Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the Degree
of Master of Science in Chemical Engineering
by
Allen N. Smith
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FRICTION LOSSES IN
KI
i4
Approved:
ZlZf/3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
On the completion of this work I wish to express my
appreciation to Dr. Jesse W. Mason, who suggested and directed
this problem.
TABLE OP CONTENTS
>
Acknowledgments
....,
List of Tables
*........
Introduction *
Literature Survey
1
*...
Purpose
.
,
Theory
1
^.....
Equipment
36
38
37
37
11
16
Discussion
Curves
6
6
..,
Procedure
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ii
iv
List of Figures
Conclusions .
PAGE
39
40
APPENDIX
Sample Calculations
41
iv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
I.
II
PAGE
Straight Pipe
18
20
22
26
Gate Valve
28
Comparison of Values
30
32
IX. Y
X.
24
34
36
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
12
Test Section
14
......
14
15
19
21
23
25
27
4.
10.
29
11.
31
12.
33
35
FRICTION LOSSES IN
s
INTRODUCTION
Literature Survey
"When a fluid flows through a pipe line consisting of straight
pipe and fittings, there is a definite loss of pressure due to friction,
This loss of head is often considerable and has been investigated many
time s
Prof, F, E. Giesecke (1) was the first to investigate the friction
loss caused by a fitting. He developed certain exponential formulae for
the friction loss of head of water flowing through standard American pipes
and fittings. Briefly summarized, the method of test was to allow water
to flow from one tank to another, with and without the given pipes and
fittings in the connecting line. In this manner, elbows of one-half inch
to three inches nominal size pipe diameters were tested.
D. E. Foster (2) prepared a table tabulating friction losses for
various type fittings ranging from one-half inch to twelve inches in dia~
meter. Foster*s work consisted of the rearrangement of a formula developed
2
by Meier (3). Giesecke criticized Foster's values, saying that they were
inaccurate and based on mistaken assumptions. He stated that Meier's
factor of resistance "r"., was not a constant for each type of. fitting,
but varied with the diameter, and that Foster assumed a constant value;
thus Foster's values could not be applied to every diameter. Subsequent
investigations by Giesecke confirmed the fact that Foster's calculated
values were not checked by experimental evidence.
Until 1920 comparatively little reliable experimental work had
been performed on the flow of very viscous liquids through commercial
pipes and practically none had touched on the frictional resistance of
fittings in viscous flow. Wilson, McAdams, and Seltzer (4) conducted
many experiments on viscous flow through elbows and the determination
of correction factors for the pressure drop around bends. Elbows of
three sizes, one-inch, two-inch, and four-inch were tested. A manometer measured the pressure drop around the bends, which in each case
consisted of two standard ninety degree elbows connected by a close
nipple with straight pipe leading to the manometer connections which
were forty diameters on each side of the elbows. The one-inch elbows
were separated by a spacer one foot, eight and three-eighths inches in
length, the two inch elbows by a spacer one foot, one inch in length
and the four inch elbows by a spacer one and one-quarter inches in length
The pressure drop through the straight pipe between manometer connections
(excluding the two elbows) was calculated from the data secured at the
same time on straight pipe alone, and the amount was subtracted from the
total pressure drop around the bend.
It indi-
cates that whenever two elbows are necessary in a pipe line, they should
be installed as close together as possible. Corp and Hartwell also studied the losses in head for U, S, and twisted S pipe bends.
This investi-
gation disclosed that fifty per cent or more of the loss occasioned by an
elbow occurs in the straight pipe below the fittings. Further they determined that losses due to the presence of bends in a pipe line are of two
different origins; first, those due to eddying and disturbances of normal
velocity distribution by virtue of the curvature or change of direction
of flow; secondly, losses due to increased friction and interference because of diameter changes, differences of interior surfaces, unevenness
of pipe connections, and changes in shape or form of passage.
4
Corp and Ruble (6) conducted experiments on the loss of head in
valves and pipes of one-half inch to twelve inches in diameter. Valves,
both globe and gate, were investigated for friotional losses a,t various
openings.
vestigated.
