recorded annually (Phelps, 1999). In Australia, fatalities were
2.6 per 100,000 employees while injury rate was 2.7 per 1,000 employees in 2002-2003
(NOHSC, 2004). In India, overall injury rate was 1.25 per 1,000 workers per year
(Mohan et al., 2004); and 37 per cent of all reported accidents in Lebanon (Fayad et al.,
2003). In the Latin America and Caribbean region, the number is as high as 13.5 per
100,000; 34 per 100,000 workers in the Republic of Korea and 140 per 1,000 of reported
accidents in Iran (Roudsari and Ghodsi, 2005). In Finland, 20,016 hospitalization for

injuries were recorded between 1990 and 1999 (Mattila et al., 2006); in France 862 500
occupational accidents including 1,597 fatalities were recorded in year 2000 alone
(Fadier and De la Garza, 2006). In Nigeria, the situation may be worse, as inferred in the
following report by Nigerian Institute of Safety Professionals (NISP) (NISP, 2000):
over 11,000 people die from on-the-job accidents each year and a worker is injured
every 18 seconds in chemical industries in Nigeria.
In many nations, regulatory agencies are saddled with the task of ensuring that
industry conforms to Government safety programme standards. The National Institute
of Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH) pursues active programmes of research
surveillance, prevention interventions, information dissemination, and health
professional education in order to prevent work-related illness, injury, disability, and
death. Other agencies with similar responsibility include: European Agency for Safety
and Health at Work (EASHW); European Network for Workplace Health Promotion
(ENWHP); Health and Safety Executive (HSE); Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA); American National Standard Institute (ANSI); Standards
Organization of Nigeria (SON); and Royal Society for Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA).
In addition, the intermediaries such as Small Business Service, Chambers of Commerce,
Learning and Skills Councils, Trade and Professional Associations, Health and Safety
Consultants and Good Neighbours contribute a lot in the provision of information,
advice and training courses.
Despite the large numbers of national and international safety monitoring and
enforcement agencies, hazardous conditions are still prevalent in manufacturing. As
earlier mentioned, industrial losses of lives, limbs; machine-hours and man-hours of
labour and revenue through accidents persist. There seems a significant
communication gap between these agencies and the manufacturing industry. While
the former may be zealous about their job calling upon industry to invest and
effectively manage safety programmes, the latter often perceives enforcement of safety
standards as cost increasing. Consequently, rather than comply, they often resist safety
regulatory agencies.
The main goal of this study to develop a template for a manufacturing safety
programme development and management. It is hoped that the template will provide a
framework for identifying the interrelationship between accident causing and
prevention parameters relevant for controlling safety programme rather than taking
static snapshots decision on development of the safety programme.
Methodology
In the process, audio and visual inspections; data vetting; personnel interviews; review
of previous work; participation in selected safety programme activities and dynamic
group decision approaches were employed. The safety programme variables,
parameters, inputs and outputs were identified from two main categories of
activities; accident causing and prevention activities.
Discussions
General findings
The process of defining, developing and documenting key variables and relationships
of the manufacturing safety programme template consist the knowledge of the
stakeholders in the manufacturing industry (manufacturing engineers, safety

