Empire

This article is about the political and historical term. For This aspiration to universality resulted in conquest by
other uses, see Empire (disambiguation).
converting outsiders or inferiors into the colonialized
An empire is dened as an aggregate of nations or peo- religion. This association of nationality and race became complex and has had a more intense drive for
expansion.[6]

1 Denition
An empire is a multi-ethnic or multinational state with
political and/or military dominion of populations who are
culturally and ethnically distinct from the imperial (ruling) ethnic group and its culture.[7] This is in contrast to
a federation, which is an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples. An empire is a
large political party who rules over territories outside of
its original borders.

Imperialism and colonization in 1900

ple ruled over by an emperor or other powerful sovereign

or government, usually a territory of greater extent than
a kingdom, as the former British Empire, French Empire, Russian Empire, Byzantine Empire or Roman Empire.[1] An empire can be made solely of contiguous territories such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, or of territories far remote from the homeland, such as a colonial
empire.

Denitions of what physically and politically constitute

an empire vary. It might be a state aecting imperial
policies or a particular political structure. Empires are
typically formed from diverse ethnic, national, cultural,
and religious components.[8] Empire and colonialism are
used to refer to relationships between powerful state or
society versus a less powerful one.

Aside from the more formal usage, the term empire can
also be used to refer to a large-scale business enterprise
(e.g. a transnational corporation), a political organisation controlled by a single individual (a political boss) or
a group (political bosses).[2] The term empire is associated with other words such as imperialism, colonialism,
and globalization. Empire is often used to describe a displeasure to overpowering situations.[3] The eects of imperialism exist throughout the world today[4]

extend relations of power across territorial spaces over which they have no prior or
given legal sovereignty, and where, in one or
more of the domains of economics, politics,
and culture, they gain some measure of extensive hegemony over those spaces for the purpose of extracting or accruing value.[9]

Tom Nairn and Paul James dene empires as polities that:

Sometimes, an empire is a semantic construction, such

as when a ruler assumes the title of emperor. That
rulers nation logically becomes an empire, despite having no additional territory or hegemony. Examples of
this form of empire are the Central African Empire, or
the Korean Empire proclaimed in 1897 when Korea, far
from gaining new territory, was on the verge of being annexed by the Empire of Japan, the last to use the name
ocially. Among the last of the empires in the 20th century were the Central African Empire, Ethiopia, Vietnam,
Manchukuo, the German Empire, and Korea.

An imperial political structure can be established and

maintained in two ways: (i) as a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force or (ii) as a coercive,
hegemonic empire of indirect conquest and control with
power. The former method provides greater tribute and
direct political control, yet limits further expansion because it absorbs military forces to xed garrisons. The
latter method provides less tribute and indirect control,
but avails military forces for further expansion.[5] Territorial empires (e.g., the Mongol Empire and Median Empire) tend to be contiguous areas. The term, on occasion,
has been applied to maritime empires or thalassocracies,
(e.g., the Athenian and British empires) with looser structures and more scattered territories. Empires are usually
larger than kingdoms.

The terrestrial empires maritime analogue is the

thalassocracy, an empire composed of islands and coasts
which are accessible to its terrestrial homeland, such as
the Athenian-dominated Delian League.
1

3 HISTORY OF IMPERIALISM

Furthermore, empires can expand by both land and sea.

Stephen Howe notes that empires by land can be characterized by expansion over terrain, extending directly
outwards from the original frontier [10] while an empire
by sea can be characterized by colonial expansion and empire building by an increasingly powerful navy.[11]

Characteristics

Empires originated as dierent types of states, although

they commonly began as powerful monarchies. Ideas
about empires changed throughout century varying from
approval from the public to becoming universally distasteful. Empires are built out of separate units with some
kind of diversity ethnic, national, cultural, religious
and imply at least some inequality between the rulers and
the ruled. Without this inequality, the system would be
seen as commonwealth.

Empires were seen as an expanding power, administration, ideas and beliefs followed by cultural habits from
place to place. Empires tend to impose their culture on
the subject states to strengthen the imperial structure.
This can have notable eects that outlast the empire itself, both positive and negative.

3 History of imperialism
3.1 Bronze and Iron Age empires

The earliest known empire appeared in Egypt when

King Narmer of the Upper Valley conquered the Lower
Valley circa 3000 BC and laid the foundations for the
Old Kingdom. The Akkadian Empire, established by
Sargon of Akkad (24th century BC), was an early allMesopotamian empire. This imperial achievement was
repeated by Hammurabi of Babylon in the 17th century BC. In the 15th century BC, the New Kingdom
Many empires were the result of military conquest, in- of Ancient Egypt, ruled by Thutmose III, was ancient
corporating the vanquished states into a political union, Africa's major force upon incorporating Nubia and the
but imperial hegemony can be established in other ways. ancient city-states of the Levant.
The Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the British
Empire developed at least in part under elective auspices. Circa 1500 BC in China rose the Shang Empire which
The Empire of Brazil declared itself an empire after sep- was succeeded by the Chou Empire circa 1100 BC. Both
arating from the Portuguese Empire in 1822. France has surpassed in territory their contemporary Near Eastern
twice transitioned from being called the French Repub- empires. The Chou Empire dissolved in 770 BC into feulic to being called the French Empire, while France re- dal multi-state system which lasted for ve and a half centuries until the universal conquest of Qin in 221 BC.
mained an overseas empire.
Weaker states may seek annexation into the empire. An The rst empire comparable to Rome in organization was
example is the bequest of Pergamon to the Roman Em- the Neo-Assyrian Empire (916612 BC). The Median
pire by Attalus III. The Unication of Germany as the em- Empire was the rst empire within the territory of Persia.
pire accreted to the Prussian metropole was less a military By the 6th century BC, after having allied with the
conquest of the German states than their political divorce Babylonians to defeat the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the
from the Austrian Empire. Having convinced the other Medes were able to establish their own empire, which was
states of its military prowess, and having excluded the the largest of its day and lasted for about sixty years.
Austrians, Prussia dictated the terms of imperial membership.
Politically, it was typical for either a monarchy or an
oligarchy, rooted in the original core territory of the empire, to continue to dominate. If governmental authority was maintained by controlling water supplies, vital to
colonial subjects, such rgimes were called hydraulic empires.
Europeans began applying the designation of empire to
non-European monarchies, such as the Qing Empire and
the Mughal Empire, as well as the Maratha Empire, eventually leading to the looser denotations applicable to any
political structure meeting the criteria of imperium.