The effect of piezometer rings in a test line also was inTheir results indicated that the loss of head due to valves
and other fittings occurs in part within the valve or fitting and in part
as an added loss in the pipe line downstream where normal flow has been
disturbed.
meter is attached too near the valve will give a loss in excess of that
actually produced. From twenty to twenty-five pipe diameters beyondthe
valve will probably give the best position for the downstream piezometer
opening. According to their paper, globe valves offer from fifteen to
forty times the resistance of gate valves for the same size pipe. This
ratio increases with the increase in the size of valves.
The length of
straight pipe of the valve size which will produce the same loss of head
varies from three-quarters of a foot to four feet for fully open gate
valves and from twenty to thirty-five feet for fully open globe valves.
Additional work in the determination of loss of head in standard
elbows and tees was conducted at Lafayette College by L. Perry (7)
Standard one-inch, one and one-half inch, two and one-half inch, and
three inch elbows and tees were used in the four different size pipe
lines.
5
a carefully calibrated tank and the velocity calculated.
Overflows were
The lost
head was measured in each case by making piezometric connections to differential gages. Particular care was taken to have these connections
just flush with the inside of the pipe. These connections were made four
to seven inches above and six to eight inches below the fitting.
The
The pressure
the pressure loss due to friction in fittings is dependent upon the velocity of flow. Due to the fact that the manometer connections were placed
too close to the test fitting, it is highly probable that these results
are inaccurate,
6
Purpose
The object of the experimental work described herein was to fill
in the gaps in the existing data on the flow of fluids in pipes of commercial size and roughness in the viscous flow region and in the critical
region between viscous and turbulent flow; and to determine with reasonable accuracy correction factors for the pressure drop through fittings
and valves.
This subject is very important for almost every engineer, operating man and designer alike, has frequent need to determine in advance
the frictional pressure drop that is to be expected when some fluid with
which he is concerned is to be forced or drawn through a pipe line containing various fittings and valves,
From the preceding survey it is noted that, in spite of the fact
that a great deal of work has been conducted on this phase of fluid flow,
there is a considerable variation in the results*
gation was undertaken to check this previous work and establish the correct results.
Since straight pipe data is correlated with Reynolds number it
seemed logical to present losses in fittings in this manner. Therefore,
in design of piping installations the friction loss values in equivalent
feet of various type fittings can be conveniently read from a graph once
the Reynolds number is known*
A series of manometer connections was constructed on each side
of the fitting in order to obtain an accurate measurement of the total
loss caused by the fitting. Five feet of pipe separated the last
It was be-
8
Theory
The friction loss of a fluid flowing through a pipe is but a
special case of a general law of the resistance between a solid, and
fluid in relative motion.
immersed in a fluid stream and the velocity of the fluid past the body
is small in comparison with the velocity of sound, it hes been found
experimentally that the resisting force depends only on the roughness,
size, and shape of the solid and on the velocity, density, and viscosity of the fluid.
P/A
p u % *' ( W ; )
d)
where
F * the total resisting force,
A the area of the body.
u the velocity of the fluid past the body,
p - the density of the fluid.
D = the diameter,
jx the viscosity of the fluid*
*
9
and the F/A of equation (l). The pressure drop will equal this product
divided by the cross-sectional area of the pipe, since pressure is
measured in force per unit area.
(9)
*>
(2)
(3)
or
where
AP^ s pressure drop due to friction in pounds per square foot*
F/A * resisting force in foot-pounds per square foot of contact
area.
L length of pipe in feet.
D inside diameter of pipe in feet.
p density of fluid in pounds per cubic foot.
u a average velocity of fluid in feet per second.
u viscosity of fluid in English units.
g acceleration of gravity.
A L
there are two general types of motion for fluids - usually called
10
viscous and turbulent flow. Viscous flow is characteristic of low velocities, small pipes or very viscous liquids. In this form of motion, all
of the particles move in lines parallel to the movement of th mass as a
whole.
The
11
EQUIPMENT
brated orifice for determining the rate of flow through the pipe and
fittings, a pipe line containing the test fitting, a stretch of straight
pipe, valves for controlling the rates of flow and a manometer for measuring the pressure drop across the lines and fittings. Mercury thermometers were provided to indicate the temperatures of the oil at entrance
and exit,
Only standard one-inch galvanized iron pipe fittings and one-inch
brass globe and gate valves were tested. The fittings tested were:
(1) a ninety degree elbow,
(2) a forty-five degree elbow,
(3) a tee, (oil entering branch),
(4) a tee, (oil leaving branch).
(5) a Y, (oil leaving branch).