A manufacturing
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390

engineers, factory workers and the management). The template seeks to integrate and
capture the types and number of accidents causing and prevention variables. In the
process, four types of accidents are identified as fatal, serious, minor and trivial
wounds. Accidents causing factors are classified into human factor, deficient
maintenance of facilities and environmental factors. Also, the prevention activities
were categorized into training, guarding, awareness, incentive, accident investigation
and personal protective equipment (PPE).
Accidents causing factors
After extensive review of previous work and the vetting of the records of thirty
manufacturing companies in Nigeria, it was observed that human factors, deficiency in
maintenance of facilities and the working environment contributed accident-causing
components (Huetter, 1997; Phelps, 1999; Psychol, 1999; FAASSH, 2000).
Most studies have shown that human factors account for 85 per cent to 95 per cent
of all accidents (Rasmussen, 1982; FAASSH, 2000; Leverson, 2004). These human
factors include error judgments, wrong method of work, carelessness or negligence and
violation of rules/order. Joiner (2005) reported that 80 per cent to 90 per cent of all
workplace accidents, regardless of industry are caused by critical errors involving the
following four unintentional risk behaviours or habit:
(1) eyes not on task;
(2) mind not on task;
(3) moving into or being in line with fire; and
(4) loss of balance, traction and/or grip.
Also the human states that typically contribute to and sometimes even cause the
at-risk behaviours are identified as rushing, fatigue, frustration and complacency
(FAASSH, 2000; Joiner, 2005). Darby et al. (2005) reported that different types of
violations and the mechanism that drive them provide important clues about the
factors that affect unsafe behaviour. However, the various types and some of the
mechanisms contributing to their occurrence are given in Table I.
Carnero (2005) stated that best maintenance practice could be determined by
improved reliability and safety. According to Darby et al. (2005), Joiner (2005), Carnero
(2005) and Williams (1984), there exists a correlation between maintenance and safety.
According to Barber and Donovan (1988), Adebiyi et al. (2005) and Burns (2006), a
list of maintenance faults causing accidents include; unsafe operation of system during
maintenance, incomplete installation of parts, incorrect assembly of parts; incorrect
tool usage; incorrect equipment/part installed; part damaged during repair.
A hazardous environment has been said to have continual impact on the safety and
efficiency of operations in manufacturing industry. Darby et al. (2005) stated that
without positive climate, it could be said that there is already resistance in the
environment into which safety schemes and programmes are being implemented,
possibly dooming any programme to failure at the outset. Jenkins (2005) stated that
heat exhaustion can cause industrial accidents such as machinery mishaps, elevation
fall and mistakes in handling hazardous materials, leading to dizziness, fatigue and
confusion set in by heat stress. Environmental factors that result into accidents include
housekeeping, poor ventilation, poor layout, excessive noise and weather (heat).

Violation

Behaviour

Contributing factors

Routine

Breaking the rules and procedures becomes

the normal way of working within a group.
May be unaware of the rules or unaware
they are deviating

Repetitive/automatic work
Violations rarely punished
Compliance not rewarded
Reasons for this type of violation:
Cutting corners to save time and
energy
Rules perceived as too restrictive
Belief that the rules no longer apply
Lack of rule enforcement
New workers thinking norm of
incorrect practice is correct
Pressure from the job such as:
Time
Insufficient staff for the workload
Correct equipment unavailable
Extreme weather conditions
Working at night
Unfamiliar situations
Lack of relevant training
Inadequate level of training
Time pressures

Situational

Difficulty complying with rules due to

situational circumstances

Exceptional Belief that benefits outweigh the risks

Source: Darby et al., 2005

Aggrawal (1990) stated bad house keeping results in large number of accidents which
are caused by men tripping on loose objects on floor, stairs and platforms, hit by article
falling, slip on wet or greasy floors and run against poorly pile or poorly placed
materials. In addition, presence of unnecessary flammable or combustible materials
helps in spreading fires.
Forastieri (1999) stated that poor layout increases potential hazard. This results due
to lack of proper layout of work and storage places and poor designed succession of
work operations and workflow.
Industrial noise reduces alternatives, increases energy losses by similar physical
effort, slower the response of psychic reactions. Coordination of movement is disrupted
and labour productivity is reduced. Noise prevents quick response to sound signals
from travelling cranes and loaders, etc, which may lead to injuries. Cheung (2005)
stated that work zones in which loudness level exceed 85 db must be noted with danger
signs and workers be provided with personal protective equipment. Presence (even
short stay) of persons in work zones where level of sound pressure exceed 135 db is
prohibited.
The prevention activities
The main objective of accident prevention activities is to ensure that the risk to
peoples health and safety of work activities are properly controlled The accident
prevention activities were identified through visual inspection, interviews of five
manufacturing and three safety engineers and vetting of the records. The quantities
were found to come from the following: training, awareness creation, guarding,

A manufacturing
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391

Table I.
Classification of
violations and
contributing factors

DPM
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S/N

Main type

Components of main activities

1.

Training

2.

Awareness creation

3.