3.2 Classical period

The Axial Age (mid-First Millennium BC) witnessed unprecedented imperial expansion in the
Indo-Mediterranean region and China.[12] The successful and extensive Achaemenid Empire (550330
BC), also known as the rst Persian Empire, covered
Mesopotamia, Egypt, parts of Greece, Thrace, the
Middle East, much of Central Asia, and Pakistan. It is
considered the rst great empire of Ancient History. It
was overthrown and replaced by the short-lived empire
of Alexander the Great. His Empire was succeeded
by three Empires ruled by the Diadochithe Seleucid,
Ptolemaic, and Macedonian, which, despite being independent, are called the "Hellenistic Empire by virtue of
their similarities in culture and administration.

Some empires styled themselves as having greater size,

scope, and power than the territorial, politico-military,
and economic facts support. As a consequence, some
monarchs assumed the title of emperor (or its corresponding translation, tsar, empereur, kaiser,shah etc.) Meanwhile, in the western Mediterranean the Empires of
and renamed their states as The Empire of ....
Carthage and Rome began their rise. Having decisively

3.3

Post-classical period

defeated Carthage in 202 BC, Rome defeated Macedonia in 200 BC and the Seleucids in 190/189 BC to establish all-Mediterranean Empire. The Seleucid Empire
broke apart and its former eastern part was absorbed by
the Parthian Empire. In 30 BC Rome annexed the Ptolemaic Egypt.
In India during the Axial Age appeared the Maurya Empirea geographically extensive and powerful empire,
ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321185 BC. The
empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya,
who rapidly expanded his power westward across central
and western India, taking advantage of the disruptions of
local powers following the withdrawal by Alexander the
Great. By 320 BC, the Maurya Empire had fully occupied
northwestern India as well as defeating and conquering
the satraps left by Alexander. Under Emperor Asoka the
Great, the Maurya Empire became the rst Indian empire
to conquer all Indian Peninsulaachievement repeated
only twice, by the Gupta and Mughal Empires. In the
reign of Asoka Buddhism spread to become the dominant religion in ancient India. It has been estimated that
the Maurya dynasty controlled an unprecedented onethird of the worlds entire economy, was home to onethird of the worlds population at the time (an estimated
50 million out of 150 million humans), contained the
worlds largest city of the time (Pataliputra, estimated
to be larger than Rome under Emperor Trajan) and according to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military
of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants.
In China of the Axial Age, the era of the Warring States
ended in 221 BC with the universal conquest of Qin.
The King of Qin, Ying Zheng, became Chinas First Emperor and began the pattern of successive dynasties. Ying
Zheng connected all the existing defense walls of northern China into what is known today Great Wall of China
which marked the northern frontier of China. The Qin
Dynasty was short lived and in 207 BC was overthrown
by the Han Dynasty (207 BC - AD 220) which became
one of East Asias most long-lived dynasties. In the Second century AD the Han Empire expanded into Central
Asia. By this time only three Empires stretched between
the Pacic and the AtlanticChina, Parthia, and Rome.
The Romans were the rst nation to invent and embody
the concept of empire in their two mandates: to wage war
and to make and execute laws.[13] They were the most
extensive Western empire until the early modern period,
and left a lasting impact on Western Europe. Many languages, cultural values, religious institutions, political divisions, urban centers, and legal systems can trace their
origins to the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire governed and rested on exploitative actions. They took slaves
and money from the peripheries to support the imperial
center.[13] However, the absolute reliance on conquered
peoples to carry out the empires fortune, sustain wealth,
and ght wars would ultimately lead to the collapse of the
Roman Empire.[13] The Romans were strong believers

3
in what they called their civilizing mission. This term
was legitimized and justied by writers like Cicero who
wrote that only under Roman rule could the world ourish and prosper.[13] This ideology, that was envisioned to
bring a new world order, was eventually spread across the
Mediterranean world and beyond. People started to build
houses like Romans, eat the same food, wear the same
clothes and engage in the same cruel games.[13] Even
rights of citizenship and authority to rule were granted
to people not of Roman or Italian birth.[13] This authority
given to people outside of Roman culture is an example
of how its empire collapsed, with a strong dependence on
foreign rulers.
The Latin word imperium, referring to a magistrates
power to command, gradually assumed the meaning The
territory in which a magistrate can eectively enforce his
commands, while the term "imperator" was originally an
honoric meaning commander. The title was given to
generals who were victorious in battle. Thus, an empire may include regions that are not legally within the
territory of a state, but are under either direct or indirect control of that state, such as a colony, client state, or
protectorate. Although historians use the terms Republican Period and Imperial Period to identify the periods
of Roman history before and after absolute power was
assumed by Augustus, the Romans themselves continued
to refer to their government as a republic, and during the
Republican Period, the territories controlled by the republic were referred to as "Imperium Romanum". The
emperors actual legal power derived from holding the ofce of consul, but he was traditionally honored with the
titles of imperator (commander) and princeps (rst man
or, chief). Later, these terms came to have legal significance in their own right; an army calling their general
"imperator" was a direct challenge to the authority of the
current emperor.[14]
The legal systems of France and its former colonies
are strongly inuenced by Roman law.[15] Similarly, the
United States was founded on a model inspired by the
Roman Republic, with upper and lower legislative assemblies, and executive power vested in a single individual,
the president. The president, as commander-in-chief of
the armed forces, reects the ancient Roman titles imperator princeps.[16] The Roman Catholic Church, founded
in the early Imperial Period, spread across Europe, rst
by the activities of Christian evangelists, and later by ofcial imperial promulgation.

3.3 Post-classical period

In western Asia, the term "Persian Empire" came to denote the Iranian imperial states established at dierent
historical periods of preIslamic and postIslamic Persia.
In East Asia, various Celestial empires arose periodically
between periods of war, civil war, and foreign conquests.
The greatest of them was the Tang Empire (AD 618907).

