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Conditioning
A brief introductory course for the new control technician
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Lesson 1-
Understanding Psychrometrics
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
What is Psychrometrics? 85
Physical Properties of Air 89
The Psychrometric Chart 93
Process Lines 101
Sensible Heat Ratio 104
Apparatus Dew Point 105
Coil Contact and Bypass Factors 106
Lesson - 1
-1
Lesson 1-
Lesson - 1
Lesson 1-
1
Understanding HVAC Fundamentals
Lesson 1-
Lesson - 1
New Terms
Air Conditioning
The process of maintaining an
indoor environment by controlling temperature,
humidity, air quality, distribution, cleanliness, and
air pressure.
CO2 The trace gas used to monitor occupancy in
a zone.
HVAC system The equipment, ducting and piping
used to control the environment in a zone is called a
heating, ventilation, air conditioning system. .
Humidity
Air quality
To meet the varied needs for maintaining these indoor environmental conditions,
HVAC systems may need to cool or heat, humidify or dehumidify, ventilate, filter,
distribute, or pressurize air.
Cool/heat- HVAC systems control the temperature in an indoor environment as the
system transfers heat to or from a particular zone, that is, the room or space being
maintained by the HVAC system. If a building is cold, a heating device (heat generation system) is required to transfer heat into that space and replace the heat lost
to the outside. When a building is hot, a cooling device is required to remove the
excess heat to the outside.
Humidify/dehumidify- HVAC systems control the degree of moisture present in
the air. Humidifying (adding moisture to) the air may be necessary in winter
months or in a dry climate. Dehumidifying (removing moisture from) the air is
more often required in summer months and humid climates.
Ventilate- HVAC systems control the air quality of the buildings zone by ventilating the space with fresh air from outside the building. Air is polluted by occupants
and by the off-gassing of interior carpet, paint, and other furnishings. Outside air is
added into the buildings zone to dilute the interior air, and some of the polluted air
is exhausted to the outside of the building.
Filter- HVAC systems pass outside air through a filter to remove unwanted partic-
Lesson 1-
ulates. We can typically allow some amount of recycled air to re-circulate back
into the building, this recycled air is also filtered for particulates before re-entering
the building zone.
Distribute- HVAC systems distribute conditioned air or heating/cooling water
throughout the building. Air is distributed through ducts and water is distributed
through a piping system.
Pressurize- HVAC systems control the infiltration of unfiltered, unconditioned air
by bringing more outside air in than is exhausted. This situation provides a slightly
higher pressure inside the building than outside, limiting the movement of outside
air through doors, walls, cracks, and windows. Pressurization is also needed to
move conditioned air through a building.
Depending on the situation, an HVAC system may need to perform cooling and
dehumidifying at certain times of the year and then perform heating and humidifying at other times and ventilation, distribution, filtering and pressurization all of
the year. These HVAC system functions enable the system to control variables in
an indoor environment that determine if a building zone is comfortable or not.
Occupants feel comfortable if the air and surface temperatures are not too warm or
too cold, if the percentage of moisture present in the air does not feel clammy or
dry, and if the distribution of particle-free air is not drafty.
Lesson - 1
Application
System components
wet systems
Apartment buildings
Schools,
Commercial buildings
Industrial buildings
Residences
Boiler, chiller
Piping
Coil or Radiation
device
Pump
dry systems
Schools,
Commercial buildings
Industrial buildings
Residences
Review
HVAC systems are technologically advanced air conditioning systems
designed to maintain comfort levels in indoor environments. Environmental
conditions vary, so a typical HVAC system will serve differing conditions
throughout a typical day or season.
Space temperature, humidity, air distribution, and air cleanliness are all
variables that the HVAC system regulates. Wet systems and Dry systems are
the two main types of HVAC systems.
Wet systems pipe water through a building to move heat into or out of the
interior spaces. Dry systems direct air through a building to move heat into or
out of the interior spaces.
Lesson 1-
Exercises: 1.1
1.What is air conditioning?
Lesson - 1
10
Lesson 1-
Internal factors are possible sources of heat from inside a building. Possible
internal factors typically include people, lights, computers, copy machines,
coffee makers, production equipment, and any other machinery that puts off
heat. Each watt of electricity used in a space gives off 3.14 BTUs/HR of heat.
Well learn what a BTU is later.
External factors are possible sources of heat from outside a building. Possible
external factors include wind, solar radiation, transmission of heat through
the structure of the facility, and the leakage of heat out of or into the building
through walls due to temperature differences, windows, cracks, and doors due
to infiltration.
Lesson - 1
11
New Terms
internal factors Sources of heat generation from within a
building, including people, lights, and machinery.
external factors Sources of heat generation from outside a
facility, including wind, solar radiation, transmission, and
leakage.
Solar radiation is the heat generated and released by the sun as
electromagnetic waves. This heat is greater in the east in the morning and
west in the afternoon. The suns radiation can penetrate glass, and can be used
as a heat source to warm interior space.
Transmission is the heat transfer process of moving heat through walls and
windows into or out of a facility. Different materials transfer heat at different
rates. When the outside temperature is above the inside temperature, heat
transfers into the facility through the outside structure. When the outside
temperature is lower than the inside temperature, heat will be transferred out
of the building. This is why offices and rooms in a house can become so warm
in the summer and so cold in the winter.
Leakage occurs when pressure differences in a building cause air to infiltrate
or exfiltrate through cracks in walls, doors, windows, and roof equipment
penetrations.
New Terms
solar radiation The heat generated by the sun. Energy
emitted from a source in the form of rays.
transmission The heat transfer process of moving heat
through walls and windows into or out of a facility.
leakage The escaping of heat through cracks in walls,
windows, doors, or any other opening in the structure of a
facility.
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Lesson 1-
Heating load is the total heat lost from the sum of internal and external
factors. This heat must be replaced by adding heat back to the various areas in
the facility that are cooler than the desired setpoint.
Lesson - 1
13
New Terms
cooling load The total heat gained from internal and
external factors.
heating load
factors.
14
Lesson 1-
New Terms
HVAC contractor Also known as the mechanical
contractor, responsible for the installation of the HVAC
system.
consulting mechanical engineer Engineer responsible for
designing the plans and specifications for installation of a
new HVAC system.
engineering drawings The plans and specifications for the
installation of a new HVAC system.
shop drawings The HVAC contractors larger-scaled, and
more detailed, plans and specifications that are given to the
workers to use as instructions for the installation of an HVAC
system.
Review
Design is important to the successful operation of an HVAC system. The
occupants needs will be met if the designer considers both internal and
external factors.
People, lights, and equipment are internal factors that affect the temperature,
humidity, and air quality in a facility.
Wind, solar radiation, transmission, and leakage are all external factors that
affect the temperature, humidity, and air quality in a facility.
Internal and external factors cause a facility to lose or gain heat. The total
heat gained is the cooling load, and the total heat lost is the heating load.
The HVAC contractor is responsible for the installation of the HVAC system.
A consulting mechanical engineer designs the HVAC specifications and the
HVAC contractor creates shop drawings from the specifications that the
workers use as installation instructions.
Lesson - 1
15
Exercises: 1.2
1. Identify the following HVAC design factors as Internal or External by
circling the correct factor type.
Factor
Type
Transmission
Internal
External
Light
Internal
External
Solar Radiation
Internal
External
Leakage
Internal
External
People
Internal
External
Wind
Internal
External
Equipment
Internal
External
2.Fill in the blanks below with the correct word(s) to make the following
statements true.
The ______________________________ is the total heat lost
from internal and external factors.
The ______________________________ is the total heat
gained from internal and external factors.
The ______________________________ is responsible for
creating the engineering drawings.
The ______________________________ is responsible for
creating the shop drawings.
3. Describe a setpoint.
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Lesson 1-
1.3 Comfort
Comfort
Comfort is a subjective feeling. Because individuals perceive comfort
differently, comfort cannot be measured directly. Variables that affect a
persons comfort are indoor air quality and body heat loss. While an
individual persons comfort level encompasses many complex factors, HVAC
systems function primarily to maintain thermal comfort.
Thermal comfort will exist when someone is surrounded by an environment of
proper temperature, relative humidity, air quality and distribution that allows
them to give up their body heat at the same rate it is produced. A persons
body generates heat as it performs routine bodily functions such as the
oxidation of food substances or body fat. As the body is producing heat, it
will also be losing it through the process of radiation, conduction or
convection. The average temperature of the human body depends upon a
balance between the sum of the heat generated by the body and the sum of the
heat loss to the surrounding air.
New Terms
radiation The process of heat being given off from the body
in electromagnetic ray form as it produces heat from internal
chemical reactions or body processes.
conduction The process of heat being transferred by
molecule to molecule through direct contact.
convection The process of heat being transferred by a fluid.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy that can exist on its own and can be moved from one
location to another. Heat is not matter; it does not exist as a solid, a liquid, or
gas, and so it cannot be measured by weight or volume. When we think of
heat, we tend to think of temperature, but temperature does not really measure
heat content. Instead, temperature indicates the average velocity of the
Lesson - 1
17
Humidity
HVAC systems monitor and control the variables in an indoor environment
that affect the occupants perceptions of thermal comfort. Temperature and
humidity impact the skins evaporation rate. If the evaporation rate to the
surrounding air is too high or too low, the body will feel uncomfortable. If the
air is dry, the evaporation rate increases, so heat transfers from the body at a
higher rate. This may cause the person to feel chilly even when air
temperature is in the mid 70s.
Space temperature is the temperature of the air in a building zone
18
Lesson 1-
Ventilation
Cleanliness/ventilation relates directly to comfort. Ventilating fresh outdoor
air into a facility replaces polluted air from occupants and interior
furnishings. In most cases, outdoor air is fresher than indoor air.
Contaminants such as dust and smoke can be physically removed through the
HVAC system. Proper HVAC filtering and ventilation can reduce particles
present in indoor air that irritate the eyes, nose, and lungs.
Review
Comfort is not only affected by combinations of temperature, humidity, and
air distribution, but also by physical activity. Comfort levels vary in as many
ways as people do.
Lower relative humidity levels require a higher temperature to maintain
comfort. Conversely, higher relative humidity levels require a lower
temperature to maintain comfort.
Lesson - 1
19
Exercises: 1.3
1.Identify three conditions that affect the rate of body heat loss.
20
Lesson 1-
Lesson - 1
21
Example
Boiler
Furnace
Electric heating coil
Chiller
Window air unit
Evaporative spray coil
Fan
Sheet metal duct
Terminal unit
Fan
Filter
Dampers
Mixing box
Piping system
Coil
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Lesson 1-
Heat rejection systems, or the cooling system, is another major HVAC system
component involved in maintaining comfort. It transfers heat from where it is
too warm to an area where it is needed or not objectionable. Examples of heat
rejection components are a chiller, a window A/C unit, and an evaporative
spray coil.
Air delivery systems provide the means for transferring heated and chilled air
throughout a facility. Air delivery systems typically combine outside and
recycled building air, filter it, add or remove heat from it, and often times
humidify or dehumidify it before transferring the air throughout the facility.
This system usually consists of a fan that blows air through sheet metal ducts.
The ductwork is like an artery that supplies air to all the rooms in a facility.
Lesson - 1
23
Terminal units are the last piece of equipment involved in the delivery of
fresh air to a facility. After the heated or cooled air passes through the air
delivery system, it disperses through the terminal units. Terminal units are
usually located in the spaces they condition. Examples of terminal units are
unit ventilators, fan coils, VAV boxes.
Pumping systems force a fluid, usually water, through a piping system. The
fluid is the control agent that transfers energy from primary energy sources,
such as heat generating systems or cooling systems, to air delivery systems
and/or terminal units. The heat energy transfers from the control agent to the
air through a coil. A coil is an arrangement of tubes with heat transfer fins
located in the air stream. Hot water coils release heat into the air in a heating
system. Chilled water coils absorb heat in a cooling system. A car radiator is a
common example of a heat transfer coil.
24
Lesson 1-
New Term
fluid A substance such as a liquid, gas, or steam that can
take on the shape of its container.
Review
Heat always travels from a warmer object to a cooler object. HVAC systems
provide the means to transfer heat.
An HVAC system consists of different system components that give it the
ability to function as it is designed to maintain comfort.
A typical HVAC system consists of a heat generating device, a cooling system
device, ducts to transfer the conditioned air, pipes to transfer heat through a
fluid, and terminal units that disperse conditioned air into the spaces where it
is needed.
Lesson - 1
25
Exercises: 1.4
1. What
26
Answer
C. Pumping system
E. Terminal unit
Lesson 1-
Lesson - 1
27
sensor, a controller and controlled device. Two additional elements that are
always assumed present in the control system are the controlled medium and
control agent.
Table 1.3 Control System Elements
Control system elements
Description
Sensor
Controller
Controlled device
Controlled medium
Control agent
All three basic components of an HVAC control system are necessary to make
automatic control of the system possible. The sensor measures a controlled
variable such as temperature or pressure or level. The sensor then transmits
that information to the controller. The controller compares the measured
control point against the desired setpoint and generates an output to bring the
two closer together. The controlled device regulates the amount of control
agent to the desired amount.
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Lesson 1-
Lesson - 1
29
Review
Automatic control systems regulate an HVAC system to maintain desired
comfort levels, conserve energy and ensure safe operation.
The three main components of a control system are the sensor, the controller
and the controlled device.
There are four types of control systems. They are electromechanical,
pneumatic, analog electronic and digital electronic.
30
Lesson 1-
Exercises: 1.5
1.What do automatic control components do?
3. Fill in the main control components of an HVAC system and describe the
purpose of each.
Component
Purpose
4. Identify the classifications for automatic control systems next to the correct
description below.
Classification
Description
Activated by compressed air
Activated by controlled medium
Activated by electricity
Lesson - 1
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32
Lesson 1-
2
Exploring the Physical Sciences
Units
Temperature
Force
Pressure
Energy
First Law of Thermodynamics
Solids, Liquids, and Vapors
34
Lesson 2-
2.1 Units
A unit of measurement is the magnitude of a physical quantity. Matter can be
measured in terms of height, weight, and density for example. Energy can be
measured in terms of frequency, velocity, or pressure. Units describe physical
characteristics specifically.
New Terms
units Standard quantities that measure physical
characteristics.
Everything that can be measured has some system to quantify it. In the US
currency is measured in dollars and cents. In the United Kingdom the
currency is pounds sterling and pence. When traveling between the two
countries you must convert your cash from one to the other. The same thing
applies with temperature scales, weights, pressures, etc.
Lesson - 2
35
English units
SI (Metric) units
Length
1 Inch (in)
1 Foot (ft.)
1 Yard (yd.)
Mass
1 Ounce (oz.)
1 Pounds (lps)
28 Grams (g)
.453 Kilogram (kg)
Volume
1 Gallon (ga)
Force
1 Pound (lb.)
Temperature
Degrees
Fahrenheit (F)
Electric current
Ampere (A)
Ampere (A)
Luminous energy
Candela (cd)
Unit Conversion
It is important to understand the conversion of SI units to English units. Changing
units is a simple process of performing a few calculations. The English unit
measurement of feet, converts to the SI unit measurement of meters; velocity in
feet per second to meters per second; perhaps most importantly to HVAC,
temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit (F) converts to Degrees Celsius (C). The key
rule to remember when converting from one unit system to the other: always
carry the units along as you perform a calculation and make sure that the units
cancel each other out properly.
36
Lesson 2-
1meter
sec onds- -----------------------1foot - 200feet
------------------ 60
-------------------------
= ------------------sec ond
minute
0.3meters minute
Looking at only the units, we have meters cancel meters, seconds cancel
seconds, and we are left with feet per minute.
meter- -------------------sec onds- ---------------foot - ----------------feet ----------------
=
sec ond minute meters minute
Looking at the number values, we multiply 1 x 60 x 1 = 60. Then we divide 60
by 0.3.
1--- 60
1
60
------ ------- = ------1 1 0.3 0.3
Finding the answer, 60 feet divided by 0.3 minutes equals 200 feet per minute.
60feet - -------------------200feet--------------------------=
0.3minutes 1minute
Solving the conversion, 1 meter per second equals 200 feet per minute.
Review
The qualities of matter and energy are described in the United States by the
English System of units, even though the SI, or Metric System of units, is the
global standard for measurement.
Units are easily converted between the English and SI systems as long as you
remember to always carry the units as you multiply and divide. In addition,
make sure that the units cancel each other out correctly.
Lesson - 2
37
Exercises: 2.1
1.Describe the term physical characteristics and list at least six examples.
1ft = 0.3 m
38
Lesson 2-
2.2 Temperature
Temperature indicates the average velocity of the molecules of a substance.
When the temperature of something rises, the molecules that make it up will
vibrate faster. This vibration is an indication of the heat energy contained
within the substance. The first temperature measurement system ever was
devised by Gabriel Fahrenheit. The Fahrenheit system of measurement sets its
zero point as the freezing point of a solution of water and ammonium chloride
and another point at the body temperature of a normal health person.
Divisions in-between are the result of the marks he made on a glass pipette.
The boiling point of water at 212 was added later as a benchmark causing an
adjustment in the reading used for body temperature. Later another system
was developed using the freezing point of pure water at 0 and the boiling
point of pure water at 100 as benchmarks. This was the Celsius measurement
system.