Guarding

Development of operators ability to recognize and control

occupational hazards in clusters through participation
learning techniques at work sites and formal discussion
classroom training
Safety educational workshops, seminars open to all staff
Training safety officers through certificate programmes on
industrial safety
Weekly fire fighting drills
Provision of companys funded counseling service externally
staffed
Organizing an ergonomics survey of work stations and
systems
Timely maintenance of malfunction machines
Adaptation of unsafe machines
Promotion of appropriate use of tools
Compliance with the provisions and use of work equipment
regulations
Preparation of a number of documents for spreading safety
related information such as the use of posters, bills, signs and
signals
Film show on industrial safety
Collection and dissemination of information relating to
industrial safety through quarterly or annual reports;
magazine, journal articles etc. and wide circulation among
top management and staff
Wide publicity through celebration of fire safety week; world
environment day
Staging exhibition of bad and good practices
Periodic meeting of heads of industrial units to review
results
Provision of communication within workplace
Workplace-related activities:
Provide adequate machine guards
Good maintenance practice
Installation of automatic control systems
Systematic monitoring of incidence of safety
Earthen of people (employee on job)
Use of static eliminators
Shield of work place
Provision of clear walkways
Elimination of manual lifting which can strain workers
Provision of companys funded fitness facilities
Provision of sound absorption equipment
Immunization of employee against health hazard
Provide guard rails, aerial lifts with work platforms
Prohibit workers from walking/working on the surfaces on
the surfaces that have been finished coated with paint
Periodic examination of installed facilities for corrosion
detection and prevention
(continued)

392

Table II.
Prevention quantities and
their main activities

S/N

Main type

4.

Accident investigation

5.

Motivation of workers and

safety personnel

6.

Personal protective
equipment (PPE)

Components of main activities

Work method:
Space planning by matching the working environment and
equipment to the abilities and preference of the staff who use
the
MImproving work organization by planning work well in
advance or increasing the workforce
Employee job or role re-design
Re-design of workspace, stacking shelves and warehouse
operations where manual handling is required
Execute closed loop procedures to ensure that required safety
controls are actually implemented
Institution of standard operating procedure/loop
manufacturing practice
Noisy operation grouping in one area
Regular inspection/maintenance of machines to reduce noise
Limiting noise exposure by rotating personnel
Organizing an ergonomic survey of workstations and
systems
Periodic safety audit and implementation of its
recommendation
Publication/accident reporting through periodicals,
magazines, journal articles, newsletters, etc.
Systematic monitoring of incidence of safety
Institution of task force or committee mandated to manage
safety
Periodic meetings of heads of industrial units to review
results
Institution of emergency response team (first-aid)
Safety award scheme on good housekeeping
Healthy safety completion among the employees/sites
Holding suggestion completion, offering prizes to the best
ideas which can reduce safety
Promotional programme on leaving conservation
Safety celebration
Ear plugs, ear muffs, protective helmets, safety boot, hand
gloves, apron, radiation suit, heat/cold protection suit, goggles,
nose muff, head shield and body earthen

accident investigation, motivation and use of personal protective equipment. The

details of each activity are presented Table II.
It was discovered that the safety programme performance may be affected by
training (Amneelo, 2000; Rantaneen, 1997; Psychol, 1999; Williams, 1984). The intent of
various training techniques is to enable workers sense the existence of unsafe practices
and unsafe condition s and avoid them voluntarily. With this approach the workers are
acquainted with the key factors that cause accidents and measure for eliminating them.
For effectiveness such training should be for all.members of staff. According to Asikpo
(1998), IME (2001), Kitumbo (1997), Anibueze (1992) Atambo (1999), Paul (2001) and
Saari (1999) information dissemination and awareness creation on safety tend to

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393

Table II.

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sensitize on the need to prevent accident occurrence. This leads to improved

productivity and thus enhances profitability (Raad, 1999; Duignan, 2002).
Moreover, accident investigation (Roland and Moriarty, 1999); management policy
(NISP, 2000; Paul, 2001); maintenance (Inegbenebor and Olalekan, 2002); quality of
supervision and ergonomics (Firth, 1996; Caws, 2002; Far, 2002); research (Psychol,
1999); workplace design, work method and physical environment (Luopajarvi and
Ketola, 1997; Sacks et al., 2002); and personal protective equipment are all carried out to
ensure that the circumstances leading to the incident are disturbed. Also to take the
steps against the recurrence of accidents that has once occurred. This will reveal the
areas in which accident efforts should aim at. Aggrawal (1990) and Walker and Tait
(2004) stated that workers should be motivated to work cautiously and to follow the
safety regulations to prevent accidents.
Conclusions
In this study the possibility of developing a manufacturing safety programmme
template was carried out. In the process manufacturing systems were examined and
safety engineers interviewed; manufacturing accident causing factors and safety
programme accident prevention activities were identified.
The number of accidents causing factors is classified into human factor, deficient
maintenance and environmental factors. Also, prevention activities are classified into
training, guarding, awareness, incentive, accident investigation and personal
protective equipment (PPE). These provide baseline information for setting a
profitable manufacturing safety programme.
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Corresponding author
K.A. Adebiyi can be contacted at: engradebiyi@yahoo.com

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