4
The 7th century saw the emergence of the Islamic
Empire, also referred to as the Arab Empire. The
Rashidun Caliphate expanded from the Arabian Peninsula and swiftly conquered the Persian Empire and much
of the Byzantine Roman Empire. Its successor state, the
Umayyad Caliphate, expanded across North Africa and
into the Iberian Peninsula. By the beginning of the 8th
century, the Umayyad Caliphate had become the largest
empire in history, it would not be surpassed in size until
the establishment of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. In 750 the Caliphate clashed with the Tang China
at Talas. By this time only these two Empires stretched
between the Atlantic and the Pacic.
In the 7th century, Maritime Southeast Asia witnessed
the rise of a Buddhist thallasocracy, the Srivijaya Empire,
which thrived for 600 years and was succeeded by the
Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire that ruled from the
13th to 15th centuries. In the Southeast Asian mainland,
the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire was centered in the
city of Angkor and ourished from the 9th to 13th centuries. Following the demise of the Khmer Empire, the
Siamese Empire ourished alongside the Burmese and
Lan Chang Empires from the 13th through the 18th centuries. In Eastern Europe, during the year of 917, the
Byzantine Empire was forced to recognize the Imperial
title of Bulgarian rulers (who were called Tsars). The
Bulgarian Empire remained a major power in the Balkans
until its fall in the late 14th century.
At the time, in the Medieval West, the title empire
had a specic technical meaning that was exclusively applied to states that considered themselves the heirs and
successors of the Roman Empire. Among these were
the Byzantine Empire, which was the actual continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Carolingian Empire, the largely Germanic Holy Roman Empire, and the
Russian Empire. Yet, these states did not always t the
geographic, political, or military proles of empires in
the modern sense of the word. To legitimise their imperium, these states directly claimed the title of Empire
from Rome. The sacrum Romanum imperium (Holy Roman Empire), which lasted from 800 to 1806, claimed to
have exclusively comprehended Christian principalities,
and was only nominally a discrete imperial state. The
Holy Roman Empire was not always centrally-governed,
as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, and was
not governed by a central, politico-military elite. Hence,
Voltaire's remark that the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire is accurate to the
degree that it ignores[17] German rule over Italian, French,
Provenal, Polish, Flemish, Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the eorts of the ninth-century Holy Roman
Emperors (i.e., the Ottonians) to establish central control. Voltaires "... nor an empire observation applies to
its late period.

3 HISTORY OF IMPERIALISM
Byzantine Empires descendants established two smaller,
short-lived empires in Asia Minor: the Empire of Nicaea
(12041261) and the Empire of Trebizond (12041461).
Constantinople was retaken in 1261 by the Byzantine
successor state centered in Nicaea, re-establishing
the Byzantine Empire until 1453, by which time the
Turkish-Muslim Ottoman Empire (ca. 13001918), had
conquered most of the region. The Ottoman Empire was
a successor of the Abbasid Empire and it was the most
powerful empire to succeed the Abbasi empires at the
time, as well as one of the most powerful empires in the
world.[18] The Ottoman Empire centered on modern day
Turkey, dominated the eastern Mediterranean, overthrew
the Byzantine Empire to claim Constantinople and it
would start battering at Austria and Malta, which were
countries that were key to central and to south-west
Europe respectively mainly for their geographical
location.[18] The reason these occurrences of batterings
were so important was because the Ottomans were
Muslim, and the rest of Europe was Christian, so there
was a sense of religious ghting going on.[19] This was
not just a rivalry of East and West but a rivalry between
Christians and Muslims.[20] Both the Christians and
Muslims had alliances with other countries, and they
had problems in them as well.[21] The ows of trade
and of cultural inuences across the supposed great
divide never ceased, so the countries never stopped
bartering with each other.[22] These epochal clashes
between civilizations profoundly shaped many peoples
thinking back then, and continues to do so in the present
day.[23] Modern hatred against Muslim communities in
South-Eastern Europe, mainly in Bosnia and Kosovo,
has often been articulated in terms of seeing them as
unwelcome residues of this imperialism: in short, as
Turks.[24] Moreover, Eastern Orthodox imperialism
was not re-established until the coronation of Peter the
Great as Emperor of Russia in 1721. Likewise, with
the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 during
the Napoleonic Wars (18031815), the Austrian Empire
(18041867) emerged reconstituted as the Empire of
AustriaHungary (18671918), having inherited the
imperium of Central and Western Europe from the losers
of said wars.
In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan expanded the
Mongol Empire to be the largest contiguous empire in
the world. However, within two generations, the empire
was separated into four discrete khanates under Genghis
Khans grandsons. One of them, Kublai Khan, conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty with
the imperial capital at Beijing. One family ruled the
whole Eurasian land mass from the Pacic to the Adriatic and Baltic Seas. The emergence of the Pax Mongolica had signicantly eased trade and commerce across
Asia.[25][26]

In the pre-Columbian America, two Empires were

In 1204, after the Fourth Crusade conquered
Constantinople, the crusaders established a Latin prominentsthe Azteca in Mesoamerica and Inca in
Peru. Both existed for several generations before the arEmpire (12041261) in that city, while the defeated