Absolute Zero
Each of these systems used an arbitrary starting point that still contained
much heat. For the more detailed scientific work that came later a system that
started at the point where the heat content was actually zero was needed.
Using the same size of a degree developed in each of these systems two more
scales were developed using the point of no molecular motion as their zero
point. The Rankine scale uses the point of no molecular motion (absolute
zero) as its starting point and uses the same size degree as the Fahrenheit
system. Zero degrees Rankine is the equivalent of -460 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Kelvin scale uses a degree the size of a Celsius degree but also starts at
the point of no molecular motion. 0 degrees Kelvin is the equivalent of -273
degrees Celsius.
F to C Conversion
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are commonly used in the HVAC field.
Conversion between them is easier if you remember a few key points. The
freezing point of water in each scale (32F - 0C); the boiling point of water
in each scale (212F - 100C). There are180 degrees difference from 32 to
212. There are 100 degrees difference from 0 to 100. Therefore, each degree
on the Celsius scale is equal to 1.8 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. Now just
remember to add 32 degrees when going to F or subtract 32 degrees going to
C and youre done. See the exercises below.
Lesson - 2
39
190
32-------------------= C
1.8
40
Lesson 2-
2.3 Force
Force is an important physical principle to understand as it applies to HVAC
systems. HVAC systems require force to move a controlled medium from one
location to another or to open and close controlled devices. If mechanical
equipment and controlled devices are not sized properly to handle the forces
contained, the devices cannot function properly or may be damaged. For
example, if the actuator on a valve doesnt generate enough force, the valve
may not be able to stop the flow of hot water to a zone already too warm.
Force Characteristics
Force is a push or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its
velocity. This contributes to the operation of HVAC devices and equipment
because we use force to make water, air, refrigerants, etc, flow from one place
to another.
Mass (m) is not a force but a measurement of how much matter an object
contains. The amount of matter in an object affects the amount of force it
exerts. Mass is measured with units of pounds (mass), but recognize that it is
not the same as pounds (force). Units are lbsm.
Weight (w) is the force of gravitational pull on an object. Weight is a force
that is measured in pounds (force) and because gravity always exists on earth,
every body or object has a measurable weight force. Units are lbs.
Volume is the amount of area a body, object, or space occupies. For example,
the volume of a room is equal to the product of the height, width, and length
measurements of that room. Units are cubic whatever, (ft.3 for instance).
Specific Volume (v) is the volume occupied by one pound of a substance,
usually used for substances while in the gaseous state. Units are ft3/lbm.
Density (d) is the weight of one cubic foot of a material, usually used while
the material is in the solid or liquid phase. Units are lb m/ft3
The units of density and specific volume are the inverse of each other, lbm/ft3
and ft3/lbm. This means we can convert between them by dividing one by
either density or specific volume.
specific volume = 1 / density or density = 1 / specific volume
Lesson - 2
41
mass (m)
weight (w)
object.
Review
Mass is related to weight by the gravitational attraction of the planet. In outer
space a body still has mass but no weight.
The density of a fluid is the inverse of its specific volume.
42
Lesson 2-
Exercises: 2.3
1. What is the density of a liquid with a mass of 35.0lbs and a volume of 20.0
in 3?
Lesson - 2
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44
Lesson 2-
2.4 Pressure
Pressure is a powerful force that an HVAC system generates and uses in
many ways. Pressure in a liquid or gas is force over a unit of area. HVAC
pressures are typically measured relative to atmospheric pressure, the
pressure upon the earth due to the weight of the atmosphere. Under normal
atmospheric conditions, pressure decreases at higher elevations. This is why
different geographical regions register different atmospheric pressures. These
pressure differences affect tasks as simple as baking a cake or as complex as
designing well-built HVAC equipment. Pressure is the driving force that
allows an HVAC system to transfer conditioned air to a buildings different
zones.
New Term
pressure
Types of Pressure
Pressure is measured in different ways because we need to know what
pressure exists in different places. Pressure types are distinguished by the
method of reading pressure and the weight of the atmosphere where the
pressure measurement is taken. Table 2.2 lists different pressure types.
Lesson - 2
45
Example
Atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure
Vacuum pressure
Gauge pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted down upon the earth by the weight
of all atmospheric gases. Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude, moisture
content and temperature. At sea level, standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7
lb./in2 ABS (PSIA) or 29.92 in Hg ABS.
Absolute pressure is the total pressure force exerted on an object. Absolute
pressure is the sum of atmospheric pressure on the object plus any other
pressures exerted onto the object. An example is the pressure exerted in a
vertical pipe filled with water. The pressure available at the bottom of the pipe
can be measured relative to the atmospheric pressure locally or relative to the
pressure outside the earths atmosphere. This is usually done by adding the
known weight of the atmosphere to the pressure measured. Units of
measurements that use a reference of outside the atmosphere add an A to the
end such as PSIA.
P absolute = Pa t m o s p h e ri c + P g a u g e
46
Lesson 2-
47
New Terms
manometer
Example
Common application
Manometer
Mechanical gauge
Electromechanical transducer
Electronic sensors
48
Lesson 2-
Review
Pressure is measured in several ways, including atmospheric, absolute,
vacuum and gauge. Pressure measuring instruments include manometers,
mechanical gages, and electromechanical transducers.
Lesson - 2
49
Exercises: 2.4
1.Explain the difference between absolute, gauge, and WC pressure.
2.Fill in the blanks below with the correct pressure type to make the following
statements true.
You measure _______________ pressure with a liquid column
manometer if you apply the pressure you want to measure to
one side of the column and attach another liquid column
manometer to the reference side of the tube. You measure
_______________ pressure if you empty out the reference side
of the tube. You measure _______________ pressure if you do
not seal the reference side of the tube.
50
Lesson 2-
2.5 Energy
The First Law of Thermodynamics tells us that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. Energy can only be transformed, which enables us to use it for
many different purposes. Examples of different energy forms are thermal
energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, electrical energy, and chemical
energy.
New Term
thermodynamics The branch of physics that studies
the energy conversion between heat and mechanical
work.
energy
Forms of Energy
Heat is a form of energy (thermal energy) that always transfers from a source
of higher energy to a source of lower energy. In fact, all energy does this. For
example, HVAC systems use hot water to transfer heat to cool areas and cool
water to remove heat from warm areas.
Kinetic energy is energy stored in a body due to its motion or velocity. For
example, kinetic energy is stored in the mass of a fan wheel as it spins forcing
air into a duct. When the motor is turned off the fan will continue to rotate for
some time as its kinetic energy is given up.
Potential energy is energy stored in a body due to its position or elevation. For
example, a heat pump suspended from the ceiling has potential energy stored.
To release it, just cut the hangers and stand back. Pressurized gases also are
sources of potential energy.
Electricity is energy that consists of an accumulated surplus and deficit of
electrons. Electrons are negatively charged, a surplus creates a large negative
charge. A deficit of electrons is positive relative to the negative charge. The
interaction of these opposite charges causes an electrical charge, or current,
that can power HVAC equipment.
Lesson - 2
51
Chemical energy is stored energy that releases when chemical reactions take
place during combustion. For example, when natural gas burns, it releases
heat, CO2, water vapor, perhaps CO and other trace gases. The energy
generated from the burning gas serves as a heat source to an HVAC rooftop
unit.
Review
We rely on many different forms of energy to power the processes that make
our daily lives comfortable.
Energy cannot be destroyed, only transformed.
We can isolate various forms of energy and apply them to activate control
devices and other equipment in facility HVAC systems.
Some forms of energy release only after combustion. Other forms are present
in a body because of motion or position.
Heat energy always moves from a higher energy source to a lower energy
source.
52
Lesson 2-
Exercises: 2.5
1.Can energy be destroyed? If not, how can energy be used for different
applications?
Lesson - 2
Answer
Description
Kinetic energy
Electric energy
Potential energy
Chemical energy
Heat energy
53
54
Lesson 2-
Review
Thermodynamics is the study of the conversion of energy.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed.
HVAC systems utilize this law to maintain environmental conditions within a
space.
Lesson - 2
55
Exercises: 2.6
1.What is thermodynamics?
56
Lesson 2-
Lesson - 2
57
New Terms
phase Any of the three states of matter: solid, liquid, vapor.
solid Any object that has a definite volume and shape that
cannot easily change.
liquid Any substance that has a definite volume but can
change shape easily.
gas
Any substance that has no constant volume or
specific shape.
58
Lesson 2-
are water molecules with a high power of attraction. We can see and feel the
solidness of ice cubes. When we turn on the faucet in the kitchen sink, liquid
water pours into our glass and swirls around at the bottom. The liquid water
molecules have more kinetic energy than power of attraction, so the water is
easily poured out. In addition, when we boil the water from the glass, the heat
adds more kinetic energy to the water molecules. The bonds between the
molecules break, transforming them into gas. The vapor escapes through
evaporation once the water temperature reaches the boiling point. The more
fluid a substance is, the more kinetic energy the substance contains.
Lesson - 2
59
All of these conditions depend on both temperature and pressure. The boiling
point can be reached at only one temperature for a specified pressure, but a
substance can exist at superheated or subcooled conditions at many
temperatures for a given pressure.
Temperature sometimes causes a substance to change phases. When a
substance transforms from one phase into another after it gains or loses heat,
the enthalpy change in the substance is known as the latent heat change.
When a substance does not change phases after it gains or loses heat, it is
know as a sensible heat change. Table 2.4 provides summary of the
difference between latent and sensible heat.
Table 2. 4 Latent and Sensible Heat
Heat type
Description
Latent heat
Sensible heat
New Terms
enthalpy The measure of the heat energy in a substance
(BTU/LBm). Usually measured from an arbitrary starting
point
latent heat When a substance gains or loses heat, the
temperature change causes a phase change.
sensible heat When a substance gains or loses heat, the
temperature change does not cause a phase change
Refrigeration
Temperature and pressure control the conditions that enable refrigeration. It
is possible to move heat into a liquid and make that liquid boil at temperatures
60
Lesson 2-
low enough to cool a space if the pressure over that liquid is low enough. The
liquid will be absorbing its latent heat from the space. The vapor created can
then be compressed to raise its pressure and boiling point so the boiling point
is now greater than the outside air temperature. That means the outside air can
condense the vapor back into a liquid and that liquid can be sent back to be
boiled all over again.
New Term
refrigeration The process of moving heat from somewhere
its not wanted to somewhere that makes little difference.
P1 V1 P2 V2
------------ = -----------T1
T2
P1 = initial pressure of sample gas expressed in an absolute scale
V1 = initial volume occupied by gas sample
T1 = initial temperature of gas sample expressed in an absolute
scale
P2 = final pressure of sample gas expressed in an absolute scale
V2 = final volume occupied by gas sample
T2 = final temperature of gas sample expressed in an absolute
scale
When heat is applied to a closed container of a gas the volume cant change so
the pressure must. If you inflate a balloon by blowing into it, tie it off and set
it in the sun, the pressure will increase slightly but the volume will increase
significantly. These are everyday examples of the Ideal gas law. When air is
compressed above the piston in a diesel engine its temperature is raised so
much that when fuel is injected the fuel will ignite, explode and expand
pushing the piston back down, IGL at work.
Lesson - 2
61
P1 = 3 HG Vac T1 = 48 F
P2 = 125 psig
T2 = 105 F
V1 = 58 ft 3
V2 = ?
= 6.3ft
Now our engineer knows what volume she has at the compressor discharge
and can move on to determine the pipe size needed.
62
Lesson 2-
Review
Matter can exist in three different phases, solid, liquid, and gas. The Kinetic
Molecular Theory explains the behaviors of a substances molecules when
they are in these three phases. Solids contain molecules that have a high
power of attraction, so they stay in close proximity. Liquid molecules also
have power of attraction but contain enough kinetic energy to allow the
molecules more freedom of movement. Gas molecules have more kinetic
energy than power of attraction. Gas molecules spread out to fit the shape of
their container, whether a canister, a refrigeration unit, or the earths
atmosphere.
Temperature and pressure determine a substances phase. By boiling liquids
we can utilize them to meet refrigeration needs if the temperature and
pressure conditions are adjusted to the type of liquid being used. For example,
in a refrigeration system the evaporator is at a low pressure so the refrigerant
can boil and absorb lots of heat, then in the condenser the pressure is raised
and the heat is passed out of the system as the refrigerant condenses.
The ideal gas law is used to determine the changes in a gas when any one of
three variables is altered.
Lesson - 2
63
Exercises: 2.7
1.What are the different phases in which substances can exist?
3.Answer True or False below. If false, correct the statement to make it true.
Statement
Answer
4. According to the Ideal Gas Law, what happens to gas pressure when the
temperature increases?
64
Lesson 2-
3
Differentiating Heating and Cooling
Loads
Explore heat transfer principles and how they
apply to calculating heating and cooling loads.
66
Lesson 3-
Lesson - 3
67
68
Lesson 3-
Thermal Resistance
A buildings walls and roof are often made up of multiple layers of different
materials, and these structures can be designed to reduce heat transfer. Some
building materials have better resistance against heat loss than others due to
the thermal properties of these materials. The architect needs to take thermal
resistance into account when choosing building materials to create a more
energy- and cost-efficient facility.
A building is constructed so that the walls and roof resist heat transfer. This
resistance to heat transfer is known as thermal resistance, or the R-value.
The units of R are hr * ft2 * F / BTU. The R-value of different materials used
in a building can be found in tables.
Lesson - 3
69
New Terms
thermal resistance A materials property of resistance to
transferring heat, resulting in heat loss.
R-value The amount of resistance to heat flow in BTU/h
through a one square foot area of a given building material
for each 1F temperature differential on each side of the
material. The units of R are hr- ft 2-F / BTU
Conductance (C) is a materials ability to allow heat to pass. It is the
reciprocal of the R value; C = 1/R. The units are BTU / hr-ft2-F.
Conductivity (k) is the conductance per unit of thickness and relates to C
thus; C = k/L where L is thickness. The units are BTU / hr-ft 2-F per in. To
determine how much heat will pass through a wall, start with the k and divide
by the thickness for each component of the wall; sheathing, insulation,
wallboard and even air film inside and out. Convert the k to C with the
equation above then convert the C to R with R =1/C (or get the R from the
table). Now you can add all the Rs for each component of the wall to get the
overall thermal resistance (Ro). This value, Ro, is then used to arrive at a
value for U, the overall heat transfer coefficient. U = 1/Ro.
1
U = --------------------------------R1 + R2 + R3
The values of U for many types of construction is readily available so just get
the U from the table if possible.
70
Lesson 3-
New Terms
U value The heat transfer coefficient. The amount of heat in
BTU/h that will pass through one square foot of a material
for a 1F temperature differential on each side of the
material. U value usually represents a combination of
materials used in construction, found by dividing 1 by the
sum of the R values.
The rate that heat transfers is directly related to the U value that is used in the
construction design of a building. The U value, the area, and the temperature
difference across the wall determine how much heat enters or leaves a
structure. This relationship can be expressed as an equation:
Q = U A T
Where:
Q = the rate of heat transfer in BTU/hr.
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient in BTU/hr-ft2-F.
A = the area of the surface that heat is transferring through.
T = the difference between the temperatures on either side of the surface.
This equation defines all heat transfers you will see in HVAC. You will see
this equation in several other forms. Remember it.
hr ft F
R = 1.04 -----------------------------BTU
Lesson - 3
71
72
Lesson 3-
Review
Enthalpy is the measurement of heat contained in an object or fluid. This heat
is transferred throughout a building in three ways, conduction, convection,
and radiation.
Conduction occurs when heat transfers through a material. Convection occurs
when heat is transferred by a fluid, and radiation occurs when heat is emitted
in electromagnetic waves.
This transferred heat can be kept contained in or restrained out of a space that
has been constructed of material with high thermal resistance. A materials
ability to transfer heat is known as conductance, and conductance of materials
is used to determine the heat transfer coefficient for a building.
Building design, including the types of construction materials used, can
contribute to the reduction of heat loss due to R-value factors and infiltration.
R-values represent the heat flow resistance through a material and the U-value
represents the total heat flow resistance of the finished structure.
Lesson - 3
73
Exercises: 3.1
1. How is enthalpy different from energy?
6. What are the three factors that govern the rate of heat transfer through a
wall?
74
Lesson 3-
Review
Heat may be transferred to and from a space to maintain the desired
temperature setpoint.
The amount of heat required to be added is the heating load.
Lesson - 3
75
The value of the heating load depends on the amount of heat gained in relation
to the amount of heat lost. When the amount of heat gained is equal to the
amount of heat lost, enthalpy will be constant and the setpoint temperature
will be maintained.
76
Lesson 3-
Exercises: 3.2
1. Explain heating load.
Lesson - 3
77
78
Lesson 3-
Lesson - 3
79
Review
Buildings require the removal of heat when the space temperature rises above
the setpoint.
The amount of heat that needs to be removed is the cooling load.
Factors such as building materials, occupants, and equipment all generate and
release heat into the interior of a building, and the cooling equipment must
remove extra heat to maintain comfort.
When the cooling load is accounted for prior to a buildings construction, the
appropriate HVAC system can be installed and both energy and operation
costs can be conserved.
80
Lesson 3-
Exercises: 3.3
1. Explain cooling load.
2. List at least five sources for heat that contribute to the cooling load of a
room.
3. List three sources of cooling loads that are not also heating loads.
Lesson - 3
81
82
Lesson 3-
4
Understanding Psychrometrics
Explore psychrometrics for HVAC applications
and use the psychrometric chart.