(6) a cross, (oil leaving branch).
No data was found in the literature on fittings, (5) and (6),
The test line in which the fitting was tested consisted of manometer connections at one foot intervals for five feet on each side of
the fitting being tested.
GcCKv^A Jch^NFRICTION
LOW
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or
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EAj>zR>ME*r*L
LAYOUT
13
any two points on opposite sides of the test fitting may be determined.
Mercury manometers were used both for velocity determinations and for
measurement of the loss in head due to the test fitting";
In figure 4 is shown the entire section of straight pipe. This
pipe is 78.5 feet in length and consists of six sections of pipe connected by four couplings with a return bend. Since the friction loss
through a coupling is extremely small, an error would not be introduced
by assuming it to be negligible.
The piezometer connections were constructed as follows: at four
equally spaced points on the pipe, one-sixteenth inch holes were drilled
completely through the pipe, A detailed drawing of this construction
appears in Figure 1. After this drilling, some burrs remained on the
inside of the pipe. These burrs were removed by a specially machined
reamer in order to prevent any disturbance to the fluid flow.
A lead to the manometer was constructed by the use of a piece
of on and one-fourth inch pipe one inch in length as a collar around
the drilled holes. A small groove was cut on the inside of the collar
to allow the fluid to flow freely from all four holes and then a hole
one-eighth of an inch in diameter was bored in the collar so as to be
exactly in line with the groove. The collar was brazed to the pipe
and a petcock was inserted into the collar in order that manometer
readings could be taken at the various points without breaking any
connections.
of determining the pressure drop at any point along the pipe without
causing any disturbance in the fluid flow.
14
KS
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Figure 2
Figure 3#
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'
Test Section
15
Figure 4.
16
PROCEDURE
A series of runs was made at various oil temperatures varying
from low to high rates of flow and vice versa.
from the constant head tank through the lines until the entire system
was brought to a state of equilibrium.
recorded and the velocity obtained from the reading of the manometer
attached to the orifice.
were then opened to flush out the air. All valves were then closed.
Referring to Figure 2, the pair of needle valves marked 1-1
were opened and the manometer reading recorded.
It is obvious that
at various velocities.
The results obtained were converted into friction loss in feet
of oil and plotted against the feet of pipe.
line was extrapolated past the zero point until it intersected the
negative abscissa.
tion of the line with the ordinate gave the friction loss in feet of
oil caused by the fitting.
sults are included in the tabulated data. The most convenient method
of expressing the frictional resistance due to an elbow of given si2e
is in terms of the equivalent length of straight pipe which will give
the same resistance to the flow of a given fluid.
It is customary to
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TABLE II
45 Elbow
Oil Temp.
OF
95
98
102
104
106
110
115
120
124
127
130
132
135
138
140
143
146
150
153
156
160
163
166
172
175
178
182
185
188
191
194
198
200
203
206
208
210
Velocity
ft/sec
Reynolds No.
Re
Equivalent
Graph.
Length
Calc.
Head Loss
AH f
1.60
1.70
1.79
1.84
1.92
2.15
2.30
2.42
2.51
2.57
2.60
2.65
2.74
2.82
2.89
2.94
3.00
3.12
3.20
3.28
3.32
3.36
3.44
3.50
3.54
3.56
3.58
3.59
3.62
3.63
3.64
3.66
3.68
3.70
3.71
3.72
3.73
81
95
114
127
142
180
227
278
331
375
407
442
500
560
595
659
729
835
920
1,015
1,150
1,215
1,295
1,470
1,580
1,700
1,820
1,905
2,020
2,140
2,200
2,450
2,540
2,670
2,830
2,920
3,060
0.10
0.14
0.21
0.22
025
0.38
0.41
0.50
0.61
0.70
0.76
0.82
0.91
0.94
0.97
1.12
1.18
1.22
1.40
1.42
1.43
1.48
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.29
0.33
0.40
0.49
0.61
0.67
0.75
0.87
0.90
0.93
1.07
1.11
1.25
1.34
1.46
1.47
1.47
1.47
1.48
1.48
1.48
1.50
1.51
1.51
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.55
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.18
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
TABLE I I I
Glob Valve
>.
Oil Temp.