3.5

Modern period

rival of the Europeans. Inca had gradually conquered the The Sikh Empire (17991846) was established in the
whole of the settled Andean world as far south as today Punjab region of India. The empire collapsed when its
Santiago in Chile.
founder, Ranjit Singh, died and its army fell to the British.
In Oceania, the Tonga Empire was a lonely empire that During the same period, the Maratha Empire (also known
as the Maratha Confederacy) was a Hindu state located in
existed from the Medieval to the Modern period.
present-day India. It existed from 1674 to 1818, and at its
peak, the empires territories covered much of Southern
Asia. The empire was founded and consolidated by Shiv3.4 Colonial empires
aji. After the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, it
expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas. In 1761,
In the 15th century, European landings in the so-called the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat, which
"New World" (rst, the Americas, and later Australia), halted the expansion of the empire. Later, the empire was
along with Portuguese travels around the Cape of Good divided into a confederacy of states which, in 1818, were
Hope and along the coast of Africa bordering the south- lost to the British during the Anglo-Maratha wars.[27]
east Indian Ocean, proved ripe opportunities for the continents Renaissance-era monarchies to establish colonial The British established their rst empire (15831783) in
empires like those of the ancient Romans and Greeks. In North America by colonising lands that made up British
the Old World, colonial imperialism was attempted and America, including parts of Canada and the Thirteen
established on the Canary Islands and Ireland. These con- Colonies. In 1776, the Continental Congress of the
quered lands and people became de jure subordinates of Thirteen Colonies declared itself independent from the
the empire, rather than de facto imperial territories and British Empire, thus beginning the American Revolusubjects. Such subjugation often elicited client-state tion. Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacic, and later
resentment that the empire unwisely ignored, leading to Africa, with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of
the collapse of the European colonial imperial system in the Second British Empire (17831815), which was folthe late 19th century and the early and mid-20th cen- lowed by the Industrial Revolution and Britains Imperial
tury. Spanish discovery of the New World gave way to Century (18151914). It became the largest empire in
of the worlds
many expeditions led by England (later Britain), Portugal, world history, encompassing one quarter[28]
land
area
and
one
fth
of
its
population,
the impacts
France, the Dutch Republic, and Spain. In the 18th
[29]
of
which
are
still
widespread
in
the
current
age.
century, the Spanish Empire was at its height because
of the great mass of goods taken from conquered ter- The term American Empire refers to the United States
ritory in the Americas (nowaday Mexico, parts of the cultural ideologies and foreign policy strategies. The
United States, the Caribbean, most of Central America, term is most commonly used to describe the U.S.s staand South America) and the Philippines.
tus since the 20th century, but it can also be applied to
the United States world standing before the rise of nationalism in the 20th century. The United States is not
traditionally recognized as an empire, in part because
3.5 Modern period
the U.S. adopted a dierent political system from those
The French emperors Napoleon I and Napoleon III (See: that previous empires had used. Despite these systemPremier Empire, Second French Empire, and French atic dierences, the political objectives and strategies of
colonial empire) each attempted establishing a western the United States government have been quite similar to
imperial hegemony centered in France. The German Em- those of previous empires. For example, one academic,
pire (18711918), another heir to the Holy Roman Em- Krishna Kumar, argues the distinct principles of nationalism and imperialism may result in common practice;
pire, arose in 1871.
that is, the pursuit of nationalism can often coincide with
The Ashanti Empire (or Confederacy), also Asanteman the pursuit of imperialism in terms of strategy and deci(17011896), was a West African state of the Ashanti, sion making.[30] Throughout the 19th century, the United
the Akan people of the Ashanti Region, Akanland in States government attempted to expand their territory by
modern-day Ghana. The Ashanti (or Asante) were a pow- any means necessary. Regardless of the supposed motierful, militaristic and highly disciplined people in West vation for this constant expansion, all of these land acquiAfrica. Their military power, which came from eec- sitions were carried out by imperialistic means. This was
tive strategy and an early adoption of European rearms, done by nancial means in some cases, and by military
created an empire that stretched from central Akanland force in others. Most notably, the Louisiana Purchase
(in modern-day Ghana) to present day Benin and Ivory (1803), the Texas Annexation (1845), and the Mexican
Coast, bordered by the Dagomba kingdom to the north Cession (1848) highlight the imperialistic goals of the
and Dahomey to the east. Due to the empires mili- United States during this modern period of imperialtary prowess, sophisticated hierarchy, social stratication ism. The U.S. government has stopped pursuing addiand culture, the Ashanti empire had one of the largest tional territories since the mid 20th century. However,
historiographies of any indigenous Sub-Saharan African some scholars still consider U.S. foreign policy strategies
political entity.

6
to be imperialistic. This idea is explored in the contemporary usage section.[31]

CONTEMPORARY USAGE

4 Contemporary usage

Contemporaneously, the concept of empire is politically

valid, yet is not always used in the traditional sense. For
example, Japan is considered the worlds sole remaining
empire because of the continued presence of the Japanese
3.6 Transition from empire
Emperor in national politics. Despite the semantic reference to imperial power, Japan is a de jure constitutional
In time, an empire may change from one political entity to monarchy, with a homogeneous population of 127 milanother. To wit, the Holy Roman Empire, a German re- lion people that is 98.5 percent ethnic Japanese, making
constitution of the Roman Empire, metamorphosed into it one of the largest nation-states.[32]
various political structures (i.e., federalism), and eventually, under Habsburg rule, re-constituted itself as the Characterizing some aspects of American foreign polAustrian Empire, an empire of much dierent politics icy and international behavior as "American Empire" is
controversial but not uncommon. This characterization
and vaster extension.
is controversial because of the strong tendency in AmerAn autocratic empire can become a republic (e.g., the
ican society to reject claims of American imperialism.
Central African Empire in 1979), or it can become a The initial motivations for the inception of the United
republic with its imperial dominions reduced to a core
States eventually led to the development of this tendency,
territory (e.g., Weimar Germany (19181919) and the which has been perpetuated by the country-wide obsesOttoman Empire (19181923)). The dissolution of the
sion with this national narrative. The United States was
AustroHungarian Empire after 1918 is an example formed because colonists did not like being under control
of a multi-ethnic superstate broken into its constituent
of the British Empire. Essentially, the United States was
states: the republics, kingdoms, and provinces of Austria, formed in an attempt to reject imperialism. This makes
Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and it very hard for people to acknowledge Americas status
Herzegovina, Czechoslovakia, Ruthenia, Galicia, et al.
as an empire. This active rejection of imperialist status
After the Second World War (19391945), the pro- is not limited to high-ranking government ocials, as it
cess became commonly known as decolonisation. The has been engrained in American society throughout its
British Empire evolved into a loose, multinational entire history. As David Ludden explains, journalists,
Commonwealth of Nations, while the French colonial scholars, teachers, students, analysts, and politicians preempire metamorphosed to a Francophone common- fer to depict the U.S. as a nation pursuing its own interests
wealth. The French territory of Kwang-Chou-Wan was and ideals. This often results in imperialist endeavors begiven back to China in 1946. The British gave Hong ing presented as measures taken to enhance national secuKong back to China in 1997 after 150 years of rule. The rity. Ludden explains this phenomena with the concept of
Portuguese territory of Macau was given back to China ideological blinders, which he says prevent American
in 1999. Macau and Hong Kong were not incorporated citizens from realizing the true nature of Americas curinto the provincial structure of China; they have an au- rent systems and strategies. These ideological blinders
tonomous system of government as Special Administra- that people wear have resulted in an invisible American
empire of which most American citizens are unaware.
tive Regions of the Peoples Republic of China.
France still governs colonies (French Guyana,
Martinique, Runion, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, St Martin, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, Guadeloupe,
TAAF, Wallis and Futuna, Saint Barthlemy, and
Mayotte) and exerts hegemony in Francophone Africa
(29 francophone countries such as Chad, Rwanda, et
cetera). Fourteen British Overseas Territories remain
under British sovereignty. Sixteen countries of the
Commonwealth of Nations share their head of state,
Queen Elizabeth II, as Commonwealth realms.
While the notion of formal empire may have ended,
it is important to note that many of these former colonial populations still continue to face the historical legacy
of colonialism. While traditional sovereignty has been
granted to these political units, one must not forget the
economic, political and cultural entanglements that continue to aect these subject populations. Therefore, discursive practices of Empire are still present in countries
today.