What is Psychrometrics?
Physical Properties of Air
Psychrometric Chart
Process Lines
84
Lesson 4-
Lesson - 4
85
New Terms
psychrometer An instrument with wet and dry thermometers
for measuring air moisture.
percent relative humidity Is the percentage of moisture
content in the air.
HVAC systems control air moisture to maintain building comfort. For
example, if the air in an office is too warm or too humid, the HVAC system
removes surplus heat and water vapor from the air. Air always contains some
amount of moisture. As the moisture content increases, more energy is
required to heat or cool the air.
Review
Temperature and humidity affect air quality and comfort perceptions.
The science of psychrometrics examines the thermodynamic properties of air.
A good understanding of these properties is key to successful HVAC
operation.
86
Lesson 4-
Exercises: 4.1
1. What are psychrometrics?
Lesson - 4
87
88
Lesson 4-
Description
The amount of heat present in air per unit weight in BTU/lb dry air.
Volume of air per unit weight of dry air, in ft3/lb dry air.
Air pressure at the surface of the earth is due to the weight of the air above the
earth. It decreases as altitude increases. At sea level, the air presses against
the earth with a pressure of 14.7 psi. At this pressure, one pound of air has a
volume of about 14 cubic feet and a density of 0.0725 lb/cubic feet.
If humidity levels rise high enough, the air cannot hold another water
molecule without starting to condense; this condition is known as saturated
air. Saturation is temperature-dependent.
Mixtures of air and moisture, and refrigerant vapors that well see later, act as
ideal gases. The individual molecules act independently. The
interrelationship of the gases pressure, temperature and volume can be
described mathematically as:
P1 V1
P2 V2
------------------ = -----------------T1
T2
Lesson - 4
89
New Terms
saturated air The condition when air contains the
maximum amount of water vapor possible before
condensation begins.
ideal gases Gases composed of randomly moving noninteracting point particles. As molecules approach a phase
change to solid or liquid they are no longer considered ideal
gases.
This is known as the Ideal Gas Law. The pressures and temperatures must be
expressed in absolute terms. This equation comes from research in the 1700s
that showed the relationship between pressure and volume. With an enclosed
sample of a gas, as the volume decreases the pressure will increase in direct
proportion if the temperature is held constant. Think of a piston being pushed
into a cylinder. This is Boyles Law of gases. Later work showed that as the
temperature of a gas sample was increased the volume would increase if the
pressure was held constant. Think of a hot air balloon being inflated. This is
Charles Law of gases. The two laws combined form the Ideal Gas Law.
Mixtures of ideal gases act independently of each other. Daltons Law defines
how the pressure of the mixture is determined. Daltons Law states that the
total pressure equals the sum of the partial pressures. Daltons Law applies to
dry and wet air because both instances of atmospheric air exist as ideal gases.
When ideal gases are mixed together, the different gas molecules do not
change behavior. Thus, multiple ideal gases placed within the same container
continue to behave in an ideal state and coexist as an ideal gas mixture. The
total pressure of the mixture (PT) is equal to the sum of the individual gas
pressures (P1, P2, P3) added together, as measured if they were present in
individual containers. Daltons Law expresses this relationship as the
following equation:
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +
For atmospheric air Daltons Law might look like:
pt = p
air
+ p wet
Where:
pt = total atmospheric pressure
pair = partial dry air pressure
pwet = partial water vapor pressure
90
Lesson 4-
Review
Air is made up of various gases and the physical properties of air can be
measured and quantified.
Knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of air enable HVAC control
technicians to control temperature and humidity levels within a facility.
HVAC systems add or remove water vapor and heat energy from a building
when the current levels are not within the prescribed temperature or humidity
ranges.
When the maximum amount of water is present in air, before condensation
sets in, air has reached the saturation point.
Daltons Law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum
of each of the individual gas pressures, as if they were measured in individual
containers. No one gas pressure will affect any other gas pressure.
Lesson - 4
91
Exercises: 4.2
1. What are the seven properties of atmospheric air?
2. What is saturated air?
3. Describe the following air properties.
Air properties
Description
Specific Enthalpy
Specific volume
Relative humidity
4. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statement true.
Daltons Law states that the ____________________ pressure
equals the sum of the ____________________ pressures.
5. What is the partial wet pressure reading for 14.7 psi of atmospheric air and
14.5 psi partial dry air pressure?
92
Lesson 4-
Lesson - 4
93
studied. The water vapor present in the air sample is so small that it is usually
expressed in grains: 7000 grains equal one pound.
Moist air sample conversions
1 pound = 7000 grains
0.036 pound = 250 grains
0.029 pound = 200 grains
0.021 pound = 150 grains
0.014 pound = 100 grains
The water vapor content of air, as used in air-conditioning processes, seldom
exceeds 150 grains/lb. The presence of water vapor in air has a large effect on
air in that water vapor weighs less than the dry air it displaces. Thats why the
weather man tells you the barometric pressure. The lower it goes the more
moisture is in the air the more likely it will rain. Moisture also has a
significant bearing on, the heat content (enthalpy) of air and the airconditioning processes performed on air.
The function of the psychrometric chart is to show the interrelationship of the
seven properties of air. If any two of the seven properties are known, the
remaining five can be determined from the chart. The seven properties of air
can be determined and plotted on the psychrometric chart to visualize how
well the HVAC system controls indoor air temperature and humidity levels.
The psychrometric chart can be used to plot and track the seven values of
atmospheric air, including dew point temperature, dry bulb temperature, wet
bulb temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity, specific enthalpy, and
specific volume.
The complete chart looks like this.
Lets break it down and look at the each individual parameter as its plotted.
94
Lesson 4-
Dew point temperature is dependent upon the amount of water vapor present
in the air sample and it is plotted horizontally along the humidity ratio lines,
ending at the saturation curve. The value is read on the saturation curve at the
point of intersection with a state point.
Lesson - 4
95
Wet bulb temperature scale is represented by the diagonally plotted lines that
extends upwards to the left, and end at the saturation curve.
Humidity ratio scale is represented by the vertical lines on the right side of the
psychrometric chart, which represents the air moisture content of the air
sample, typically expressed in grains/lb dry air. The humidity ratio scale is
also known as specific humidity.
96
Lesson 4-
Relative humidity is represented by the curved lines that extend from the
lower-left to the upper-right corners of the chart. The lines appear in 10%
increments, with 100% being on the saturation curve.
Specific enthalpy (h) is represented by the enthalpy values to the left of the
saturation curve, which are often shown in a series of step scales. Some charts
also follow the enthalpy values along the right and bottom. To determine
enthalpy, follow the wet bulb line direction out past the saturation curve to the
enthalpy scale and read the appropriate value. Enthalpy is also known as total
heat and represents the heat energy in air above an arbitrary reference
temperature of 32F. In air conditioning, it represents the heat energy, in
BTUs, in one pound of dry air plus its associated water-vapor content.
Lesson - 4
97
Specific volume (v) is represented by the nearly vertical lines that slope
slightly to the top left corner of the chart and indicate the volume of air at a
specified temperature and moisture content. Specific volume ranges from
approximately 12.5 to 15 cu. ft./lb. Specific volume is used primarily to check
fan performance or to determine fan motor sizes for low- and hightemperature applications.
Review
The psychrometric chart is the graphical display of the temperature and
humidity information gathered from psychrometric analysis.
The chart serves as a visual reference to use in order to determine the
thermodynamic values of atmospheric air. The plotted values illustrate the
interrelationships between air properties and if at least two of the values are
known, all five of the other property values can be derived.
The property values, or state points, are connected together by process lines
that show the changes that occur to the air as it moves through or is added to
air conditioning equipment.
Water vapor affects both temperature and humidity, and the amount of water
present in air is measured in grains/pound.
98
Lesson 4-
Exercises 4.3
1. What is the dry bulb temperature when the wet bulb temperature is 58F
and relative humidity is 20%.
2. What is the dry bulb temperature when enthalpy is 38.6 BTU lb./dry air and
the wet bulb temperature is 75 F?
Lesson - 4
99
100
Lesson - 4
101
102
Lesson 4-
Enthalpy change can be used to determine the total heat (sensible + latent)
removed from or added to a quantity of air in the conditioning process. To do
this, follow the wet bulb temperature line for the sensible heat and latent heat
state points through the saturation curve to the enthalpy scale, and then
subtract the lower value from the higher value.
Total heat gain (GTH) is the sum of heat that is gained or lost from a sample
of air. If we know the change in enthalpy as a volume of air passes through a
coil or space, we can use the following formula to determine the total heat
gain (or loss) in BTUs.
GTH = 4.5 CFM h
Where:
GTH = represents the total heat gain or loss
4.5 = is a constant
CFM = represents a volume in cubic feet per minute
h = is the enthalpy difference in the air entering the space and
in the air leaving the space
It should be understood that a heating coil often produces only a sensible heat
change, while a cooling coil often produces both a sensible and a latent heat
change.
Lesson - 4
103
Evaporative cooling can be determined by following the wet bulb process line
up to the left from state point to state point, approaching the saturation curve.
The sensible heat given up is exactly equal to the latent heat required to
saturate the air with moisture. If the evaporative cooling were 100 percent
efficient, the final state point would be located on the saturation curve. In
practice, typical efficiencies range from 60% to 90%.
Evaporative cooling is used effectively in cooling tower applications. The
cooling tower employs evaporation to cool warm condenser water. As the
condenser water is sprayed over the tower fill, some of it evaporates,
absorbing heat from the warm water as it changes state. The heated, moist air
is then exhausted to the atmosphere leaving the rest of the water cooler and
ready to return to the condenser.
104
Lesson 4-
New Term
sensible heat ratio (SHR) The ratio of the relationship
between state points due to the amount of latent heat change.
SH
SHR = ----------------------LH + SH
Where:
SHR = Sensible Heat Ratio
LH = Latent Heat
SH = Sensible Heat
SHR is a characteristic of the change between two points on the chart. If the
process is one of sensible heat change only, and no latent heat change occurs,
the SHR is 1.0 and the process line is horizontal. If the SHR is less than 1.0,
the line will have a slope. For example, a SHR of 0.8 means that 80% of the
total heat change is sensible, and 20% is latent heat. As the latent component
increases, the line slopes more steeply. The typical building or room heat gain
process is shown by a straight line rising to the right from point to point.
Some psychrometric charts incorporate a sensible heat ratio scale on the far
right of the chart. To use this scale, draw a straight line between the two state
points on the chart. Now find the guide point (dot or small circle), located on
the 50% relative humidity curve corresponding to 80F dry bulb temperature.
Draw a line through the guide point parallel to the straight line between your
two points and extending to intersect the SHR scale. Read SHR directly from
the scale where the line intersects.
Lesson - 4
105
New Terms
apparatus dew point The point that water vapor in air
begins to transform into the liquid phase.
effective surface temperature
dew point.
The first method: draw a line connecting the two state points for air entering
and leaving the coil and extend that line to the left until it crosses the
saturation curve.
The second method uses the sensible heat factor. The dry bulb temperature,
moisture content, and sensible heat factor must be known. Draw a line
through the key point, extending to the far right of the chart so it intersects the
SHR scale at the desired SHR number. Then draw a second line parallel to
that first line, running through the state point representing your air sample,
extending it to the saturation curve. The apparatus dew point temperature may
be read from the saturation curve value where the line crosses.
106
Lesson 4-
New Terms
bypass factor Air that passes through a cooling coil without
actually coming in contact with any surface of the coil, thus
exiting the coil in the same condition in which it first entered.
contact factor Air that passes through the cooling coil and
decreases in temperature and humidity as it touches the
surface of the coil.
Review
Process lines connect state points. Process lines are so named because they
describe the temperature and humidity processes that HVAC systems undergo
to achieve good air quality.
Process lines can describe the changes in air properties from the time air
enters a facility until it is exhausted.
The SHR is the relationship between two state points. The angle of this
process line is affected by the amount of latent heat present in the air.
The apparatus dew point and the effective surface temperature are synonyms
that describe the point at which condensable moisture in air begins to change
into a liquid state. Coil contact and bypass factors describe the effect cooling
coils have on air temperature.
Lesson - 4
107
Exercises: 4.4
1.What is a process line?
2. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statement true.
A ____________________ coil will produce only a sensible
heat change, while a ____________________ coil will often
produce both a sensible and a latent heat change.
5. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statements true.
The ________________ factor describes the air that is cooled
as it passes over the surface of a cooling coil. The
_______________ factor describes the air that is not cooled as
it passes through a cooling coil because it does not touch the
coil surface.
108
Lesson 4-
5
Examining fluid flow
110
Lesson 5-
Lesson -5
111
New Terms
steady flow Condition when continuous and equal pressure
is maintained at every point in the piping or duct system at all
times.
GPM Gallons per minute measurement for fluids flowing
through pipes.
CFM Cubic feet per minute measurement for air flowing
though ducts.
incompressible Condition when the density of the liquid or
gas flowing through piping or ductwork remains constant.
Differences in piping or duct diameter will affect the speed of the fluid flow
but it will not change the flow rate. Changes in velocity, or speed, of the
flowing fluid will not change the flow rate of the fluid as it moves through the
system because the same amount of fluid is still present in the system as a
whole. However, the velocity of the fluid will increase if the piping or duct
size is reduced because the same amount of mass has to move through a
smaller opening. Conversely, the velocity of flowing fluid will decrease as the
diameter of the piping or ductwork is enlarged.
VFR = A1 V 1 = A 2 V 2
112
Lesson 5-
and velocity at any other place in a closed system. If you have a duct thats 12
in by 12 in and an airstream moving at 100 feet per minute, in 1 minute 100
cubic feet will pass by a point. If that duct is connected to a 6 in by 6 in duct
what will the velocity have to be if the flow rate remains the same?
VFR = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2
100 ft 3/min. = 144 in2 x 100 ft/min. = 36 in2 x X ft/min.
144 in2 x 100 ft/min. / 36 in2 = X ft/min.
The answer is 400 feet per minute.
Review
Fluids are described as being either liquid, vapor or gas.
Using the correct sized pipes and ducts for transferring fluids is an important
issue to understand when designing an HVAC system.
The relationship between a fluid and velocity is explained through the fluid
flow continuity equation.
Lesson -5
113
Exercises: 5.1
1. Describe the continuity equation.
3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statements true.
Chilled water flowing through pipes is measured in
_______________ or _______________ per minute.
114
Lesson 5-
Lesson -5
115
Review
The design of an HVAC system must take into account that all fluids have
energy. Friction causes the loss of energy as the fluid comes into contact with
the surface of piping or ducts.
Lost energy can be regenerated by a pump or fan. The amount of energy that
needs to be regenerated can be calculated with the flow energy equation.
The fluid flow rate is the amount of fluid that flows and fluid velocity is the
speed at which that fluid flows.
The flow energy equation states that the energy of a fluid at point B is equal to
the energy at point A plus the total energy that was gained or lost in between
points A and B.
116
Lesson 5-
Exercises: 5.2
1. Describe the flow energy equation.
2. Answer True or False in the table below. If false, correct the statement to
make it true.
Statement
True or False
The sensible heat ratio states that energy between two points in a fluid system are
equal once all the energy losses and gains between those two points are
accounted for.
Pumps and fans provide the pressure necessary for replacing lost pressure from
friction in pipes and ducts.
3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the statements true.
____ ___________
or piping system.
Lesson -5
117
118
Lesson 5-
Lesson -5
119
Velocity pressure
Velocity pressure is the force exerted by flowing fluid. A flowing fluid exerts
force on any stationary surface as it moves through the piping or ducts. The
kinetic energy of the flowing fluid, expressed as its velocity, allows us to
calculate the rate of movement of a fluid through a duct or pipe. Remember
when you were a child sailing your hand out the car window on a trip. The
pressure of the wind from the movement of the car forced your hand back and
as you rotated your hand like an airfoil in the airstream you could feel the
pressure trying raise or lower your hand. This velocity is expressed in feet per
minute (ft/min.).
Static Pressure
Static pressure is the non-flowing force exerted by fluid. Static pressure is
generated by the weight due to gravity of a standing fluid in a vertical pipe or
the outward pressure of air on a ducts walls or helium in a balloon.
Total Pressure
Total pressure is the force generated as fluid flows through an open or closed
system. This pressure must be accounted for when designing a facilitys fluid
system. The total pressure contained in a fluid system is equal to the sum of
the velocity pressure and the static pressure.
Pt = Pv + Ps
Where:
Pt = Total pressure
Pv = Velocity pressure
Ps = Static pressure
120
Lesson 5-
Review
Fluid systems are classified as open or closed and they are designed to
transfer fluids and the pressures associated with those fluids.
Open systems are most commonly used for air duct systems and some cooling
tower applications.
Closed systems do not allow fluids to come in contact with atmospheric air.
Closed systems are most commonly used for HVAC systems because they
enable fluid pressure to be more accurately controlled.
Fluid systems have to accommodate for both velocity pressure, as well as for
static pressure.
The sum of velocity and static pressure is the total pressure of a fluid.
Lesson -5
121
Exercises: 5.3
1. Describe the differences between an open and a closed fluid system.
3. Fill in the blanks with, or circle, the correct word(s) below to make the
statements true.
Fluid flowing through pipes or ducts encounter _____________
everywhere it meets stationary surfaces. This ______________
(raises or reduces) the velocity pressure of the fluid.