OF
92
95
98
102
105
108
112
115
120
124
127
130
133
136
140
143
146
150
153
156
160
163
166
172
175
178
180
183
187
190
193
197
200
205
Velocity
ft/sec
1.27
1.47
1.58
1.72
1.81
1.93
2.08
2.15
2.30
2.42
2.50
2.53
2.62
2.68
2.76
2.86
2.90
2.99
3.06
3.10
3.17
3.24
3.26
3.34
3.36
3.40
3.41
3.44
3.46
3.48
3.48
3.54
3.56
3.60
Reynolds No,
Re
57
74
89
110
128
150
185
212
263
319
365
400
456
500
570
642
705
802
880
960
1,064
1,175
1,230
1,410
1,502
1,616
1,670
1,770
1,900
2,038
2,143
2,320
2,450
2,680
Equivalent
Graph.
Length
Calc.
Head Loss
A%
1.48
1.48
1.54
1.60
1.73
2.08
2.50
2.90
3.52
3.70
4.00
4.40
., 5.70
6.28
6.65
7.60
8.06
8.40
8.70
9.00
9.32
9.32
9.32
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
9.41
1.25
1.26
1.33
1.36
1.51
1.76
2.20
2.62
3.09
3.60
3.95
4.40
5.48
6.00
6.70
7.60
8.12
8.99
9.80
10.61
10,69
10.69
10.69
10.90
11.00
11.00
11.02
11.02
11.08
11.40
11.50
11.29
11.38
11.40
0.60
0.60
0.61
0.S4
0.70
0.79
0.94
1.05
1.19
1.30
1.34
1.40
1.60
1.66
1.72
1.83
1.86
1.90
1.90
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
1.95
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IkBLE V
Tee (Oil entering branch)
Velocity
ft/sec
Equivalent
Graph.
Length
Calc.
Head Los
AH f
56
65
90
127
156
185
217
252
292
366
405
495
547
617
676
746
824
955
1,048
1,128
1,205
1,300
1,385
0.20
0.30
0.37
0.40
0.49
0.69
0.71
0.91
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.51
1.70
1.90
2.10
2.41
2.80
2.91
3.10
3.20
3.24
3.38
3.40
0.19
0.22
0.28
0.28
0.39
0.53
0.80
0.80
0.88
1.05
1.26
1.47
1.60
1.69
2.00
2.28
2.66
3.07
3.16
3.34
3.35
3.35
3.35
0.10
0.12
0.15
0.15
0.20
0.26
0.32
0.35
0.37
0.40
0.45
0.46
0.49
0.53
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
3.57
1,470
3.40
3.35
0.65
3.60
3.62
3.64
3.66
3.69
3.72
3.73
3.76
3.77
3.78
3.79
3.80
3.82
3.83
3.83
3.84
1,580
1,680
1,790
1,882
1,988
2,130
2^260
2,380
2,430
2,525
2,610
2,720
2,785
2,918
3,010
3,082
3.47
3.47
3.47
3.47
3.47
3.47
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.35
3.35
3.35
3.35
3.35
3.35
3.39
3.39
3.39
3.41
3.41
3.41
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
0.65
0.65
0.S5
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.85
0.65
0.65
1.31
1.45
1.71
1.98
2.11
2.22
2.32
2.42
2.52
2.66
2.72
2.84
2.92
3.00
3.08
3.15
3.22
3.32
3.38
3.42
3.43
3.48
3.54
Reynolds No.