Stuart Creighton Miller posits that the publics sense of

innocence about Realpolitik (cf. American Exceptionalism) impairs popular recognition of US imperial conduct
since it governed other countries via surrogates. These
surrogates were domestically-weak, right-wing governments that would collapse without US support.[33] Former President G.W. Bushs Secretary of Defense, Donald
Rumsfeld, said: We don't seek empires. We're not imperialistic; we never have been.[34] This statement directly
contradicts Thomas Jeerson who, in the 1780s while
awaiting the fall of the Spanish empire, said: "...till our
population can be suciently advanced to gain it from
them piece by piece.[35][36][37] In turn, historian Sidney
Lens argues that from its inception, the US has used every
means available to dominate other nations.[38]
Since the European Union began in 1993 as a west European trade bloc, it has established its own currency, the
Euro (1999), established discrete military forces, and exercised its limited hegemony in parts of eastern Europe

7
and Asia. The political scientist Jan Zielonka suggests 6 Theoretical research
that this behaviour is imperial because it coerces its neighbouring countries into adopting its European economic, Empires have been the dominant international organizalegal, and political structures.[39][40][41][42][43][44]
tion in world history. Expert on warfare Quincy Wright
In his book review of Empire (2000) by Michael Hardt concluded:
and Antonio Negri, Mehmet Akif Okur posits that since
the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the
Balance of power systems have in the past
international relations determining the worlds balance
tended, through the process of conquest of
of power (political, economic, military) have been allesser states by greater states, towards reductered. These alterations include the intellectual (political
tion in the number of states involved, and toscience) trends that perceive the contemporary worlds
wards less frequent but more devastating wars,
order via the re-territorrialisation of political space, the
until eventually a universal empire has been esre-emergence of classical imperialist practices (the intablished through the conquest by one of all
side vs. outside duality, cf. the Other), the deliberthose remaining.[46]
ate weakening of international organisations, the restructured international economy, economic nationalism, the Political scientist Hedley Bull wrote that in the broad
expanded arming of most countries, the proliferation of sweep of human historythe form of states system has
nuclear weapon capabilities and the politics of identity been the exception rather than the rule.[47] Political sciemphasizing a states subjective perception of its place entist Robert Gilpin conrmed Bulls conclusion for the
in the world, as a nation and as a civilisation. These pre-modern period:
changes constitute the Age of Nation Empires"; as imperial usage, nation-empire denotes the return of geopolitiThe history of interstate relations was
cal power from global power blocs to regional power blocs
largely that of successive great empires. The
(i.e., centred upon a regional power state [China, Ruspattern of international political change during
sia, U.S., et al.]) and regional multi-state power alliances
the millennia of the pre-modern era has been
(i.e., Europe, Latin America, South East Asia). Nationdescribed as an imperial cycle World poliempire regionalism claims sovereignty over their respectics was characterized by the rise and decline of
tive (regional) political (social, economic, ideologic), culpowerful empires, each of which in turn unied
tural, and military spheres.[45]
and ordered its respective international system.
The recurrent pattern in every civilization of
which we have knowledge was for one state to
unify the system under its imperial domination.
5 Timeline of empires
The propensity toward universal empire was
the principal feature of pre-modern politics.[48]
The chart below shows a timeline of polities that have
been called empires. Dynastic changes are marked with
Historian Michael Doyle who undertook an extensive rea white line.
search on empires extended the observation into the modern era:
The Roman Empire's timeline listed below only includes the Western portion. The Byzantine continuEmpires have been the key actors in world
ation of the Roman Empire is listed separately.
politics for millennia. They helped create the
interdependent civilizations of all the conti The Empires of Nicaea and Trebizond were Byzannents Imperial control stretches through histine successor states.
tory, many say, to the present day. Empires
are as old as history itself They have held the
The Empire of Bronze Age Egypt is not included in
leading role ever since.[49]
the graph. Established by Narmer circa 3000 BC,
it lasted as long as China until it was conquered by
A later group of political scientists, working on the phePersia in 525 BC.
nomenon of the current unipolarity, in 2007 edited re Japan is presented for the period of its overseas Em- search on several pre-modern civilizations by experts in
pire (1895-1945). The original Japanese Empire of respective elds. The overall conclusion was that the
the Eight Islands would be third persistent after balance of power was inherently unstable order and usually soon broke in favor of imperial order.[50] Yet beEgypt and China.
fore the advent of the unipolarity, world historian Arnold
Many Indian empires are also included, though only Toynbee and political scientist Martin Wight had drawn
Mauryan, Gupta and Mughals ruled most of the In- the same conclusion with an unambiguous implication for
dia.
the modern world:

6 THEORETICAL RESEARCH
When this [imperial] pattern of political
history is found in the New World as well as in
the Old World, it looks as if the pattern must
be intrinsic to the political history of societies
of the species we call civilizations, in whatever part of the world the specimens of this
species occur. If this conclusion is warranted,
it illuminates our understanding of civilization
itself.[51]
Most states systems have ended in universal empire, which has swallowed all the states
of the system. The examples are so abundant
that we must ask two questions: Is there any
states system which has not led fairly directly
to the establishment of a world empire? Does
the evidence rather suggest that we should expect any states system to culminate in this way?
It might be argued that every state system
can only maintain its existence on the balance
of power, that the later is inherently unstable,
and that sooner or later its tensions and conicts
will be resolved into a monopoly of power.[52]

Much earlier, Fichte, having witnessed the battle at Jena

in 1806 when Napoleon overwhelmed Prussia, described
what he perceived as a deep historical trend:

sion and the latter stressing that the world empire is now
in sight.[55]
Two their contemporariesKang Yu-wei and George
Vacher de Lapougestressed that imperial expansion
cannot indenitely proceed on the denite surface of the
globe and world empire is imminent. Kang Yu-wei in
1885 believed that the imperial trend will culminate in
the contest between Washington and Berlin and Vacher
de Lapouge in 1899 estimated that the nal contest will be
between Russia and America in which America is likely
to triumph.[56]
Later, four AnthropologistsHornell Hart, Raoul Naroll,
Louis Morano, and Robert Carneiroresearched expanding imperial cycles. They reached the same conclusion that a world empire is not only pre-determined but
close at hand and attempted to estimate the time of its
appearance.[57]
Chalmers Johnson argues that the US globe-girding network of hundreds of military bases already represents a
global empire in its initial form:

For a major power, prosecution of any war

that is not a defense of the homeland usually
requires overseas military bases for strategic
reasons. After the war is over, it is tempting
for the victor to retain such bases and easy to
nd reasons to do so. Commonly, preparedness for a possible resumption of hostilities will
be invoked. Over time, if a nations aims become imperial, the bases form the skeleton of
an empire.[58]

There is necessary tendency in every cultivated State to extend itself generally... Such
is the case in Ancient History As the States
become stronger in themselves and cast o that
[Papal] foreign power, the tendency towards
a Universal Monarchy over the whole Christian World necessarily comes to light This
tendency ... has shown itself successively in
several States which could make pretensions to
such a dominion, and since the fall of the Papacy, it has become the sole animating principle of our History... Whether clearly or notit
may be obscurelyyet has this tendency lain
at the root of the undertakings of many States
in Modern Times... Although no individual
Epoch may have contemplated this purpose,
yet is this the spirit which runs through all these
individual Epochs, and invisibly urges them
onward.[53]

The most unitary form of empire was described by

Michael Doyle in his Empires. It is empire in which
its two main componentsthe ruling core and the ruled
peripherymerged to form one integrated whole. At this
stage the empire as dened ceases to exist and becomes
world state. Doyle exemplies the transformation on the
example of the Roman Emperor Caracalla whose legislation in AD 212 extended the Roman citizenship to all
inhabitants of the Mediterranean world.[59]

Fichtes later compatriot, Geographer Alexander von

Humboldt (1769 1859), in the mid-Nineteenth century
observed a macro-historic trend of imperial growth in
both Hemispheres: Men of great and strong minds, as
well as whole nations, acted under inuence of one idea,
the purity of which was utterly unknown to them.[54]
The imperial expansion lled the world circa 1900. Two
famous contemporary observersFrederick Turner and
Halford Mackinder described the event and drew implications, the former predicting American overseas expan-

Alexander Wendt in his article Why the World State

is Inevitable supposed the pathway of universal conquest and subsequent consolidation provided the conquering power recognizes all conquered members.[60] Replying on criticism, Wendt invoked the example of the
Roman Empire: A world empire would be an unstable
equilibrium, still subject to the struggle for recognition.
However, conquest can produce a proper state if, as a
result of internal reform, the world empire eventually recognizes all of its members (like the Roman Empire did,
for example).[61]

8.1

Notes

See also

References

8.1

Notes

[1] Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, Portland House, New York, 1989, p. 468.
[2] Empire. Oxford Dictionary Online. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
[3] Howe, Steven (2002). Empire: A Very Short Introduction.
Oxford.
[4] Xypolia, Ilia (28 July 2016).
Divide et Impera:
Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions of
British Imperialism. Critique. 44 (3): 221231.
doi:10.1080/03017605.2016.1199629.
[5] Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (1994), pp.
2324, ISBN 0-582-06829-0 (pbk)
[6] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford Press. pp. 1015.
[7] The Oxford English Reference Dictionary, Second Edition
(2001), p. 461, ISBN 0-19-860046-1
[8] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-280223-1.
[9] James, Paul; Nairn, Tom (2006). Globalization and Violence, Vol. 1: Globalizing Empires, Old and New. London:
Sage Publications. p. xxiii.
[10] Howe, Stephen. Empire: A Very Short Introduction,
New York: Oxford University Press, 2002: 35
[11] Howe, Stephen. Empire: A Very Short Introduction,
New York: Oxford University Press, 2002: 66
[12] Samuel N. Eisenstadt, Axial Age Civilizations, (New York:
New York State University Press, 1986)
[13] Howe, Steven (2002). Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford.
[14] Michael Burger (2008). The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of
Toronto Press. p. 115.
[15] Ken Pennington. France Legal History. Columbus
School of Law and School of Canon Law, The Catholic
University of America. Retrieved September 23, 2013.
[16] Cynthia Haven (February 19, 2010). Stanford scholar
links Rome and America in Philadelphia exhibition.
Stanford Report.
[17] Voltaire, Wikiquote, citing Essai sur l'histoire generale et
sur les moeurs et l'espirit des nations, Chapter 70 (1756),
retrieved 2008-01-06
[18] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire- A Very Short Introduction. New York, United States: Oxford University Press.
p. 46.