122
Lesson 5-
Lesson -5
123
fluid through the piping system. For example, consider honey flowing through
a piping system. Honey is very viscous and it would take a long time for it to
flow through a 20 foot section of pipe. However, as we apply heat to the
honey it flows much faster as its viscous properties begin to breakdown. Less
pressure is required for moving the heated honey through the piping system so
less energy is used. Although honey is an extreme example, the same behavior
holds true for hot and chilled water. Less pressure is needed to push hot water
through a piping system than is required to push the same volume of chilled
water through the same piping system.
When a fluid system loses pressure, the amount of loss can be determined so
that the correct amount of replacement pressure is known. The DarcyWeisbach equation illustrates the relationship between fluid flow pressure
loss and friction, pipe length, internal pipe diameter, fluid density,
temperature, and velocity.
2
L
V
Pf = f ---- ------D 2g
Where:
Pf = Pressure loss due to friction in straight pipe or duct
f
= Friction
New Terms
dynamic losses Fluid pressure losses due to turbulence and
change in the direction of flow through pipe fittings and
valves.
Darcy-Weisbach Equation used to explain the relationship
between pressure loss in fluid systems due to friction, pipe or
duct length, pipe diameter, density, temperature, and velocity.
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Charts and tables have been published that illustrate pressure loss for different
types of duct designs. When the amount of pressure loss is known, HVAC
operations, such as equipment performance, fan capacity, and air quality, can
be monitored and managed.
Several factors affect fluid flow pressure loss in duct systems: friction, aspect
ratio, fittings, and fan inlets and outlets.
Lesson -5
125
New Term
aspect ratio Ratio of the dimensions of the two adjacent
sides of a rectangular duct.
Friction causes pressure loss in duct systems. For example, as air blows
through a duct, pressure is lost as it comes in contact with the sides of the
ductwork. Additionally, any residue on, openings, or directional changes in
duct material will cause pressure to be lost.
Aspect ratio causes pressure loss in duct systems when the ducts are of
rectangular shape. As air blows through the ducts, it comes violently in
contact with the two adjacent walls of the duct and some of the kinetic energy
of the flowing fluid is transferred to the surface of the duct wall as potential
energy. Transferring from kinetic energy to potential energy results in loss of
pressure.
Duct fittings are the joints that connect the separate sections of sheet metal
ducts together and they cause pressure loss in duct systems because of the
rough spots they induce onto the inside surface of ductwork. As air blows
through the system, flow is disrupted as portions of the air get backed up
behind the rough spots. The backed up air transfers some of its kinetic energy
into potential energy, resulting in loss of flow.
Fan inlets/fan outlets also cause pressure loss in duct systems because they
are openings in the system. Openings in any system cause pressure loss when
pressure escapes through these points.
Total duct system pressure loss is equal to the section with the greatest
pressure loss.
Review
Pressure losses in a fluid systems are mainly due to friction. Other factors that
affect pressure loss in both piping and duct systems include equipment,
system design, viscosity, and flow directional changes.
Pressure losses in piping systems can be determined by the Darcy-Weisbach
equation and once the pressure loss for a system has been determined, that
value can be used to monitor equipment performance, fan capacity, and
overall air quality.
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Lesson 5-
Exercises: 5.4
1. What factors does the Darcy-Weisbach equation use to determine pressure
loss in a piping system?
2. Does hot or cold water have higher pressure loss in a piping system?
3. What is a duct?
6. Which type of duct, round or rectangular, has less pressure loss due to
friction for an identical cross-section area?
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127
128
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6
Analyzing pumps and piping systems
Pump characteristics
Hydronic piping systems
Expansion and compression tanks
Air venting
Valves
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131
Centrifugal pumps operate on the basis that a fluid is drawn upwards due to
the lower pressure that is created at the eye of the impeller due to its rotating
motion. First the centrifugal pump increases the velocity of the fluid in order
to increase the pressure at the discharge. This moves the fluid out of the
impeller thereby drawing the fluid up the suction line and into the eye of the
impeller. The impeller is the rotating portion of the pump that forces the fluid
radially outward from the impeller vanes and increases its velocity. Fluid
dispersal from the eye is managed by the physical design of the impeller
vanes. After the fluid leaves the eye of the impeller, it is guided out through
the volute. The diameter of the volute increases as it reaches the diffuser end
of the pump, thus decreasing the velocity and converting the velocity energy
into pressure energy.
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New Terms
suction line The tubing that serves as an access connection
from the fluid to be pumped and the pump device.
eye The center of the centrifugal pump where the fluid is
rotated and pressurized for discharge.
impeller The portion of the pump device that actually does
the rotating. The impeller holds the fluid, rotates it, and
throws it out of the pump device in a radial direction.
vanes The blades constructed inside the impeller that
dictate the direction of fluid discharge.
volute The section of the pump that is shaped like the
whorl of a snail shell. The physical construction of the volute
decreases fluid velocity and converts the energy into pressure
energy to be used in the piping system.
diffuser The end portion of the pump device where the
fluid is released.
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133
There are several different pump varieties that fall under the classification of
centrifugal pumps. Some of the most common types used for HVAC
applications include, close-coupled and in-line pumps.
Close-coupled pumps are so called because the motor and the pump are built
together as a unit. The motor shaft serves as the support for the impeller.
Close-coupled pumps are relatively inexpensive and they are used for small to
medium sized HVAC applications.
In-line pumps are so called because the discharge portion of the pump and the
suction portion of the pump are aligned in a straight line. These types of
pumps are inexpensive and easy to install because no other parts are needed
for supporting the light weight pump body. In-line pumps are commonly used
for small HVAC applications.
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Centrifugal pumps are also available with different construction options. For
example, some HVAC applications require high volumes of fluid to be
pumped so most large-sized pumps are designed to intake fluids into both
sides of the pumping unit. This type of pump design is referred to as a
double-suction pump. Conversely, a single-suction pump only draws fluid
into one side of the pumping unit.
There is always the risk of a pump leaking the fluid it is pumping or of its
drive shaft not operating smoothly. To ensure performance, pump seals and
bearings are used. Seals are either a flexible and greased rubber component or
a tight packing of woven fibers that are saturated with oil. Seals prevent fluid
from leaking out due to the pressure generated when the pump is running.
Bearings are also available in different varieties, including sleeve and ball
bearings. Ball bearings are uniform metal balls that may or may not be
enclosed with the impeller of a pump. Ball bearings are lubricated so that they
rotate smoothly.
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135
Sleeve bearings are lubricated with oil so that smooth motion is achieved. For
example, cotton is packed around the shaft and saturated with oil. The oil
ensures unrestricted movement along the shaft.
New Term
double-suction Refers to pumps that draw fluid into both
sides of the pumping unit. Most large capacity pumps are
double-suction varieties.
single-suction Refers to pumps that only draw fluid into
one side of the pumping unit. Most small and medium
capacity pumps are single-suction.
seals Prevent the leakage of the fluid that is being pushed
through the pump.
bearings Are the part of a pump unit that enable the shaft
to rotate smoothly. Ball bearing and sleeve bearing are two
types of bearings used in HVAC pumps.
coupling Connecting device that allows for minor angular
displacements of pump and motor shafts.
The coupling allows for minor angular displacements between motor shaft
and the pump shaft. Also reduces vibration during pump operation. Pump
casings are available as removable vertical or horizontal split casings. For
instance, vertical split casings can be unscrewed and removed for
maintenance or repair service. Horizontal split casings can also be unscrewed
and the top half of the casing can be removed for servicing. Horizontal split
casings are very common with large industrial pumps and some of these
covers can only be removed by a mechanical hoist because of the size and
weight of the casing.
Impellers are available as open, closed, or semi-open. Open impellers do not
have shrouds, or walls, where as closed impellers do have walls. Semi-open
impellers are so called because they have walls on one side.
Centrifugal pumps are very efficient and they are the type of pump most
commonly used for hydronic water systems and cooling tower applications.
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Lesson 6-
Pump selection
Despite the type of pump chosen for a job, all pumps are chosen according to
how well they meet certain criteria: horsepower, flow rate, head, and
efficiency.
There are two main system characteristics necessary for proper pump
selection and these include a capacity equal to the system flow rate and a head
pressure equal to the system pressure loss.
Pump selection is also dependent on the net positive suction head, or NPSH.
The NPSH is the minimal amount of fluid pressure that must be maintained at
the pump suction to prevent possible damage to the pump or operation
problems. When fluid pressure drops below the net positive suction head
level, cavitation occurs.
New Term
cavitation Condition when too little pressure is available at
the pump suction. Noise is generated and pump damage and/
or operation problems may result.
Review
Pumps are important components involved with a piping system because they
supply the necessary amounts of fluid and pressure to compensate for lost
pressure and maintain the desired fluid flow rate. Pumps are classified as
either positive displacement or centrifugal types. Centrifugal pumps generate
pressure throw the pumped fluid out in radial direction. Pumps can be further
classified according to construction features: double or single-suction inlets,
motor and suction component alignment, and vertical- or horizontal-split
pump casing, for removal and service access.
There are two main requirements that must be addressed when selecting a
pump for any HVAC application. First, the pump capacity must equal the fluid
flow rate of the system. And secondly, the pump head must equal the pressure
loss of the system in order to maintain operation of the pump without causing
damage to HVAC processes or pump equipment.
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137
Exercises: 6.1
1. How are pumps classified and what are the two main classification types of
pumps available?
138
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139
Temperature
40- 55F
250F max.
250- 325F
350- and
upF
All Season
Chilled water (CHW) distribution systems supply water for cooling purposes
at temperatures from 40 to 55F, at pressures up to 125 psi.
Low temperature water (LTW) distribution systems supply water for heating
purposes at temperatures up to 250F at pressures up to 160 psi. Most LTW
boilers have a maximum working pressure of 30 psig.
Medium temperature water (MTW) distribution systems supply water for
heating purposes at temperatures from 250 to 325F with pressures up to 160
psi. Maximum boiler temperature is limited to 350F.
High temperature water (HTW) distribution systems supply water for heating
purposes at temperatures above 350F, usually in the 400 to 450F range, with
pressures up to 300 psi.
Dual temperature water (DTW) distribution systems supply LTW during the
heating season and CHW during the cooling season. Two-pipe fan coil
terminal units typically use dual temperature water systems.
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Lesson - 6
Description
Series loop
All water in the system flows through every terminal unit and all
terminal units are connected to the main pipeline.
One-pipe main
One pipe for supply water; one pipe for return water.
One pipe for supply water; one pipe for reverse-flow return water.
Three-pipe
One pipe for hot supply water; one pipe for chilled supply water;
one pipe for all return water.
Four-pipe
141
Series Loop
Series loop piping system arrangements are designed with all the terminal
units connected in a series, forming a loop. Terminal units on this type of
system are directly connected to the main pipe where they receive the whole
water supply for the system through each terminal unit. There are no branches
or diverting tees to disrupt water flow.
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143
Supply (S) water continues ----> Terminal 2 ----> Return (R) water to Terminal 1
Supply (S) water continues ----> Terminal 3 ----> Return (R) water to Terminal 2
Supply (S) water continues ----> Terminal 4 ----> Return (R) water to Terminal 3
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Lesson - 6
---->
Terminal 1 ---->
145
146
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147
New Terms
series loop Piping system arrangements are designed with
all the terminal units connected in a series. The terminal units
are directly connected to the main pipe so there are no
branches or diverting tees.
one-pipe main Piping system arrangements have only one
main pipe through which fluid flows through the system.
Terminal units are connected to this pipe by both supply and
return fluid pipes.
two-pipe direct return Piping system arrangements have
two pipes, one for supply fluid and one for return fluid, that
are directly connected to the source to maintain supply fluid
temperature at each terminal unit.
two-pipe reverse return Piping system arrangements have
two pipes, one for supply and one for return water, with
return flow moving in the reverse direction from the direct
return arrangement.
Review
A typical hydronic piping system includes a heating or cooling source, a
pump, valves, and heating or cooling coils. These components work together
to supply water throughout a building in order to meet heating and cooling
needs. A piping system has been properly applied when the proper flow rate is
continually available through heating and cooling sources, when water
temperatures and volumes are controlled for all system components, and when
the pressure drop across the control valves is adequate. Hydronic piping
systems have similar components but they can be classified into five main
categories according to the temperature of the water flowing through the
pipes.
There are different arrangement designs commonly applied with hydronic
piping systems, depending on the needs of a facility. Either one, two, three, or
four pipes are needed for supply and return water and either direct or reverse
return design is implemented, depending upon the systems need to protect
against backflow, varying supply water temperature, pressure, and volume at
terminal units at the end of the system.
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Lesson 6-
Exercises: 6.2
1. List the common types of hydronic piping system arrangements.
Lesson - 6
149
150
Lesson 6-
Expansion tanks
Expansion tanks provide the extra space needed in hydronic piping systems to
hold increasing water volume resulting from temperature increases.
Expansion tanks are available as either open or closed containers. Open
expansion tanks are exposed to the atmosphere so that the water inside is not
pressurized.
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151
As water temperature and volume in the piping system increases, the water
level in the expansion tank increases. Pressure will build up if there isnt
adequate room for expansion.
Open expansion tanks are located at the highest point in a hydronic piping
system so that the increased water level will rise up inside the expansion tank
and not increase the pressure in the piping. The expansion tank is there to
hold and store increased water volume that would otherwise build up pressure
and might rupture pipes or other system equipment.
Closed expansion tanks can be placed anywhere in the system. They operate
similar to open tanks in that they provide space for the expansion of the water
volume. Being closed, however, they can be pressurized with a charge of air
and maintain the pressure on a system without having to be elevated above the
system. The air charge is exposed to the hydronic water and can be absorbed
by the water over time. This means someone has to verify that there is still an
adequate air charge in the tank from time to time.
Compression tanks
Closed expansion tanks fitted with a bladder are known as compression
tanks because they contain either air or nitrogen gas that compresses as water
enters the tank. Compression tanks are expansion tanks that are used to
protect fluids from coming into contact with oxygen rich air, a source of
corrosion in these closed systems.
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New Term
compression tanks Closed expansion tanks that contain
compressed air bladders and protect the water in the piping
system from exposure to atmospheric air.
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153
Review
Hydronic piping systems are the highways for transferring hot and chilled
water throughout a building.
As water temperature rises, the volume increases and the piping system must
accommodate the extra space needed to contain the larger volume.
Expansion tanks, either open or closed models, are installed in the system to
act as a storage tank for the increased water volume. Open expansion tanks
are open to atmospheric air and the water can absorb O2 which will cause
corrosion. Closed expansion tanks are pressurized with air in contact with the
water.
Compression tanks are more commonly used over expansion tanks because
they minimize the waters contact with oxygen in air.
System pressure must be maintained between the minimum and the maximum
ranges in order to keep the water flowing and the pipes from rupturing.
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Exercises: 6.3
1. What two methods are used to compensate for water expansion?
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155
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157
valves again. Automatic air valves are controlled by the system to open and
close. Automatic valves can be dangerous if they do not automatically close
when necessary, allowing the water to escape, spill into the building, and
cause water damage.
Air separators are devices that are installed at connections between system
piping and compression tanks and they are used to divert air from the piping
system into the tanks. Once the air reaches a tank, it rises to the top where it is
exhausted from the system.
Review
Hydronic piping systems always contain a percentage of air that must be
removed from the system.
Air pockets block water flow through terminal units and the combination of
water and air together promote corrosion to piping system components.
Manual or automatic air vents are used to release air from high points and
terminal units in a piping system and air separators are used to direct air from
the water flowing through pipes into a compression tank where it can be
removed from the system.
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Lesson 6-
Exercises: 6.4
1. Explain the differences between automatic and manual vents and discuss
some of the advantages of using each.
4. Explain why air vents should be installed and how they function.
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159
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6.5 Valves
Valves have many uses in HVAC systems. They are used to isolate
components for maintenance or repair. They are used to direct flow through a
system. They are used to control the flow rate in a component. They are
selected for their ability to withstand a specific temperature and pressure
range, providing the proper flow control characteristic and the correct piping
connections. The size of the valve is critical for the intended application.
Each type of valve has an application that it is best suited for.
Valve Construction
Most valve types have several common components.
A body, which is the casting that the fluid flows through and allows a place to
mount the other parts. The body can be made of cast iron or steel, cast
bronze, stainless steel, plastic and many other materials for special uses.
The bonnet, attaches to the top of the body, by threads or bolted, provides a
guide for the stem and contains the packing around the stem to prevent
leaking.
The disc, the moveable part of the valve assembly that closes on the seat to
control the flow. Usually replaceable as its wears from the fluid passing by.
The plug, an extension beyond the disc that obstructs the passage through the
seat. As the disc is pulled away from the seat the plug will be withdrawn also
but the opening through the seat will change according to the shape of the
plug. The plug is used to alter the flow characteristic of the valve.
The port, the opening through the seat.
The seat, the stationary part of the valve body the meets the disc. Often
times replaceable with the disc.
The trim, all the parts of the valve except the body.
Lesson - 6
161
An equal percentage flow characteristic changes the flow through the valve
by the same percentage the valve stem travels. If the valve stem opens ten
percent then the flow will increase ten percent. If the flow started at ten GPM
and the stem opened ten percent then the new flow will be 11 GPM. If the
valve opens another ten percent the flow now will be 12.1 GPM. As the valve
162
Lesson 6-
opens further the amount of the change in flow for a percentage of stem
movement will increase.