Re
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W W W ^ ^ W i O C O t ^ a J O O O O r H i H i H i H r H H i ^ r H r H r H i H ^ H H r T i H r ^ i H r H r H
O P O O O O O O O O i H r ^ r H i ^ r H i H r ^ r ^ i H i H i H i H r H r H i H ^ r H r H r H r H i H r - * r H r -
O O P O O O O O O O O O O O O P O O O O O O O O P O O P O O O O O O
.S
to to ^
-P o
ttfiH
d
t~COCOCftOr^CVllOb-OSlO^OCVlDCrHTjCOa3#HtOCDCVie0^si*^^^'#'>l^C-O O O O H H H H H H W N W n n W ^ ^ ^ ^ l O l O l D t O t C i C O t O t D f f i t O W l O t O l f l
-3
O O P O O O O O O O O O O O O O O P O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
<D O
-P
<r> XJ
i-H
cri
P4
C*
u
o
>
H
o1
w
lO tO
tCOCftO^OJCsa^OtOCiH^OiHU>OOOiHC\l^CWCV3^C^C^t-^^t^C^^I>-t^
O O O H H H H H C \ J N N W 6 0 ^ < * s t < ^ ^ l O l O l O l O ) < O ^ O t O ) t O < C t O < O t O
O O O P O O O O O O O O P O O O O O O P O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
55
M
x>
I-I
Q
&
I f l W O i O J N C O l O t O i O t O i l X O ^ i J l N ^ W l O N W O C O i a O O O l O O O l O l O O l O O
( 0 - * ^ U 5 ^ 0 ) H [ 0 0 ( J > N U 3 0 t O ( J > ' * G O < O M O ) 0 > < 0 ' * < O S W W s | t l O ( C O H t O O
iH i-H H H N N 6 0 C O t O ^ ' # l O t O t O C > - 0 0 ( J > O H C M W s | ( l O O t - 0 1 0 < M
H H H H H H H H H W N
Ptf
>
-P
H <D
O^ W
o \
t-
inrosHCVj^CNj^OOCSlOOsHC\ltOOOLOCNllOCvJ^s|<CVl^lOC\J^pU5PlOOsHlO^
C n O H N N t O f O O O O H H N W ^ ^ U H O N O C O O J O O H N C M W W ^ ^ ^ t O l O l O
cvjcvicvjcvicvjcvjcvacjcvjcvipjcvicvicocotocotoeotOftoeosototoco
+>
<D < M
>
Q*
S
Q>
e-
H O
H
Cn
S S 2 3
^ 2 5 5
0 6 0 ( D
l : s 0 e 0 ( C
o w ) O w c o o i o t o o t o t o o w ( o o w
C O O f t a i ^ O O O H H H O J N N W t O K ^ ^ ^ i O l O t O C O O t D S N N C n r o C O O C D
F^rHiHiHiHiHiHiHiHiHiH^iHiHiHiHiHiHi^iHi^i-4i-tr-{fHiHiHiHiH
30
TA.BLE VII
Tee ( O i l l e a v i n g branch)
Oil Temp.
op
88
90
96
99
105
108
110
112
116
118
121
125
128
132
135
139
142
145
150
154
156
160
165
170
173
175
180
183
185
186
187
191
197
200
202
205
207
208
Velocity
ft/sec
1.30
1.38
1.62
1.69
1.92
2.04
2.15
2.22
2.36
2.42
2.52
2.63
2.72
2.80
2.93
3.04
3.12
3.18
3.28
3.35
3.39
3.48
3.54
3.60
3.62
3.64
3,68
3.70
3.73
3.73
3.74
3.76
3.77
3.82
3.84
3.86
3.86
3.88
Reynolds No.
Re
51
59
85
99
138
150
161
200
246
266
306
357
408
466
534
625
685
753
880
980
1,058
1,168
1,322
1,452
1,550
1,630
1,808
1,905
1,980
2,005
2,060
2,240
2,500
2,630
2,750
2,878
2,970
3,040
Equivalent
Graph.
Length
Calc.
0.11
0.20
0.30
0.39
0.48
0.48
0.52
0.65
0.75
0.90
0.90
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.49
1.60
1.65
1.81
1.90
2.02
2.16
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.40
2,40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
0.10
0.15
0.25
0.31
0.34
0.38
0.39
0.55
0.62
0.76
0.78
1.00
1.12
1.23
1.35
1.51
1.54
1.70
1.98
2.12
2.14
2.19
2.28
2.34
2.34
2.36
2.36
2.34
2.34
2.36
2.36
2.40
2.40
2.44
2.44
2.44
2.44
2.43
Head Loss
AHf
0.05
0.08
0.12
0.15
0.19
0.19
0.20
0.25
0.27
0.31
0.32
0.38
0.40
0.40
0.42
0.42
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.44
0.44
0.45
0.45
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
32
TA.BLE VIII
Cross
Oil Temp.
op
92
94
97
100
103
106
110
113
116
120
123
126
130
133
136
140
143
146
150
153
156
160
163
166
170
173
176
180
183
186
190
193
196
202
Velocity
f t/seo
Reynolds No.
Re
Equivalent
Graph.
Length
Calc.