[19] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire- A Very Short Introduction. New York, United States: Oxford University Press.
p. 46.
[20] Howe, Stephen (31 January 2015). Empire- A Very Short
Introduction. New York, United States: Oxford University
Press. p. 46.
[21] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire-A Very Short Introduction.
New York, United States: Oxford University Press. p. 46.
[22] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire-A Very Short Introduction.
New York, United States: Oxford University Press.
[23] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire- A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 30.
[24] Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire- A Very Short Introduction. New York, United States: Oxford University Press.
p. 47.
[25] Gregory G. Guzman, Were the barbarians a negative or
positive factor in ancient and medieval history?", The Historian 50 (1988), 56870
[26] Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, 211
[27] Pagadi, Setumadhavarao R. (1983). Shivaji. National
Book Trust, India. p. 21. ISBN 81-237-0647-2.
[28] Johnston, Steve, Tea Party Culture War: A Clash of
Worldviews, p90, By 1922, the British Empire presided
over 458 million peopleone-quarter of the worlds
populationand comprised more than 13 million square
miles.
[29] Winks, Robin W. (1993). World civilization : a brief history (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Collegiate Press. p. 406.
ISBN 9780939693283.
[30] Kumar, Krishan (2010). Nation-states as empires, empires as nation-states: two principles, one practice?". Theory and Society. 39 (2): 119143.
[31] Malesevic, Sinisa (2013). Nation-states and nationalisms
organization, ideology and solidarity. Polity Press. ISBN
9780745672069.
[32] George Hicks, Japans hidden apartheid: the Korean Minority and the Japanese, (Aldershot, England; Brookeld,
VT: Ashgate, 1998), 3.
[33] Johnson, Chalmers, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire (2000), pp.729
[34] Niall Ferguson. Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the
American Empire.
[35] Sidney Lens; Howard Zinn (2003). The forging of the
American empire: from the revolution to Vietnam, a history of U.S. imperialism. Pluto Press. pp. 6364. ISBN
978-0-7453-2100-4.
[36] LaFeber, Walter, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States
in Central America (1993) 2nd edition, p. 19
[37] Boot, Max (May 6, 2003). American Imperialism? No
Need to Run Away from Label. Council on Foreign Relations op-ed, quoting USA Today. Retrieved 2008-01-06.

10

[38] Lens & Zinn 2003, p. Back cover

[39] Ian Black (December 20, 2002). Living in a euro wonderland. Guardian. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
[40] EU gets its military st. BBC News. December 13,
2002. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
[41] Nikolaos Tzifakis (April 2007). EUs region-building
and boundary-drawing policies: the European approach
to the Southern Mediterranean and the Western Balkans
1. Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans. informaworld. 9 (1): 4764. doi:10.1080/14613190701217001.
Retrieved 2007-01-06.
[42] Stephen R. Hurt (2003). Co-operation and coercion?
The Cotonou Agreement between the European Union
and acp states and the end of the Lom Convention
(PDF). Third World Quarterly. informaworld. 24: 161
176. doi:10.1080/713701373. Retrieved 2007-01-06.
[43] Bruno Coppieters, Michael Emerson, Michel Huysseune,
Tamara Kovziridze, Nathalie Tocci, Gergana Noutcheva
and Marius Vahl. Europeanisation and Conict Resolution: Case Studies from the European Periphery (PDF).
Belgian Science Policy. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
[44] Jan Zielonka (2006). Europe as Empire: The Nature of the
Enlarged European Union (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-929221-3. Retrieved 2008-0106.
[45] For the Okurs thesis about nation empires, look at the
article: Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After
9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order Perceptions, Journal of International Aairs, Volume
XII, Winter 2007, pp. 6193
[46] Quincy Wright, On the Application of Intelligence to World Aairs, Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, 4/8, (August 1, 1948):
p 250, https:
//books.google.co.il/books?id=3A0AAAAAMBAJ&
printsec=frontcover&hl=iw&source=gbs_ge_summary_
r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[47] The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics,
London: Macmillan, 1977, p 21).
[48] Gilpin War and Change in World Politics, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1981, p 110-116).

REFERENCES

[54] Cosmos : a sketch of a physical description of the universe

by Alexander von Humboldt; translated from the German
by E. C. Ott (vol I, p 359).
[55] Halford J. Mackinder, The Geographical Pivot of History,
J. Murray, London, 1904; Fredrick Jackson Turner, The
Frontier in American History, Holt, Rinchart and Winston,
New York, 1920
[56] K'ang Yu-wei, The One World Philosophy, (tr. Thompson, Lawrence G., London, 1958), pp 79-80, 85; George
Vacher de Lapouge, L'Aryen: Son Rle Social, (Nantes:
1899), chapter " L`Avenir des Aryens.
[57] Hornell, Hart, The Logistic Growth of Political Areas,
Social Forces, 26, (1948): 396-408; Raoul, Naroll, Imperial Cycles and World Order, Peace Research Society, 7, (1967): 83-101; Louis A., Marano, A Macrohistoric Trend towards World Government, Behavior Science Notes, 8, (1973): 35-40; Robert Carneiro, Political Expansion as an Expression of the Principle of Competitive Exclusion, Studying War: Anthropological Perspective, eds. Reyna, Stephen P. & Dawns, Richard Erskine, Gordon and Breach, New Hampshire, 1994; Robert
Carneiro, The Political Unication of the World, Cross
Cultural Survey, 38/2, (2004), 162-177.
[58] The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy and the End
of the Republic, New York: Henry Hobt and Company,
(2004), p 187.
[59] Empires, (London: Cornell University Press, 1986,, p 12).
[60] Why the World State is Inevitable: Teleology and the
Logic of Anarchy, European Journal of International Relations, 9/4, (2003), http://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/
03wendt.pdf, p 54-56.
[61] Alexander Wendt, Agency, Teleology and the World
State: A Reply to Shannon, European Journal
of International Relations, 11/4, (2005): p 595,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274287534_
Agency_Teleology_and_the_World_State_A_Reply_
to_Shannon.

8.2 Bibliography

[49] Empires, (London: Cornell University Press, 1986, p 12,

51, 137).

Bowden, Brett (2009). The Empire of Civilization:

The Evolution of an Imperial Idea. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06814-5.