The equal percentage flow characteristic is best suited to give proportional
control of hot water applications.
The quick opening flow characteristic provides full flow soon after the valve
starts to open. The majority of flow increase comes in the first twenty percent
or so of stem travel.
This characteristic is useful for two position (on-off) control of steam.
Lesson - 6
163
Lesson 6-
but only 30GPM is needed to meet the design requirements of the installation,
the 30GPM number has far more significance. If we use the minimum
controllable flow rate in the above example of 3 GPM then our turndown ratio
is 30/3 = 10. The higher the turndown ratio the finer control we will have.
Valve Ratings
Valves are rated for flow capacity by their Cv rating. They are also rated for
the amount of pressure they can contain and the temperature they will be
exposed to (fluid temps, not ambient).
The flow coefficient, Cv, represents the amount of flow in gallons per minute
through a valve with a one psi pressure drop while the valve is fully opened.
This is commonly used to determine the correct valve size for a particular
application. I wont go into valve sizing any more that to tell you that the
valve must have the highest pressure drop of any of the components in the
hydronic circuit. If some other piece has a higher pressure drop when the
valve is fully open that piece is controlling flow not the valve. Cv charts for
a valve will give you a choice of pressure drop and flow rates. The valve is
not selected based on the size of the pipe into and out of it when selecting
control valves.
The rating for temperature and pressure is based on two things. The rating for
the valve body alone, exclusive of the packing disc etc. This is a function of
the thickness and material used in the valve body. The thicker the body the
higher the pressure it will take. The stronger the material used the higher the
pressure. A cast iron valve can withstand higher pressures than a plastic
valve.
The maximum pressure and temperature ratings are a result of the
combination of the valve body and trim components. A valve body may be
rated for 125 PSI at 335F but the composition disc is only rated for 240F. The
240F then becomes the max temperature.
Lesson - 6
165
Valve Types
The most common types of valves used in HVAC systems are the gate, the
ball, the butterfly, the check, the globe and the three way.
The gate valve is most commonly used for the isolation of components in a
system. It is a very poor choice for throttling applications as its flow
characteristic is more like a quick opening valve than anything else and the
gate will rattle and wear while partially open.
In this drawing the wedge shaped gate will block the flow through the valve.
The wedge shape will allow a tight fit against the two seats. The gate is
withdrawn into the space above the flow path allowing straight through flow
when open. The valve stem can be either threaded at the hand wheel end and
rise out of the valve lifting the gate or the gate is threaded onto the stem and
rides up on the stem, these are called rising or non rising stems.
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Lesson 6-
The ball valve is another quick opening type valve. Primarily used for
isolation of components not throttling flow. A steel (usually) ball is held
between two teflon seats. When a hole in the ball is lined up with the pipe,
flow can proceed through the valve. The hole can be the same diameter as the
pipe, full port, or slightly less. When open the ball valve offers little
resistance to flow.
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167
The butterfly valve is also a quick opening valve used for component
isolation. It is simply a disc that can be rotated 90 degrees in the flow path.
Resilient seats can be specified that allow tight shut off. Some modified
valves have been manufactured that allow flow control but most are made as
two position valves. When open the valve offers little resistance to flow.
The check valve prevents reverse flow in a pipe. An example of its use is at
the discharge of boiler feed pumps to prevent boiler pressures backing water
up through the pump into the feedwater tank. Or two or more pumps in
parallel when only one typically runs. Water would be forced backward
through the off duty pump.
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The globe valve is the valve most commonly used for throttling or control
applications. With flow characteristics available of equal percentage or
linear, the heat transfer process can be made linear to match the operation of
the controllers PID control loop. For two position control the globe valve is
not the best choice as the flow path has to make two 90 degree turns to get
through the valve resulting in higher resistance to flow than other choices.
While this graphic of a globe valve shows a hand wheel, most HVAC
applications will have some kind of a powered actuator, usually supplied 24
volt AC.
Lesson - 6
169
The three way valve is used either to combine two fluid streams into one
(mixing valve) or change the direction of fluid flow (diverting valve). It can
be a single valve with two discs and seats or sometimes two butterfly valves
joined on a tee fitting.
The mixing valve will have two inlets and one outlet. Two inlet streams will
be combined into one outlet. Think of the single handle mixing valve in a
shower. The hot and cold water lines are connected to the valve body. The
position of the handle determines the temperature of the water spraying on
you. In the same way the temperature of the water being supplied to a heating
water supply loop can be adjusted to match a buildings loads as the outside
air temperature changes.
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Lesson 6-
The diverting valve will have two outlets and one inlet. Flow can be sent to
one or the other of the outlets but no mixing is desired.
Review
Valves are constructed of a body and trim. The flow characteristics can be
either equal percentage, linear or quick acting. A valves close off pressure
rating, turndown ratio and Cv are important to know during valve selection.
The main valve types are gate, ball, butterfly, check, globe and the three way.
The globe valve is used for control applications more commonly than the
other types.
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171
Exercise 6.5
1. What does a flow characteristic tell you?
172
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7
Analyzing Heat Generating Systems
Boilers
Warm Air Furnaces
174
Lesson 7
7.1 Boilers
Boilers are an important component of a heat generating system. A boiler is a
vessel or closed fluid-filled tube designed to heat water or produce steam by
transferring the heat from the combustion of a fuel or by electric resistance
elements. Hot water boilers heat water but they do not actually boil it. Steam
boilers heat water to its boiling point to create steam. This hot water or steam
is then used to warm building spaces that are cooler than temperature
setpoints.
Boilers are probably the single most dangerous piece of HVAC equipment.
The immense forces that are generated by a boiler pose a hazard to both
property and personnel. A boiler can generate enough force to destroy an
office building. The pressure generated in a boiler is applied to the boilers
large surface area, that pressure exerts an outward force on the boiler, if the
boiler becomes overpressured to the point the metal fails, the escaping hot
water will instantly become steam under the lower atmospheric pressure and
over pressurize the building structure (explode). Special attention is necessary
when working with boilers to ensure safe operation.
New Term
boilers
175
pressure difference from boiler to end use will force steam movement.
Vertical piping is not a problem for the transfer of steam heat because it does
not create excessive static pressure on piping systems in tall buildings. Steam
can be distributed through a large facility with little change in heating
capacity due to heat loss.
Boiler Components
Boilers are made up of five main components: fuel burner, combustion
chamber, heat exchanger (shell or pressure vessel), controls, and an enclosure,
listed in Table 7.1 below.
Table 7.1 Boiler Component Functions
Boiler components
Function
Fuel burner
Combustion chamber
Controls
Enclosure
Fuel burners are devices that enable the delivery of air and fuel to the
combustion chambers. They provide the proper mixing and metering for the
air and fuel and an ignition source to start combustion.
Combustion chambers are the areas in the boiler where fuel is burned. As the
fuel is burned, thermal energy is released to produce either hot water or
steam. This heat is then dispersed to warm the building.
Heat exchangers (shell or pressure vessel) are devices used to transfer heat. In
the case of boilers this is the pressure vessel made up of a cylindrical shell
and/or tubes. Some boilers have the water inside the tubes. These are called
water tube boilers. Others have the water outside the tubes and are called fire
tube boilers.
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Lesson 7
Controls are devices that manage the boilers operation. The water level and
pressure are monitored and regulated, the combustion process is monitored
and will shutdown the burner in an unsafe condition.
Enclosure is the steel sheet metal case surrounding the boiler holding
insulation up to the shell or refractory.
Accessories
Boilers also typically require accessories that ensure efficient and safe
operation. Some common boiler accessories include pressure gauges, water
level sight glass, thermometers, relief valves, low-water cutoff, water level
control, pressure controls, temperature control, and an expansion tank. There
are other accessories used depending on the BTU input and pressure that the
boiler operates at. All these accessories are usually mandated by law through
the Uniform Mechanical Code.
Pressure gauges measure the boiler pressure and allow the operator to verify
operations. Pressure readings indicate wether the burner is keeping up with
the steam demand.
Water level sight glass indicates the water level inside the boiler. It is critical
that the water level cover the boiler tubes. Without adequate water the tubes
will overheat and fail. The water level sight glass is the first thing an
experienced operator will look at when he enters the boiler room. Automatic
controls should shut down the burner if the water level goes too low. Never
add water to a boiler that has been firing with no water in it. Turn the burner
off and inform your supervisor. Adding water to a hot empty boiler usually
results in destroying the building.
Thermometers measure temperature to verify correct burner operation.
Safety relief valves are valves that will automatically open when excessive
pressures build in the boiler. As the relief valves open, pressure releases to the
atmosphere until pressure levels are once again safe.
Low-water cutoffs monitor water levels and turn off fuel burners when low
water levels pose a threat to safe boiler operation.
Water level control reacts to changes in the water level. As water level drops a
switch is closed that will start the boiler feed pump or open a valve to admit
feed water into the boiler.
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177
Boiler Operation
Hot water boilers and steam boilers operate similarly to furnaces. Once the
thermostat senses the temperature is below the desired setpoint, the pilot is
ignited and the main fuel valve opens. Combustion air enters the boiler and
circulates through or around the boiler tubes or shell. If the boiler is a
watertube type, water filled tubes are surrounded by hot combustion products.
Watertube boilers are usually higher pressure higher capacity boilers. If the
boiler is a firetube type, the hot combustion gas-filled tubes are surrounded by
water. Heat is generated in the combustion chamber and transferred to the
fluid. The fluid flows through the tubes in the heat exchanger, transferring the
newly generated heat to the boiler outlet. The hot water or steam is then
supplied to heating coils in air handlers or terminal units located throughout
the facility. The remaining cooled combustion gas are expelled out the flue.
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Lesson 7
Boiler Classification
Boilers are classified according to many different criteria. Boiler
classification depends on whether boilers provide water or steam and whether
they are constructed on the job site (built-up) or at the factory (packaged).
Classification also depends on boiler water temperature and steam pressure
ratings. They are further classified by the type of metal used in construction (a
cast iron boiler denotes lower pressure and capacity), the type of fuel burned
(gaseous, liquid, solid), and whether combustible gas or boiler water is
contained on the inside of the tubes.
Steam and hot water boilers are available in standard sizes ranging from very
small boilers (rated by BTU input) for residential use to very large boilers for
commercial (rated by horsepower) and industrial use (rated by pounds of
steam generated per hour).
Boiler Arrangements
Boilers can be built with the combustion chamber in one of three locations.
Dry-base boilers have the combustion chamber installed under the fluidbacked sections. Wet-base boiler combustion chambers are surrounded by the
fluid-backed sections. And the top and sides of wet-leg boiler combustion
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Description
Dry-back boiler
Wet-back
Wet-leg
Sides and top of combustion chamber are surrounded by the fluidbacked section.
Boiler Controls
Boiler controls are either operating controls or safety controls. Among the
safety controls are limit controls, level controls and pressure controls.
Operating controls manage the fuel burner either in response to a pressure or
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Review
Boilers produce hot water or steam for the purpose of heating a facility.
The main components of a boiler are constructed of cast-iron, steel, and
sometimes copper-clad steel.
Add-on accessories are also available for boilers that maintain safe boiler
operations and system efficiency. Some boiler accessories are optional and
others are required by law or code.
Boiler operating and safety controls act to ensure that boilers continue to
operate soundly.
Operating controls limit boiler activity during normal operation,
Safety controls provide backup to the operating controls and monitor the
boiler to maintain safe temperature and pressure limits.
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Exercises: 7.1
1. Describe the difference between watertube and firetube boilers.
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Lesson 7
Furnace Components
There are five major components that constitute a warm air furnace, heat
exchanger, fuel burner, air blower, controls, and an insulated housing cabinet.
Furnace components are described in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Furnace Component Functions
Lesson - 7
Furnace components
Function
Heat exchanger
Fuel burner
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Furnace components
Function
Air blower
Fan that blows the air through the furnace unit for use
throughout the facility.
Controls
Insulated housing
cabinet
Humidifier
Air filter
Heat exchangers are the heat generating sources of the furnace. Thermal
energy is released within the furnace as fuel is burned in the combustion
chamber. A heat exchanger transfers this heat energy from the combustion
chamber to the air that is dispersed throughout the building.
Fuel burners are the devices that enable the delivery of combustion air and
fuel to the heat exchanger. They provide the proper mixing and ignition
source to the fuel and gas for complete combustion. The heat from
combustion is then directed to the heat exchanger and transferred to the air
stream to be distributed throughout the building.
Air blowers are the fans located inside the furnace that move the air
throughout the building.The building air is drawn through the filter, forced
through the heat exchanger, and out of the furnace through the warm air
outlet.
Controls guarantee that a furnace continues to operate soundly and safely.
Insulated housing cabinet is the term for the case that protects the furnace
equipment from damage and for safety. The furnace cabinet has openings that
allow for equipment access during troubleshooting and maintenance.
Humidifiers are accessory furnace devices that add water vapor to air when
sensors detect that facility air is too dry.
Air filters are porous devices that separate dust and other pollutants from the
air as it enters the furnace.
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Furnace Operation
In a facility operating a typical gas furnace, when the thermostat detects a
temperature reading that is cooler than the desired setpoint, a pilot flame
safety control ignites and verifies that the pilot flame is present and opens the
main gas valve. The pilot light flame ignites the gas air mix and starts
warming the heat exchanger. When the heat exchanger is sufficiently warmed
a thermostat will close and the fan will start blowing building air through the
heat exchanger. Dust particles and other pollutants are removed from the air
as it passes through the filter.
Forced air furnaces are different than other types of HVAC heating
equipment. The main difference is that forced air furnaces use ductwork to
deliver heated air. Space heaters, unit heaters, and wall and floor furnaces
generate and release warm air directly into the conditioned space. Duct
heaters do utilize ductwork, but they operate differently than warm air
furnaces in that duct heaters are primarily electric heating elements used to
add heat to a particular area of a larger zone.
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Furnace Classification
Furnaces are classified as either commercial or residential. The major
differences: commercial furnaces are made of stronger construction materials,
they have greater capacity, and they require a more complex control system.
Residential furnace classifications are determined by five factors: type of
fuel, construction materials, mounting arrangement, direction of air flow,
combustion system, and location.
Furnaces use five main types of fuel. Oil and gas are the most common fuel
types but coal, electricity, and wood can also be used.
Oil furnaces burn oil, but electricity is used to ignite the burners. They are
similar in design to gas furnaces.
Gas furnace manufacturers design their models to accommodate both natural
and liquefied petroleum gas. However, there are differences between the
designs for burning the two different gas types. The pressure at which the gas
is delivered to the manifold in a natural gas furnace is typically around three
times lower than in a liquefied petroleum furnace.
New Term
manifold
Electric furnaces are not very efficient and the cost associated with electric
power is high. When a heat pump is utilized instead of an electric furnace,
however, the cost of operation is reduced.
Coal furnaces are not very popular anymore.
Wood furnaces are used in more rural areas of the country.
Furnace Construction
Furnace arrangements are as varied as the locations that a furnace may be
located. Different types of furnaces have different shapes and these variations
in shapes, which are necessary because different installation specifications
have different height and width requirements. Table 7.4 lists common furnace
installation locations.
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Installation location
High-boy (Upflow)
Low-boy
Downflow
Where the supply air ductwork is under the floor or in the crawlspace.
Horizontal
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Furnace type
Gas furnaces
Oil furnaces
Electric furnaces
Varied
Lesson 7
Furnace Controls
There are two types of furnace controls used for controlling warm air
furnaces. The first is the operating controls that regulates burner and fan
activity. The second furnace control are the safety controls. Safety controls
are also known as limit controls because this type of control system prevents
furnace equipment from operating outside pre-determined limits.
New Terms
operating controls Control devices that regulate furnace
burner and fan activity.
safety controls Control devices that prevents furnace
equipment from operating outside safety limits.
limit controls Control devices that prevents furnace
equipment from operating outside normal limits.
Review
Furnaces are a common heat generating source for HVAC systems.
They have five main components that filter, heat, and transfer warm air
throughout a facility.
Furnaces are classified as commercial or residential, by the fuel they burn,
how they are constructed, and where they are installed.
Furnace controls manage furnace operations to maintain temperature levels
and safety.
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Exercises: 7.2
1. What are three advantages for using a warm air furnace system over
hydronic heating systems?
3. Describe in your own words how a warm air furnace heats a facility.
4. How are warm air furnaces different from space heaters, floor heaters, and
unit heaters?
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Lesson 7
8
Analyzing Cooling Systems
Cooling Systems
Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Cooling System Components
Absorption Refrigeration
Cooling Towers
Refrigerants
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Thermodynamics of Refrigeration
Basic thermodynamics plays an important role in refrigeration applications.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transformed, while the second law tells us that heat energy
always moves from a warmer body to a cooler one. With refrigeration
equipment we change the pressure of a fluid, hence its temperature and
boiling point. Heat is absorbed or rejected in quantity to force a fluid to
change state, liquid to vapor, vapor to liquid.
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Function
Evaporator
Compressor
Centrifugal compressors increase gas pressure by increasing
the kinetic energy of the gas.
Condenser
New Term
vapor compression refrigeration Uses a compressor to change the
pressure of a refrigerant and force it through the system.