1.36
1.39
1.54
1.71
1.84
2.00
2.13
2.26
2.35
2.44
2.53
2.60
2.69
2.78
2.86
2.94
3.02
3.06
3.15
3.22
3.24
3.32
3.38
3.42
3.46
3.48
3.50
3.53
3.55
3.60
3.62
3.63
3.64
3.64
62
68
83
104
124
146
176
209
242
280
324
364
425
483
530
608
677
744
846
925
1,000
1,113
1,222
1,285
1,395
1,488
1,594
1,730
1,850
1,940
2,120
2,240
2,342
2,660
0.20
0.26
0.30
0.40
0.49
0.59
0.65
0.70
0.77
0.88
0.91
1.01
1.10
' 1.19
1.39
1.50
1.61
1.72
2.03
2.17
2.40
2.50
2.50
2.55
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.69
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
0.21
0.22
0.29
0.32
0.39
0.43
0.47
0.55
0.61
0.69
0.77
0.87
0.96
1.04
1.23
1.40
1.49
1.64
1.99
2.14
2.48
2.51
2.51
2.51
2.58
2.58
2.58
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.61
Head Loss
AHf
0.10
0.10
0.13
0.15
0.19
0.21
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.37
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.45
0.45
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
0.47
TO
m
o
i-l
'O ^<
W
ai
ft <q
W
.
P o
W H
S j
(D
t-4 o
^ U ) O O O H l O U 5 t O ( 0 0 > O W N ^ I O 3 ^ 0 0 0 > O O O O H H H H H H H H H H H
O O O O H H H H H H N W N W W W N C M N W M W W t O W t O l O n t O e O W W c O l
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
tOOU3tDCN3t~CN3C^lOOt*^OtOCOCftCO<DGOU3000^'#lOlOir)lOCOa>0>rHi
O H H H C M C M W C O ^ l O l O C D N O O a c n O N t O W ^ O t O C O t D t O W t D ^ O t D ^ t O W S t
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
<D
rH J :
Ht
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O i H r H i H i H r H i H i H i H i H r H t H i H r - l i H i - l t H i H i H i H i
$
>
aS
-.
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0}
t*
H
Q>
rt
t N ( D D H H ^ 0 ) ^ i O l O O i O ^ H N O l O i O O H O O O i O, i O O O O O t 0 0
O 0 0 0 > G W U ) N y j l > W 0 0 C M l O H O N ^ ^ N H ( M C v 3 C 0 H H H s H H N H C M ^ l O W
iHiHrHrHev30atyjW'sl<'s4<LOt0<0^00CJ>OrHCVJ0J#lO>t>-0>OC\at0lOt0t
N N N N N N
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+>
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+>
l-
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cntoevj^o>oc^3>w^cvjtoc\3cvj0^^cNjc30stcoeococa^oOc\ivl<ooow
^ 3 t - N Q O O r l N ^ i n ) t O t > - 0 0 0 ) O O H W N W t 0 ^ ^ l O l O U ) 3 < 0 5 ) S t t
H H H H H N M N N N N C v l N N W t O t O W W W W t O W t O C O W t O W W t O W t O t O l
>
CU
6
o
>
SH
f*4
C M l O O O O ^ N O l O O ^ ^ O N W O W C O O l O W O W O O t O C O O W O O N W O N ^
0>0>0>OOOrHiHCvJcvjCVJtOtOtO'^sJ<^U>lOlrttOOCOt>-{>-ISCOOOOOi3>0>000
<^i^iHrHiHiHiHrHiHiHiHrHiHiHrHr-4rHi-lrHiHiHr-rHrHiHiHrHiHC\lC\IC
36
Fittings
Test Value s
(Diameters )
Re a 100 Re 2500
Published Values
(Diameters)
Turbulent
Flow
Ermenc (11) Perry (10)
1.9
18
15
19
1.9
30
32
35
3.5
29
60
46
3.2
39
90
46
1.2
15.5
132
300
240
Cross (off-run).
3.6
30
46
Y (off-run).
1.9
20
34
(10)
Perry, J . H., l o c . c i t .
37
DISCUSSION
Curves
The curves obtained are very similar in shape for all the fittings
In the range of Reynolds numbers between 1100 and 3000, the equivalent
length is practically constant.
The forty-five degree elbow and Y curves are very similar and the
losses incurred in these fittings in the viscous flow region are approximately the same. The losses in the ninety degree elbow, cross and tee
where the fluid leaves the branch are approximately the seme over the
total range of Reynolds numbers. In the case of the tee where the fluid
enters the branch, the loss is considerably higher.
gate valve was extremely small, whereas the loss through the globe valve
was considerably higher than any of the fittings tested.