[50] William Wohlforth, & Stuart Kaufman, & Richard Little,

Balance of Power in World History, (London: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2007).

Colomer, Josep The European Empire. Amazon

Books, 2016.

[51] Foreword, Royal Commentaries of the Incas and General History of Peru, (Garcilaso de la Vega, Austin & London: University of Texas Press, 1966, p X-XI).

Colomer, Josep Great Empires, Small Nations. The

uncertain future of the sovereign state. London:
Routledge, 2007.

[52] System of States, (Leicester: Leicester University Press,

1977, p 43-44).

Gilpin, Robert War and Change in World Politics pp.

110116

[53] Fichte, (1806). Characterisitics of the Present Age,

Theory and Practice of the Balance of Power, 1486-1914:
Selected European Writings, (ed. Moorhead Wright, London: Rowman & Littleeld, 1975, pp. 87-89).

Geiss, Imanuel (1983). War and Empire in the

Twentieth Century. Aberdeen University Press.
ISBN 0-08-030387-0.

11
Johan Galtung (January 1996). The Decline and
Fall of Empires: A Theory of De-Development.
Honolulu. Archived from the original on 2007-1013. Retrieved 2008-01-06. Written for the United
Nations Research Institute on Development, UNRISD, Geneva.
James, Paul; Nairn, Tom (2006). Globalization and
Violence, Vol. 1: Globalizing Empires, Old and New.
London: Sage Publications.
Lens, Sidney; Zinn, Howard (2003). The Forging of
the American Empire: From the Revolution to Vietnam: A History of American Imperialism. Pluto
press. ISBN 0-7453-2100-3.

8.3

Further reading

Innis, Harold (1950, rev. 1972). Empire and Communications. Rev. by Mary Q. Innis; foreword by
Marshall McLuhan. Toronto, Ont.: University of
Toronto Press. xii, 184 p. N.B.: Here he [i.e.,
Innis] develops his theory that the history of empires is determined to a large extent by their means
of communication.From the back cover of the
books pbk. ed. ISBN 0-8020-6119-2 pbk

External links
Index of Colonies and Possessions
Gavrov, Sergey Modernization of the Empire. Social and Cultural Aspects of Modernization Processes in Russia ISBN 978-5-354-00915-2
Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11:
Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order,
Perceptions, Journal of International Aairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.6193

12

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Empire Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire?oldid=743950029 Contributors: Peter Winnberg, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, Jzcool, Rmhermen, Shri, Hephaestos, Tedernst, Olivier, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Edward, Infrogmation, Tillwe, AdamRaizen, (, Stan Shebs,
Pjamescowie, Nanshu, CatherineMunro, Glenn, Vzbs34, GCarty, Tobias Conradi, Nikola Smolenski, Dwo, Alex S, Adam Bishop,
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Albrecht, Antandrus, Domino theory, Bodnotbod, EuroTom, Zfr, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Cfailde, Vsmith, Xezbeth, Carptrash,
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Tomgally, Man vyi, Kitplane01, Apostrophe, Leifern, Perceval, HasharBot~enwiki, Ranveig, Alansohn, Omgee, Foant, Nik42, Walter
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Je3000, CiTrusD, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, RxS, AllanBz, Sj, Koavf, ScottJ, Olessi, MarnetteD, Platypus222, Bbullot~enwiki,
FayssalF, Truman Burbank, RexNL, Krun, Codex Sinaiticus, Le Anh-Huy, VolatileChemical, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Ericyu, RussBot, UnknownJohn, John Smiths, Bhny, Pigman, Juansmith, Anders.Warga, Lar, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather,
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FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Jafargholi, Grantbonn, Wo.luren, Alfredalva, Chhoro, Mean as custard, Beyond My Ken, KaloKelesha, Belomorkanal, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Aregakn, RA0808, Rarevogel, Nicolas M.C., Bettymnz4, MrTranscript, Wikipelli, K6ka, P. S.
F. Freitas, Yattum, AvicBot, gehan, LuzoGraal, Josve05a, Midas02, Lechonero, H3llBot, Unreal7, Aidarzver, Ramblog21, Donner60,
Nomadhund, Sidewaysback, 3141llamsR, ClueBot NG, KnightxxArrow, Robthepiper, Frietjes, Primergrey, Runehelmet, Lauren68, Picaballo, Widr, SlimVirgin II, Lewenhaupt, Helpful Pixie Bot, Andrew Gwilliam, Calabe1992, Gob Lofa, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot,
Island Monkey, Erkistreet, Silvrous, Benedict Sarino, Cadiomals, DPL bot, Lichenthrope, Lieutenant of Melkor, Bajazeth, BattyBot,
Kphillips721, ChrisGualtieri, Chuniyana, NicosRM, Laberkiste, Bachware, Lubiesque, Rheinblicker, JYBot, Meiloorun, Shahan Mughal,
Steezeboots, GBozanko, Mogism, Graphium, Crogmaeb, Wario-Man, Hillbillyholiday, Radarm, QatarStarsLeague, Epicgenius, Hastyginger1, Skee17, Jonny1967, Cherubinirules, Chris troutman, DavidLeighEllis, AcidSnow, Alpha135, Ugog Nizdast, Mikey123Mikey,
Turgeis, Whizz40, Silviu Tigu, Piercamillo, Slayer41126, Monkbot, SantiLak, Jfoster71, Tyrant Epiclolz, Biblioworm, Lysimachi, Thegodwin, Hwajae, Uspzor, Bibliomaggot, TASSO1999, Blahomg, Tatyan.L, Dutchstig, Hbf2070, Doug.wears, Thenewdarlene, E.A.2070,
Kjamjamz, Alikoca190, Geoguser, Heartfox, Diyamo, GeneralizationsAreBad, Nagihuin, John909090, Lingstudisto, Bucaksoy, Tan1667,
Maxaxax, Fastrust, 222356it, Spadebays, Wikiexploreradvisor and Anonymous: 732

10.2

Images

File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_

with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)

10.3

Content license

13

File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:WorldEmpires.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/WorldEmpires.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Bosanko

10.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0