Review
Vapor compression refrigeration reduces vapor volume to increase vapor
pressure. The vapor compression process comprises four stages. The
compression cycle transforms low-pressure refrigerant vapor into a highpressure refrigerant vapor. The condensation cycle removes heat from the
high-pressure vapor, which transforms the vapor into a liquid. The highpressure liquid is pushed through small metering valves and on further to the
evaporative coils where it boils. This new vapor is then recycled back into the
compressor.
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197
Exercises: 8.2
1. Describe the vapor compression refrigeration cycle.
2. What are the four steps of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle?
3. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the statement true.
High-pressure liquid is forced through small metering
valves to the low-pressure _______________ coil.
4. Fill in the blank below with the correct word(s) to make the statement true.
The compressor transforms the refrigerant into a highpressure vapor from a low-pressure vapor during the
_______________ cycle.
5. Fill in the blanks below with the correct word(s) to make the statement true.
Latent heat is removed and gas is condensed into a high
pressure liquid during the _______________ cycle.
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Lesson- 8
Function
Evaporator
Compressor
Centrifugal compressors utilize impellers to manipulate the
kinetic energy of gas, thus increasing gas pressure.
Condenser
New Terms
flow control devices Limit refrigerant flow to mange
refrigerant temperature and pressure.
evaporators
refrigerant.
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Evaporators
Evaporators are heat exchangers that remove heat from indoor air by
absorbing it into the refrigeration cycle of the cooling system. Two types of
evaporators are available: flooded evaporators and dry expansion
evaporators. Flooded evaporators are typically used to cool liquids such as
chilled water but are found used to cool air in refrigeration applications. Dry
expansion (DX) evaporators are available as either DX cooling coils, for
cooling air, or DX chillers, for cooling liquids.
Flooded evaporators are designed to use liquid refrigerant to absorb heat. The
liquid refrigerant can be stationary in a large shell and tube type heat
exchanger as in a chiller or it can be pumped through delivery pipes to coils or
bare pipe evaporators to cool air. As the liquid gains heat and changes state,
bubbles of vapor will form and rise to the top of the chiller barrel or be carried
with the liquid back to a low pressure receiver where the vapor bubbles will
be separated and trapped at the top of the receiver and the liquid will be
pumped back through the evaporators. This trapped vapor is then admitted to
the compressor inlet.
DX evaporators are designed to absorb heat into a mixture of liquid and vapor
refrigerant. At the entrance to the evaporator the refrigerant is usually near
75% liquid and 25% vapor. At the outlet of the evaporator the refrigerant will
be all vapor with some amount of superheat, that is, heated above its boiling
point to remove all liquid moisture (dry), to ensure that liquid doesnt enter
the compressor. DX evaporators are usually used in A/C units like splits
(separate indoor evaporator unit and outdoor condenser unit) and rooftops.
They are common in smaller chillers as well.
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Lesson- 8
New Terms
flooded evaporators Use refrigerants to chill water flowing
through tubing. Flooded evaporators require a large supply of
refrigerant inside the unit.
dry expansion evaporators Use refrigerants to cool air,
they have a small amount of liquid refrigerants inside the
unit.
cooling coils Are evaporator tubes, configured as coils that
cool air.
chillers
liquids.
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Compressors
Compressors reduce the volume of vapor and concentrate its heat on its way
to the condenser. Compressors can be driven with electric motors, gas or
diesel engines, or gas and steam turbines. There are two main types of
compressors: positive displacement and centrifugal compressors. Table 8.3
describes their characteristics.
Table 8.3 Compressor type characteristics
Compressor types
Characteristics
Centrifugal compressors
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Reciprocating compressor
components
Function
Piston
Cylinder
Crankshafts
Valves
Connecting rods
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Helical rotary compressors are used for large cooling applications and employ
two large screws. One of the screws is the driven and the other is the driver.
The driven screw is often referred to as the male rotor, and the driver or
powered screw is often referred to as the female rotor. The rotors, or screws,
are generally not the same shape and do not have the same number of lobes
there being more on the female driver.
The capacity of a screw compressor can be controlled by changing motor
speed or by a slide valve, which varies the length of the helical screws
compression area.
New Term
slide valves Controls the capacity of a screw compressor by
limiting the length of the compression area.
Scroll compressors are used for small and medium-sized cooling applications
and employ two scrolls to generate pressure. One scroll is situated inside the
other, one is fixed and the other oscillates but doesnt rotate. The refrigerant
gas is pushed into the center of the compressor and discharged.
Centrifugal compressors
Centrifugal chillers are available in a wide range of sizes, from 10010,000
tons. Centrifugal chiller systems can be designed to meet a wide range of
chilled liquid (evaporator) and cooling fluid (condenser) temperatures. They
can be driven by turbines, electric motors, or internal combustion engines.
The operation of the compressor is similar to a centrifugal fan or pump.
Refrigerant vapor enters the inlet and passes through inlet guide vanes into
blades radiating from the center of the impeller. The impeller, rotating at high
speed, throws the gas to the outer circumference of the impeller blades by
centrifugal force, increasing the velocity of the gas. The gas is then thrown
from the impeller into the volute, where most of the velocity (kinetic energy)
is converted to pressure. The pressure rise is usually small compared to
reciprocating compressors. Low pressure refrigerants have been the
refrigerant of choice for these compressors till recently. High pressure
refrigerants are now used but several impellers are often put in series to create
a greater pressure difference and to pump a sufficient volume of refrigerant
gas. Where a low pressure centrifugal compressor might have to raise the
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Lesson- 8
Capacity rating
Reciprocating
Up to 150 tons
Screw
20 - 750 tons
Centrifugal
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New Term
surging When vapor in the discharge volute squirts back
across the face of the compressor wheel to the wheel inlet.
This results in the generation of noise, vibration, and damage
to the compressor if allowed to continue.
Condensers
Condensers are heat exchangers that use water or air to absorb and remove the
heat energy that the evaporator absorbed or compressor generated during the
refrigeration process. There are three main types of condensers: air-cooled,
water-cooled, and evaporative. Condensers remove latent heat and some
sensible heat from the hot gas of the compressor discharge enabling the
change of state to a warm liquid refrigerant.
Air-cooled condensers consist of a series of finned tubes, or coils, that
compressed, hot refrigerant gas flows through. A fan forces air over the coils
causing the hot vapor to condense as it cools.
Water-cooled condensers are most often of the tube and shell type but there
are other designs. Compressed, hot gas refrigerant passes through the cylinder
shell, and a network of tubes carries water through the cylinder. The water
absorbs heat from the surrounding refrigerant, which cools and condenses it.
This condenser type can use a cooling tower to dissipate the heat absorbed in
the condenser, usually on a higher capacity machines like a centrifugal chiller,
or can use a domestic water supply and flush the warm water down the drain,
called a waste water condenser. A typical waste water condenser will use 1.5
gallons per minute per ton of refrigeration.
Evaporative-cooled condensers are similar to air-cooled condensers.
However, in an evaporative system, refrigerant vapor is piped to the
evaporative condenser, water is sprayed over the refrigerant coil and air is
blown over it to help evaporate the water and cool and condense the
refrigerant. This type of condenser is less popular because of additional
maintenance requirements and the added quantity of refrigerant the system
requires.
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New Terms
air-cooled condensers Passes heat absorbed in a
conditioned space to outside atmospheric air, changes
refrigerant from hot gas to warm liquid.
water-cooled condensers Changes the state of the
refrigerant by passing its heat into a water stream.
evaporative-cooled condensers Changes the state of the
refrigerant by spraying water over a coil containing the hot
refrigerant gas. The refrigerant changes state, gas is
condensed to liquid, water changes state, liquid evaporated to
vapor.
Review
Four main pieces of equipment make up cooling systems that aid in the
removal of heat from a facility.
Evaporators are most commonly available in the dry expansion (DX) type and
flooded type.
Flow control devices come in capillary tube, thermal expansion, automatic
expansion or electronic valve varieties and floats to control the flow rate of
liquid refrigerant.
Compressors are available as either positive displacement or centrifugal
models. Positive displacement compressors raise the pressure and temperature
of gas by reducing gas volume. Centrifugal compressors raise gas pressure
and temperature by increasing the kinetic energy of the gas.
Condensers are available in three different types. Air-cooled condensers
transform vapor into a liquid using cold air. Water-cooled condensers use cool
water and evaporative-cooled condensers use cool water and air flowing
through coils.
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Exercises: 8.3
1. What is the functional difference between a chiller and a cooling coil?
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Lesson- 8
10. What is a condenser and how does it fit into an HVAC cooling system?
11. Match the correct description below with its corresponding condenser
types.
Description
Lesson - 8
Answer
Condenser type
A. Water-cooled
B. Evaporative-cooled
C. Air-cooled
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New Terms
absorbent Is the substance used in the cooling cycle to
soak up evaporated refrigerant vapor.
absorber Is the section of an absorber chiller that provide
the area for absorption to take place when the refrigerant
water is sprayed over the evaporator coils.
evaporator Are the devices where refrigerant boils and
evaporates, absorbing heat and cooling the chilled water.
generator Is the area in an absorber chiller where the dilute
absorbent is concentrated and the refrigerant (water) is
separated.
Absorption chillers are normally used where a heat source, such as exhaust
from a steam turbine or waste heat is available at a very low cost. They are
also commonly used to reduce electric load during peak demand periods.
Lesson - 8
Absorption refrigeration
system components
Component function
Condenser
Heat exchanger that cools and condenses water vapor into liquid
form so that it can be returned to the evaporator.
Evaporator
Generator
Heat exchanger that uses steam or other heat energy to boil the water
vapor from the dilute LiBr solution.
Absorber
Section that absorbs the water vapor with the salt solution.
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solution in the generator. The vapor migrates out of the generator and into the
condenser where it is cooled until it condenses into a liquid, water. The liquid
refrigerant then flows into the evaporator, where the refrigerant pump sprays
it over the chilled water coils. The heat from the chilled water evaporates the
refrigerant liquid. The resulting vapor then migrates to the absorber, where it
is once again absorbed by the strong solution and pumped to the generator to
complete the refrigerant cycle.
Absorption chillers in HVAC systems typically use lithium bromide as the
absorbent, with water as the refrigerant. The generator, absorber, and all
connecting piping are sealed and evacuated to maintain an absolute air
pressure of 0.25 in. Hg. Under these low-pressure conditions, the refrigerant
boils at 40 F. This allows the refrigerant to cool the system water to about
45 F. As the water refrigerant boils it will increase the pressure in the
absorber unless the vapor is removed. Thats what the strong solution is
doing. Maintaining the deep vacuum in the absorber section by removing the
water vapor.
To control capacity, a LiBr absorption chiller usually either varies the heat
input to the generator, which controls the rate that the refrigerant is boiled out
of the dilute solution, or controls the flow of the dilute solution to bypass the
generator entirely. During shutdown this same heat control or bypass valve is
used to put the machine into what is called the dilution cycle. The generator is
bypassed and the weak solution routed back to the absorber where water
vapor is continuing to be absorbed. Eventually the LiBr solution cannot
absorb any more vapor and the pressure in the shell will start to rise. The
boiling point of the water rises with the pressure and the refrigerant stops
boiling.
All LiBr absorption chillers require that condenser water be maintained at a
constant design temperature. Low condenser water temperature can cause the
strong solution to thicken and stop flowing at the outlet of the strong solution
to weak solution heat exchanger. This requires a major effort to correct
involving perhaps days of down time for the machine.
The coefficient of performance (COP) defined as cooling effect divided by
heat input, for a single effect LiBr absorption chiller is typically in the range
0.65 to 0.70.
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Review
The absorption refrigeration cycle uses the processes of absorption and
evaporation to perform cooling operations.
The effectiveness of these processes depends on factors such as temperature
and pressure.
The absorption refrigeration process comprises both an absorbent cycle and a
refrigerant cycle.
This type of cooling system is quieter than the vapor compression
refrigeration process because it does not utilize a compressor.
It is usually implemented in larger HVAC systems where steam is readily
available.
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Exercises: 8.4
1. What are the three advantages of absorption refrigeration devices over
vapor compression devices?
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Cooling towers are made up of five main components: a fan, fill (baffles),
water spray, basin, and drift eliminators. Table 8.7 lists cooling tower
components.
Table 8.7 Cooling tower component functions
Cooling tower component
Function
Water spray
The water spray breaks the condenser water into fine droplets
increasing its surface area, aiding heat transfer.
Fan
Provides a forced draft to carry the moisture laden air out of the
cooling tower.
Fill (Baffles)
Basin
Drift Eliminators
Fans aid the dispersal of water vapor. Atmospheric air helps the cooling
process because it absorbs heat and aids evaporation.
Baffles are the fill components of a cooling tower, typically made from metal,
plastic, or wood. As water is sprayed into the tower, it hits the baffles on its
way down to the bottom of the basin and breaks up the water drop. The
smaller droplets of water speed the heat transfer and evaporation processes.
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Water spray is how the water enters the cooling tower. The spraying action
exposes more water surface area to air. The direct contact with air quickens
the evaporation and cooling process.
Basin is the base of the cooling tower, which collects the water before
recirculation.
Drift Eliminators are the panels with chevron shaped passages that sit atop the
cooling tower outlet and prevent water leakage. These panels are made up of
metal, plastic, or wood installed in rows that catch runaway water drops blow
off the fill below.
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223
the deposit of sediment and other mineral debris in the basin of the cooling
tower or the condenser tubes.
The amount of water used in a cooling tower can be quite an expense
depending on how a facility is charged for its water consumption. Often a
sewage charge is incorporated into the water bill. The amount of water
evaporated depends on the refrigeration load at any given time. It takes about
1000 BTUs to evaporate 1 pound of water. Thats about 1.8 gal per ton.
Theres not really much we can do to change that. Drift loss is usually small
unless theres something mechanically wrong with the cooling tower.
Blowdown is something we can effect. Blowdown is used to dilute the
mineral concentration that builds up in the cooling tower sump as makeup
water is evaporated. One way we can effect the amount of blowdown is by
making the makeup water purer. This is generally too costly to do. Another
method is to add chemicals that prevent the minerals from depositing. This is
fairly common and very cost effective if done properly. Using the proper
chemicals can increase the cycles of concentration (multiples of mineral
concentration in the cooling tower water) by a significant amount. This
reduces the amount of blowdown needed and reduces the overall water
consumption of the cooling tower. Heres an example based on a fully loaded
100 ton chiller
Table 8.8 Cooling tower water consumption
.
Water consumed
for:
2cycles of
concentration
4 cycles of
concentration
8cycles of
concentration
evaporation
180 gal/hr.
180 gal/hr.
180 gal/hr.
blowdown
90 gal/hr.
60 gal/hr.
26 gal/hr.
total
270 gal/hr.
240 gal/hr.
206 gal/hr.
Other chemicals are added to the cooling tower as well to control corrosion,
mold and bacterial growth (Legionnaires Disease among them).
Just for comparison, that same 100 ton chiller, using a wastewater condenser,
would send down the drain 1.5 gpm/ton * 60 min./hr. * 100ton = 9000 gals/hr.
Yes, 9000 gallons per hour! Thats an expensive cooling season if youre
using municipal water.
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New Terms
drift This occurs when wind and air carry water away from
a cooling tower.
blowndown This occurs when water is lost due to
preventative maintenance drainage.
New Terms
direct contact cooling towers Directly expose water to
atmospheric air where weather elements such as wind, snow,
and thermal energy all affect the cooling process.
indirect contact cooling towers
chill water in pipes.
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tower and the spray water is collected in the tower basin. The cool condenser
water exits the tower from the bottom of the closed coil. The condenser water
and cooling tower water are separate streams that dont mix.
There are several advantages for using indirect cooling towers. The condenser
water is protected from outside contaminants as well as from other liquids
that may be involved with the cooling system because the condensing water is
contained in a closed piping system.
Mechanical draft cooling towers can be of either direct or indirect design.
Mechanical cooling towers use fans and other mechanical means to cool water
in a basin type arrangement. Fans and other equipment increase air mobility
which increases the water cooling rate.
Review
Cooling towers provide the condenser water supply for cooling system
operation. A cooling tower enables the heat generated in the condenser to be
displaced to the atmosphere. The large surface area inside a cooling tower
aids the evaporation process.
Refrigerants are liquids that boil at low temperatures. This is an important
property of any substance used as a refrigerant.
Heat energy always travels from a higher energy source to a lower energy
source. A boiling low-temperature liquid makes heat transfer through an
absorption or evaporation process easy, fast, and often inexpensive because
minimal energy is spent on vaporizing a refrigerant. Compression refrigerants
utilize the low-temperature boiling points of liquids to perform cooling
processes. Absorption refrigerants utilize the interaction between a refrigerant
and an absorber to perform cooling processes.
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Exercises: 8.5
1. Explain cooling towers and their function in a cooling system.
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8.6 Refrigerants
Liquids that have a low boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure are
generally the most desirable for use as refrigerants. Large quantities of heat
are absorbed when liquids undergo a change of phase into a vapor.
There are currently many chemical formulations used as refrigerants. With
more to come. A refrigerant only needs to be able to boil and condense at a
reasonable temperature and pressure to be viable. The chemicals used in the
past have shown environmental side effects and are being replaced as fast as
the technology can be developed.