It is readily
seen from the graphs that the equivalent length is a function of Reynolds
number.
The manometer readings constituted the main source of error. This
was especially true in the determination of losses in the globe valve
where a variation in the manometer readings made an average reading necessary.
38
Suggestions for further work and improvement.
Tests should be made on different sized pipe fittings and the
friction losses correlated with the diameter. Additional fittings
should also be tested,
The investigation should extend farther into the critical region
of flow in order to obtain the losses in fittings within that region also
CONCLUSIONS
1
in the ninety degree standard radius elbow, cross and tee in which
the fluid leaves the branch are approximately the same,
2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Badger and McCabe, Elements of Chemical Engineering, 1935, p. 35.
Bruins, Othmer, James, and Berman, "Friction of Fluids in'Solder-Type
Fittings", Transactions of American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 36: 721-37: 1940,
Corp and Hartwell, "Experiments on Loss of Head in U, S, and Twisted S
Bends", University of Wisconsin Engineering Station Bulletin,
Series Number 66*
Corp and Ruble, "Experiments on Loss of Head in Valves and Pipes of J
inch, to 12 in. Diameter", Mechanical Engineering, 45: 250-51:
1923.
Ermenc, E., "Friction Losses in Pipe Fittings and Valves", Master*s
Thesis, Georgia School of Technology, 1942.
Foster, D. E., "Effect of Fittings on Flow of Fluids", Mechanical
Engineering, 42: 616: 1920.
Giesecke, F. E., "Formulas Deduced for Friction Loss in Water Pipes
and Fittings", Engineering News-Record, 79: 469: 1917.
Meier, K., The Mechanics of Heating and Ventilating*
Perry, J. H., Chemical Engineering Handbook., 1941, p. 825.
Perry, L., "Tests of Loss of Head in Standard Elbows and Tees",
Engineering News-Record, 92: 940: 1924.
Wilson, MoAdams and Seltzer, "The Flow of Fluids Through Commercial
Pipe Lines", Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
14: 105-19: 1922.
\:\
APPENDIX
It
t
Sample Calculations
A? AH(dx-d2)
AHj. = ^^(S.G^-S.G.g)
45 Elbow
Run
Connection
Number
Manometer
Right
Left
6.31
6.66
6,98
7.31
7.64
1-1
2-2
3-3
4-4
5-5
5.39
5.04
4.72
4.39
4.06
41%
AE
0.92
1.62
.2.26
2.92
3.58
r
0.775
1.36
1.90
2.46
3.01
0.86
1.46
2.08
2.62
3.20
0.72
1.22
1.75
2.20
2.69
u 2.60 ft./sec.
T 130F
II
6.28
6.88
6.89
7.16
7.45
1-1
2-2
3-3
4-4
5-5
5.42
5.12
4.81
4.54
4.25
u * 2.89 ft./sec.
T = 140P
Manometer used -- mercury-oil.
Inclination of manometer
sin 9 0.728
0.22
0.25
42
Sample Calculations (cont.)
Hf using the
Reynolds Number * D ^ P Re
F
D
u
p
;u
*
=
1.04n
2.60 ft./sec.
56.0 lb./cu.ft.
46.2 centipoises
Re m 1.04x2.60x56
1 2 x 4 6 ,, 2 x 0 . 0 0 0 6 7 2
Run I
Re * 4 0 7 . 0
AP f D
Figure 5
0, 0043
pu 2 L
pAHf
e
jpr*
- "
- P^
I ;sure
fitting
L
"
56.0x0.22
18.73
ft. pipe
pressure
0#67
ft. pipe
_
fitting
ft
Calculation Method
L 0.67 feet of one-inch galvanized pipe
Graphical Method
L - 0.76 feet of one-inch galvanized pipe
Graph
Run II
Equivalent Length
0.97
Calculated
0.93
U L 9 P W ^ 1 ^ ' 0 W W * ^ W H W * ? T ? 3 W M * *n
1*^1 u n p i i j
IIIU
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j-rrr-: !;-. n ' u i r
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i. iL ii- :xttltl - i n : ~*
; + 7 - *
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7
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y rx r^TTTrr*'
i, r * i I "
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f7
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