Table 8.9 Refrigerants
Lesson - 8
ASHRAE
designation
Empirical
Formula
Uses
Notes
R-11
CFC
R-12
CFC
R-22
HCFC
R-123
HCFC
R-134a
HFC
R-502
CFC
R-507
HFC
R-409a
HCFC
R-410a
HFC
R-290
HC
propane
R-717
NH3
ammonia
R-744
CO2
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This table list a few of the many compounds used as refrigerants today. The
all have their strengths and weakness. It will take time for the industry to
finally select the ones that work the best, just like VHS and Betamax had to
fight it out.
As you can see there are two main categories of refrigerants, high pressure
and low pressure. High pressure refrigerants have a boiling point temperature
at atmospheric pressure within the range of -58Deg F to +50 Deg F. In a
cylinder, at room temperature, the pressure of the refrigerant can be hundreds
of pounds. Your household refrigerator uses a refrigerant in this class. These
types of refrigerants are typically used in conjunction with positive
displacement compressors as they require a high compression ratio. Low
pressure refrigerants have a boiling point temperature above +50 Deg F at
atmospheric pressure. They can look and act just like water at room
temperature and pressure. These refrigerants are commonly used with
centrifugal compressors. They are low compression ratio systems. Water,
while it can boil and condense like the special chemicals used above, is not
used as a refrigerant in compression refrigeration cycles because each pound
of water boiled creates a very large volume of vapor. The compressor would
be huge. It is used as a refrigerant in the absorption cycle.
New Term
refrigerants Fluids that work well as refrigeration agents
because they vaporize at a low temperature at atmospheric
pressure.
Refrigerants are selected for a range of properties including the ability to
absorb or give up heat (latent heat) as they change between liquid and vapor
phases.
The earliest refrigerants used in mechanical systems were very dangerous
chemicals that you wouldnt want in your home. They were soon replaced
with much safer compounds known as halocarbons. They have been used as
refrigerants since the 1930s because of their excellent characteristics for
temperature, pressure, oil mixing ability, heat transfer ability, specific heat
contents and so on. Halocarbons are also nontoxic, stable, and inexpensive.
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Lesson- 8
New Terms
halocarbons
halocarbons.
Components
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorine
Fluorine
Carbon
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Fluorine
Carbon
Hydrofluorocarbons
Hydrogen
Fluorine
Carbon
Since the 1980s the halocarbon refrigerants have been used less and less due
to their relationship to the depletion of ozone in the stratosphere.
Hydrofluorcarbons started replacing them till the concerns about greenhouse
gases and global warming became preeminent. Interest is now growing in the
use of the natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide, propane ethane blends,
ammonia and others. This is an ongoing evolution as more is constantly being
learned.
Refrigerant Types
Refrigerants can be sorted by their use in compression type processes or
absorption type processes.
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Lesson- 8
New Terms
absorbent type refrigerants Use a refrigerant and an
absorbent to perform the cooling process.
refrigerants Are liquids used to aid the cooling process in
a refrigeration system and have low temperature boiling
points.
absorbents Are substances that soak up refrigerant to aid
the evaporation and cooling process of a liquid.
Table 8.11 Absorbent refrigerants
Absorbent type refrigerants
Description
Water/Lithium Bromide
Ammonia/Water
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Exercises: 8.6
1. Why is a low boiling point desirable for a refrigerant?
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9
Recognizing air distribution systems
Fan systems
Fan laws
Air delivery systems
Air delivery system equipment
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Lesson -9
New Terms
fans Create air movement by accelerating an air stream across a
rotating plane.
air distribution system Is the operating relationship between an
HVAC systems heating and cooling systems and the terminal
units that deliver the conditioned air throughout a facility.
Fan types
Fans are available in many shapes, sizes, and capacities. There are two main
types: axial fans and centrifugal fans. Fan classification is dependent upon
the direction of air flow through the impeller. In an axial fan the direction of
airflow is unchanged, remaining parallel with the fans shaft. In a centrifugal
fan the airflow is changed, entering the fan parallel with the shaft and then
changing by 90 degrees to exit the impeller
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237
New Terms
axial fans Pull air along the fan shaft and blow it out in the
same direction.
centrifugal fans Pull air along the fan shaft and blow the
air out from the center in all directions.
impeller Is the blade portion of a fan that forces air to
move through and out of the blower unit.
Axial fans
There are three types of axial fans: propeller, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial. The
key difference between the types is the impeller section of the blower unit.
Table 9.1 lists the different axial fan types and a description of each.
Propeller axial fans are constructed with a propeller-type wheel mounted on a
ring. This type of fan resembles the design of a propeller on an airplane
engine and has a low efficiency rating. This fan type is for low delivery
pressure and high capacity.
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Lesson -9
Tubeaxial fans are basically a heavy duty propeller fan mounted in a cylinder.
While they can be mounted to duct works, the air exiting them has a spiral
motion that increases the duct losses making them a poor choice.
Vaneaxial fans are tubeaxil fans with guide vanes behind the fan blades that
help to counter the rotation of the airflow through the blower unit. These
guide vanes straighten the airflow making the vaneaxil fan compatible with
ductwork.
Lesson- 9
239
Description
Propeller
Tubeaxial
Vaneaxial
Centrifugal fans
There are five types of centrifugal fans: airfoil, backward inclined, backward
radial, forward curved and radial fan types. Table 9.2 lists the different
centrifugal fan types and a description of each.
The differences in these types of centrifugal fans also stem from variances in
the impeller portion of the fan unit. The impeller section of the fan is the
blower component that actually generates the power to drive the air flow
through the fan unit. Fans create a pressure differential as an internal wheel
rotates and the air is forced out of the blower. As the fan wheel turns, air is
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Lesson -9
accelerated across the wheel and into the fan volute. Different designs of the
wheels and the blades on them give the fans different pressure and volume
characteristics. In the volute, the velocity of the air is converted into pressure.
Backward curved blades operate more efficiently on average resulting in
lower horsepower requirements and quieter operation.
Airfoil fans operate with the most efficiency as compared to all other
centrifugal fans. Airfoil blades are shaped like the wing of a plane and they
are curved backwards. These fans are quiet in operation, will generate high
static pressures, and will not overload the motor driving it. The initial costs of
these fans are higher so they are used in larger fans. They are suitable for
clean air only
Backward inclined fans and backward curved fans operate at a slightly lower
efficiency rating than airfoil fans and the impeller blades are curved
backwards slightly from the direction that the fan wheel rotates. They
generate a high to medium static pressure.
Forward curved fans have blades that are sloped forward. They also have a
lower efficiency rating than the other types of centrifugal fans. They can
operate at lower speeds moving large volumes of air at low static pressures.
Radial fans are simply designed fans that have higher pressure characteristics
than most other fan types. The blades are flat or curved. These fans are noisy
and typically used for general ventilation like exhaust applications.
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241
Description
Backward curved
airfoil
Backward inclined or
curved blade
Backward curved
radial
Forward curved
bladed
Radial
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Lesson -9
ductwork that match the pressure needs of the system. The fan installation
location is an important factor to consider because enough room has to be
available around the fan so that the unit can be accessed for routine
maintenance and repairs.
Bearing and air inlet arrangements also affect the efficiency of an air
delivery system. There are many different bearing and air inlet arrangements
available for centrifugal fans such as bearings on each side of the wheel, two
bearings on a base on one side of the wheel (overhung), single width single
inlet (SWSI), double width double inlet (DWDI) and on.
New Terms
bearings
revolve.
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243
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Lesson -9
RPM 2
CFM 2 = CFM1 ---------------
RPM 1
The second fan law represents the relationship of the static pressure and fan
speed.
Fan Law 2
Static pressure varies as the square of the fan speed
RPM 2
P 2 = P 1 --------------2-
RPM 1
The third fan law represents the relationship of the fan power and fan speed.
Fan Law 3
Power varies as the cube of the fan speed
RPM 2
HP 2 = HP 1 ---------------
RPM 1
Certain stipulations pertain to fan laws due to the nature of the performance
variables involved, the results will be invalid if they are obtained using one
model fan and are applied to another. Fan laws can only be used to predict the
operation of a specific fan as its operating conditions change.
The third fan law is particularly significant for us as it shows that as we
reduce fan speed the power needed to run the fan reduces as a cube function.
This reduction in energy consumed is one good reason for the growth in
variable speed drives seen in recent years.
Lesson- 9
245
Review
Fans are very important to an air distribution system because they generate
the force that makes the delivery of conditioned air possible. These air pumps
generate static pressure and velocity to move air through an air delivery
system.
There are two main categories of fan types, centrifugal and axial, and the
distinctions between the two are dependent upon the direction of air flow
through the impeller.
Selecting the correct fan for a job requires considering several factors specific
to the job. The design arrangement of the bearings, air inlets, and air
discharge position impact the effectiveness of a fan. The installation location
for the fan will also impact fan choice because spatial limitations may hinder
accessibility to fan parts after the unit is installed.
No matter which fan type is chosen, fan laws can be used to predict changes
in fan operation when performance variables are modified.
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Exercises: 9.2
1. Explain the purpose of a fan.
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247
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Lesson -9
All Air
All-air, air delivery systems that use only air as the fluid for transferring
heating or cooling throughout a building. All-air systems can also be divided
into single or dual duct categories. Single duct air delivery systems consist of
the main heating and cooling coils and a common network of ducts that
deliver conditioned air throughout a facility. Dual duct systems typically
consist of one duct system for chilled air and another duct system for heated
air.
All-air delivery systems are just as varied as the components that make up the
system and they can be divided up into five main categories, each utilizing
different components with different control requirements. The five categories
are single zone system, reheat system, multizone system, dual duct system,
and variable air volume.
Single zone systems have air handlers that deliver air through a single duct to
a room or group of rooms. There is no individual room control over the
conditions of the air in these separate spaces. When the air temperature in the
room that houses the thermostat raises above the set point, the air delivery
system will send cool air to the entire zone that a particular thermostat
monitors. If the temperature in any of the other rooms within that zone were
already cool enough, they will become uncomfortable for occupants as the
cool air continues to blow into the space.
Reheat systems are air delivery systems that incorporate separate reheat coils
in each zone for individual comfort. With this type of system, a thermostat
residing in the local zone monitors temperature and sometimes humidity
levels in the room. When more heat is required, warmed air is added to the
space by the electric reheat coils located in the immediate location.
Multizone systems incorporate separate ducts, that are attached to one damper
each in each zone, to supply a mix of hot and cold air to meet zone
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249
requirements. One system serves multiple zones from a single, centralized air
handling unit but each zone is still controlled without affecting any others.
For example, if a thermostat senses that a space is too warm, the HVAC
system will only send cool air to that particular space and the temperature
change will not affect occupants in other areas.
Dual duct systems are designed with heating and cooling coils that are
connected to separate heating and cooling ducts. Each zone has its own
mixing box and the room thermostat regulates the dampers, ensuring that the
proper mixture of heated and chilled air is delivered to the zone. Dual duct
systems can have a single fan supplying both ducts or individual fans, one for
the hot duct and one for the cold, each with some kind of volume or pressure
control driving a volume damper or fan speed control.
Variable air volume systems (VAV) limit the volume of air that is passed into
a zone. Whereas the other systems are constant air volume (CAV) systems,
VAV systems control temperature by controlling the rate of cooled air flow
into the zone. This can reduce operating costs by reducing the fan energy
consumed and the quantity of air that gets cooled.
All Water
All-water delivery systems are also known as hydronic systems and use only
water as the fluid for transferring heat throughout a building. All-water
delivery systems heat or cool a space with hot or chilled water using a
combination of conduction, convection or radiation to transfer thermal
energy. Hot water is piped throughout the building and hot water releases
thermal energy into air that is cooler than the temperature of the water
flowing through the pipes. Similarly, heat is absorbed through pipes
containing chilled water as it flows through space that is warmer than the
water.
Air - Water
Air-water air delivery systems use a combination of the other two types of
systems because both air and water are used to transfer heat throughout a
building.
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Lesson -9
System function
All-air
All-water
Air-water
Use both air and water to add or remove heat from facility air.
Air delivery systems are also categorized into two groups according to how
and where a system is built. When the air delivery system equipment is
purchased separately as components and installed on the building site by the
contractor, the system is referred to as a central system. When the air
delivery system is constructed at the manufacturers site, with the heating and
the air conditioning components factory selected and assembled, the system is
referred to as a unitary system.
New Terms
central system Is a site built system where the heating and
air conditioning components are individually purchased and
installed.
unitary system Is a pre manufactured air delivery system
where the heating and air conditioning components are
typically factory chosen and packaged.
Review
Air delivery systems come in many designs. They can be categorized into
three main groups, all-air, all-water, and air-water, dependent upon the type of
fluid the system uses to add or remove heat from indoor air.
All-air delivery systems can be further divided into five main categories
dependent upon the design of the duct system and how zone conditions are
monitored and controlled.
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251
Exercises: 9.3
1. Name the three delivery systems that are classified by the type of fluid they
use and explain the differences between them.
True or False
If the thermostat in one room of a four-room multizone HVAC system senses that
the air is too hot, it will deliver chilled air to all four rooms.
A combination of both water and air are used to condition air in an air-water
delivery system.
The contractor selects and installs the components of a central air delivery
system.
The amount of air entering a room can be used to control room air temperature.
Separate main air ducts for hot and cool air are used in dual duct air systems.
Each zone has its own reheat coil and duct for a reheat air delivery system.
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Lesson -9
Rooftop units are unitary pieces of HVAC equipment that come from the
factory with the heating and air conditioning equipment already assembled
inside. The compressor and the condenser may be separate and heat
adaptations are available. Rooftop units need to be constructed from weather
and corrosion-proof materials. In larger buildings there may not be enough
rooftop available for all the units needed or there may be architectural
concerns, in this case you will find the air handling units in mechanical rooms
or closets close to the areas being served. These air handlers have some
typical general configurations.
The most common configurations of these air handlers are, 100% outside air,
mixed air single path, mixed air multizone, dual duct, variable air volume and
the packaged roof top unit.
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253
The 100% outside air unit provides fresh air for areas with large ventilation
requirements. That may be somewhere like a production area using plastics
or volatile chemicals, a commercial kitchen area or a gym.
The name mixed air single path air handler refers to the facts that return air
is combined with fresh outside air to make up the supply air and there is one
outlet for this mixed air. The ratio of outside air to return air can be altered
depending on indoor cooling requirements and outside air temp or enthalpy.
The placement of the heating or cooling coils can be before or after the supply
fan, called draw through or blow through.
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Lesson -9
The mixed air multizone also combines outside air with return air for
supplying the interior zones of a building. If possible, outside air can be used
for cooling to minimize mechanical cooling runtimes. More than one zone is
supplied by this unit and each zone can be maintained at a different setpoint.
The air flow path on this unit has the air being cooled first then reheated as
needed for each zone.
The dual duct air handler provides two air streams throughout the building.
One air stream is cooled the other is heated. Terminal units in each zone will
use some percentage of each air stream to maintain a zone temperature. The
units can have either a single fan pressurizing both ducts or individual fans in
each duct. An economizer cycle can also be used for cooling when outside air
conditions allow.
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255
The variable air volume air handler has all the attributes of the single path
unit except that the fan has some method of changing its air flow to meet the
requirements of the terminal units. These methods are commonly variable
speed drives for the fan motors but also include inlet dampers to restrict the
air entering the fan.
The packaged roof top unit is very common. It usually contains both the
heating and cooling equipment needed for the zone.
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Lesson -9
Room units are HVAC equipment types that controls air conditions in an
individual room. They do not control humidity or air cleanliness very well but
they are low-cost and easy to install and operate. They are either designed as
through-the-wall units or window units. Room units are not as efficient as
central plants but are inexpensive to purchase and are used in multi-room
buildings such as hotels and motels.
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257
New Terms
rooftop unit Unitary pieces of HVAC equipment that come
from the factory with the heating and air conditioning parts
already assembled inside.
room unit HVAC equipment that controls air conditions in
an individual room.
unitary conditioner Air conditioners that are assembled by
the manufacturer in packaged components, units.
Humidifiers
Humidifiers improve air quality by converting liquid water into water vapor
that can be introduced to dry indoor air. Thus, the humidification process is
one that requires latent heat from some external source.
Moisture-controlled air keeps building occupants comfortable and healthy.
Excessively dry air affects respiratory functions in building occupants and
may irritate mucus membranes in nasal cavities. Common problems
experienced by occupants residing within a building that has overly dry air
are scratchy throats, itchy eyes, and irritated and dry sinus cavities. Adding
moisture to the air in winter means occupants can be comfortable at lower
room temperatures while in the summer, lower humidity can mean comfort at
higher temperatures.
New Term
humidifier Device that converts liquid water into water
vapor and adds that moisture to the air passing through the
air handling unit.
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259
260
Types of humidifiers
Description
Air washers
Air is drawn in through a washer and heat transfers between the air
and the water. Humidification takes place when air temperature is
higher than water temperature.
Pan humidifiers
An open pan of water with a heating element in it, located in the air
duct. The pan is usually located downstream from the heating coil.
Steam injection
Injecting a fine steam jet into the air stream adds moisture to the air.
Water sprays
Water is sprayed into the air in a fine mist so that all of the water is
vaporized. The heat required for vaporization comes from the air.
Lesson -9
Dehumidifiers
Dehumidifiers remove excess moisture from the air by converting water
vapor into liquid water that can be expelled from the HVAC system. Too
much moisture content in the air can damage building interiors and may
promote mold and mildew growth. Excess moisture is absorbed from indoor
air by either chemical dehumidifiers or chilled water / DX coils.
New Term
dehumidifier Device used to absorb or condense moisture
out of the air passing through the air handling unit.
A fan inside the dehumidifier housing cabinet pulls moist room air in through
the cold coils, removing the excess moisture as it cools below the dew point.
The remaining cool air is reheated in the condenser and then dispersed into
the room again as moistened air.
Chemical dehumidifiers use a chemical absorbent to absorb excess moisture
from the air. One type of dehumidifier uses silica gel in a wheel that revolves
through the conditioned air stream to absorb moisture. The gel then revolves
through heated air which dries the gel. This heat is transferred to the
conditioned air, so re-cooling is necessary
.
Chilled water or DX coils reduce humidity by condensing some of the water
from the air. For this reason it is necessary to provide a drip pan under cooling
coils. This method is really a by-product of the air conditioning process. A
dedicated dehumidifier usually requires reheat coils to prevent the space from
becoming too cold.
Another type of system uses a water-absorbing liquid chemical that is sprayed
over a cooling coil in the conditioned air stream. This chemical absorbs
moisture from the air. Some of the chemical is pumped to a regenerator where
it is sprayed over heating coils. The chemical gives up the moisture to an air
stream which is delivered outside.
Table 9.5 Dehumidifier descriptions
Lesson- 9
Types of Dehumidifiers
Description
Chemical Dehumidifiers
261
Filters
Air filters are very important to the air conditioning system because filters
remove dirt and/or odors from the air. Good air quality equates to clean air
and clean air is necessary for occupant comfort and health. For example, dirty
air has unfavorable affects on individuals that suffer from asthma and
emphysema.
New Term
filter
Filters enhance the performance of an HVAC system when they are properly
selected for the job and when they are regularly cleaned or replaced.
Air filters remove dirt and odors from the air through several different
methods: electrostatic precipitation, impingement, and straining.
Electrostatic precipitation filters clean the air by electrically charging the air.
The filter is a grid constructed out of a collection of metal plates that are
oppositely charged so that the dust particles and other pollutants are attracted
to the metal plates. The plates are usually coated with some kind of adhesive
so that the dust particles stick when they hit the plates. This type of filtering
system is very effective yet costly. And the unit has to be turned off in order
to clean the plates.
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Impingement filters clean the air by trapping dust particles and other
pollutants as the air passes through the filter. The dust particles travel along in
the air current and as they hit the filter made of course fibers and some kind of
an adhesive, they stick to it. The dust is removed from the system when the
filter is taken out and either cleaned or replaced. This type of filter is common
in residences and replacement filters are readily available and easy to change.
Straining filters have very closely knit fibers that only allow the air molecules
to pass through the surface. Most dust particles are larger than the space
between these fibers so they are stopped from continuing through the filter
medium. These types of filters are dry, they do not have an adhesive coating
covering the fibers. A very efficient dry-type filter is the High Efficiency
Particulate Air (HEPA) filter. It has the ability to remove virus sized particles.
HEPA filter fibers are so closely constructed that the flow rate of air through
the filter significantly reduces when it hits the filter surface, so these filters
are pleated to extend the surface area.
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263
Description
Electrostatic precipitation
Impingement
Straining
Filters have very closely knit fibers that only allow the air
molecules to pass through the surface.
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Plenum ceilings are types of ceilings that are constructed out of suspended
panels. The open space above the ceiling panels serves as an airpath for the
conditioned air to circulate. The ceiling panels are constructed out of
perforated material that allows the conditioned air to infiltrate into the room,
or zone, below the ceiling at an equal dispersal rate.
Registers and grilles are air supply devices that are constructed with bars
attached parallel to each other inside of a frame. The bars are adjustable so
that air flow is directed by the angle of the bars. A register is simply a grille
that has a volume control damper attached behind the grille bars.
Slot diffusers are elongated air outlet devices that have narrow openings for
air circulation. Slot diffusers are often times combined into a light fixture for
longer light bulb life as well as for hiding the air diffuser. A light bulb will
last longer when a slot diffuser is installed into the light fixture because the
circulating air keeps the bulbs cool. The lower temperature of the bulb
conserves energy as well as wear and tear on the illuminating filament.
The location for installing air supply devices into a building should be
considered even before the types of devices are chosen. Location is important
because the design of the air delivery system is going to determine the overall
effectiveness of the system. There are five main locations for installing air
supply devices into a facility: high on the wall, in the ceiling, low on the wall,
on the floor, or on a window sill. Accessibility and space availability may
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265
limit the choices to just one or two air supply device models and two
satisfactory places that they can be installed and none of these possibilities
may be what the HVAC contractor originally had in mind. For example, an
HVAC contractor may have intended to install an air supply device that rests
on the sill of a window. However, after examining the architects drawings,
the HVAC contractor discovers that the style of window going into the facility
will not accommodate sill-type air supply devices.
Review
Air delivery systems are very important to the success of an HVAC system
because it would not do any good to condition building air if it could not be
dispersed throughout the building.
In order to deliver air that will maintain comfort in all the different zones
within a building, an air delivery system needs to utilize an air handling unit,
a humidifier or dehumidifier, and filters.
The air handling unit is the central control unit that governs the type of air
that will be sent to a zone and when it will be sent.
The humidifier adds moisture to dry air and the dehumidifier removes excess
moisture from air.
Filters remove most of the dust that is present in the conditioned air before it
is dispersed throughout the building.
Air supply devices are the last piece of HVAC equipment that conditioned air
encounters before entering the conditioned zone. These terminal units are
located directly in the rooms of a building that require the delivery of
conditioned air.
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Exercises: 9.4
1. What are the three categories of unitary air delivery systems?
2. Fill in the blanks below with the correct words to make the following
statements true.
must be weather-proof and
corrosion-proof and the compressor and condenser
portions of the unit are often remote.
____________________
____________________ are often installed into multiroom buildings and they are not good energy conservers.
4. Match the type of humidity control device below with the letter of the
correct description.
Humidity control device
Lesson- 9
Answer
Description
Air washer
Refrigeration humidifier
Steam injection
Pan humidifier
Water spray
Chemical dehumidifier
267
6. Match the type of air cleaning device below with the letter of the correct
description.
Air cleaning device
Answer
Description
Electronic
HEPA
Dry-type
Viscous impingement
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10
Identifying terminal units
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Lesson 10-
Hydronic terminal units can be classified according to whether they are used
for heating or cooling purposes. These heat exchangers add heat to a zone or
transfer excess heat from a zone primarily by heat exchange with air.
Hydronic terminal units can also heat or cool by radiation.
Lesson - 10
Heating hydronic
terminal units
Description
Baseboard
Thin sheet metal covers that are open at the bottom and vented at
the top. Installed on the floor along the base of the wall and only a
few inches high.
Convector
Sheet metal cabinet houses finned tube or small cast iron heating
element. Both an air inlet and an air outlet grille.
271
Heating hydronic
terminal units
Description
Fin-tube
Radiator
Radiator panel
Pipes are installed into floors, ceilings, and walls so that zone
temperature can be uniformly conditioned.
Unit heater
Use a fan to blow air through the terminal unit faster than natural
convection type unit.
Baseboard hydronic terminal units are short sheet metal casings that are
installed on the floor of a room along the base of an exterior wall, typically
below a window. Baseboard radiation units typically use a 1/2 or 3/4 inch
heating element. The casing is open at the bottom for taking in room air and
the top is vented so that the heated air can be convected out into the zone.
These types of terminal units are common in residential installations. Airoutlet dampers can be used to manually control capacity for baseboard units.
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Lesson 10-
Convector hydronic terminal units are sheet metal cabinets that hold either a
small cast iron or finned tube heating element. An air inlet grille is usually
located at the bottom of the cabinet and an air outlet grille is typically located
at the top of the cabinet. The room air enters the convector unit through the
inlet grille, absorbs heat from the heating element, and is then convected out
as hot air through the outlet grille to warm the zone. Air-outlet dampers can
be used to manually control capacity for convector units.
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273
Radiator hydronic terminal units are bulky groupings of steel, sheet metal, or
cast iron tubes that contain hot water or steam. The heat from the hot water or
steam is transferred to the air in the zone where the radiator is located by
convection. Radiators are not very common anymore because they are bulky,
unattractive, and expensive.
Hydronic radiant panel systems are made up of a series of tubes that are
installed within the structure of the zone. Typically the floor is warmed as
water flows through the piping system. This design allows the zone to be
warmed by convection as the heated air rises and radiation from the warmed
floor. Radiant panel systems are very effective in uniformly conditioning
zones, but this type of system is expensive.
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Lesson 10-
Unit heaters are hydronic terminal units that utilize a fan to blow air through
the terminal unit. Unit heaters heat a zone more efficiently and faster than
natural convection type terminal units.
Description
Fan-coil
Induction
Cabinet containing cooling coils, air connectors and inlet jets, and a filter.
Induction air entrains room air across the coils.
Radiant panels
Pipes are installed into floors or ceilings so that zone temperature can be
uniformly conditioned.
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275
Induction hydronic terminal units are used in air-water systems and they can
be used for both heating and cooling purposes. The induction unit is made up
of several pieces of equipment: heating and cooling coils, air connectors and
jet inlets, and a filter. High pressure air is delivered to the unit from the
central air handling unit. It is directed across the coils and draws in room air
by the process of induction. Induction units are quieter and cost less than fancoil units because there is no fan motor to operate or maintain.
Radiant panel cooling systems have the piping network installed in the ceiling
so that the cold air falls down into the zone, due to the fact that warm air is
lighter than cold air.
Review
Hydronic terminal units are heat exchangers that are located directly in the
zones that they are conditioning. These units contain heated or chilled water
inside tubing to heat or cool indoor air.
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Lesson 10-
Exercises: 10.1
1. Which terminal unit types are radiation type terminal units?
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277
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Lesson 10-
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279
Pressure independent boxes measure the actual supply air flow and control the
flow in response to the room temperature. The room sensor is used to reset the
flow setpoint. The primary supply air flow is directly measured and
controlled.
New Term
variable air volume (VAV) Terminal units that control air
conditions by adjusting the volume flow rate of primary air
instead of by adjusting the primary air temperature.
VAV types
VAV terminal units can be used for heating and/or cooling and they are
available in numerous configurations: cooling only, cooling with reheat,
induction, dual duct, and fan-powered. Table 10.3 lists different types of VAV
terminal units and a function description for each.
Description
Cooling only
Induction
High velocity primary air is used to entrain and circulate room air.
Dual duct
Uses separate heating and cooling air supply ducts, can have separate
damper controls for each supply.
Fan-powered
A VAV box with a small centrifugal fan inside blows supply and recirculated
air into a zone.
Cooling only (throttling) VAV units control air conditioning by limiting the
volume flow rate of the supply air, not by controlling the temperature of the
supply air. Primary dampers are adjusted to circulate more or less supply air
into a zone in response to load changes. For example, when the space
temperature sensor of the VAV unit senses that the zone temperature is higher
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than the desired set point, the VAV dampers will open and air will blow into
the zone at a faster rate. If the sensor detects that the temperature is too cool
within the zone the damper can close to its minimum position. Cooling only
VAV units rely on a constant supply of 55 F air from the VAV air handler.
These are the simplest and cheapest VAV terminal units. The units can go
completely closed at reduced cooling load, if set up with a minimum air flow
they can over cool a space. These boxes are typically used in interior zones as
they can often meet heating needs with heat from lights etc.
Cooling with reheat (throttling with reheat) VAV units control zone
temperatures by using hydronic or electric reheat coils located directly inside
the VAV box. The heating coil is situated after the damper to allow reheating
of air that will be supplied to the zone. These boxes are typically used in
exterior zones where the full heating cooling range is needed.They can
provide minimum airflow without over cooling the space. Airflow can be
reduced as a first step in control, heating can then be applied as a second step
or the reheat coil can be activated during cooling for dehumidification.
Induction VAV reduces the volume of primary air supplied as room
temperature falls but the higher velocity primary air is used to entrain room
air from the ceiling or plenum to maintain an almost constant volume delivery
in the space.
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Dual duct VAV unit arrangements use separate heating and cooling ducts, they
can have separate damper controls for each supply. These boxes can either
mix the airstreams supplied to the zone or deliver them separately.
Fan-powered VAV units incorporate a small centrifugal fan into the terminal
unit. The fan powered box provides for some amount of recirculated zone air
in addition to primary air. This can be particularly beneficial for efficient
reheat and maintaining good zone air movement under all conditions. The fan
may be in series or parallel with the primary air damper
With series boxes the fan is in the main airflow in series with the primary air
damper. The fan runs whenever the zone is occupied so the air delivered to the
zone is constant volume while the primary air delivered from the air handling
unit is variable volume. Having the box fan run during occupancy means the
supply fan can be sized smaller and affords initial cost savings.
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In parallel boxes the fan is outside the primary air stream parallel with the
primary air damper. The fan operates intermittently during occupancy
depending on heating or cooling demands of the space so the air delivered to
the space is variable volume. The primary cooling air is also variable air
volume. As the cooling demand decreases the primary air damper will close
decreasing air volume. At some point, the fan will start and primary air flow
will be at its minimum. This allows use of the heat generated in the room to be
used to maintain setpoint. If zone temperature continues to fall supplemental
heat will be needed.
Both types will maintain higher air circulation rates in zones at low cooling
loads while still reducing the load on the main air handler. As the primary air
cooling damper closes more plenum or room air is circulated. In perimeter
zones a hot water coil, electric heat, baseboard heat etc. can be sequenced to
make up for heat losses. When neither heat nor cooling is required room air is
still recirculated.
VAV disadvantages
VAV boxes are popular and inexpensive for many HVAC applications, yet
there are still some disadvantages associated with using VAV terminal units.
High humidity levels result in occupant discomfort and VAV boxes have
limited capabilities for overcoming humid conditions. Humidity is
particularly hard to handle in large open zones such as a gymnasiums and
meeting halls but it can be managed by maintaining the cooling air flow and
activating the reheat coils in the terminal boxes. Other considerations are the
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New Term
variable diffusers Devices that work in conjunction with air
handling units to aid in the distribution of high velocity air.
Review
Variable air volume (VAV) terminal units control zone temperatures by
controlling the flow rate of supply and recirculated air.
VAV boxes can be classified according to how they are arranged: cooling
only, cooling with reheat, induction, dual duct and fan-powered.
Reheat coils can be joined with VAV boxes to improve temperature control
and allow increased ventilation and /or humidity control.
Humidity and continuous air distribution factors are harder to manage with
VAV units.
VAV terminal units are very energy and cost efficient.
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Exercises: 10.2
1. Describe the basic operation of a pressure independent VAV controller.
4. Name a few disadvantages of using a VAV system and what can be done to
overcome these problems.
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New Term
heat pumps Are terminal units used for both heating and
cooling. Heat from the condenser can be used to satisfy the
indoor heating load of a space then the refrigeration cycle
can be reversed and the same coil can be used for cooling.
air to air heat pump A heat pump that uses an air flow to
transfer heat over each of its two heat exchangers, the indoor
and outdoor coils.
water source heat pump A heat pump that exchanges heat
with a water coil on one side of the system and air (usually
the indoor coil) on the other side.
Heat pumps can be delivered from the manufacturer in a unitary package
where all the components are included. Heat pump packages include a
compressor, indoor air coil, outdoor air coil or water coil, metering valve, a
refrigerant reversing valve, and one or more fans. They may also include
outside air dampers to control for fresh air. Table 10.4 lists heat pump
components and a description of each.
Table 10.4 Heat pump component functions
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Description
Compressor
Condenser coil
Evaporative coil
Metering valve
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Description
Fan
Forces air across the indoor coil and outdoor coil if used.
Operation description
Summer cooling
Winter heating
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valve deenergized for the cooling mode while a heat pump manufactured for
the northwest where cooling use is minimal would probably have the
reversing valve deenergized for the heat mode.
The reverse flow of the refrigerant reverses the purpose of the room and
outdoor coils. When the room coil is used to cool air, it is considered an
evaporator coil. When the room coil is used to heat air, it is considered a
condenser coil.
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New Terms
reversing valves Devices used to control the direction of
the refrigerant flow.
balance point The balance point occurs when the heat
pump can produce as much heat as a zone is loosing.
Heat pumps must be selected for a job so that they are correctly sized to
handle the heating and the cooling loads of the HVAC system. Typically the
heating and cooling loads are carefully calculated. The heat pump
refrigeration is sized to match the cooling load, supplementary heating is
added if the heating load exceeds the capacity of the selected equipment. As
the outdoor temperature drops the heat required in a zone or building will
increase. When the capacity of a heat pump just matches the heat loss of a
heating zone, that point is called the balance point. Heat pumps require
supplementary heat if the heating load increases beyond the balance point as
when the outdoor temperature continues to drop.
There are advantages to using a heat pump over other types of heating and
cooling equipment. For example, the reduction of equipment needed as a heat
pump is capable of meeting both heating and cooling load requirements. Heat
pumps are often more cost efficient to operate than other types of heating
equipment, meaning that a therm of heat (100,000 BTUs) can be cheaper to
deliver with a heat pump than another heating system such as an oil or gas
fired furnace.
Review
Heat pump terminal units are devices used to collect the heat energy that is
rejected to the condenser unit during the refrigeration cycle. During a normal
refrigeration cycle, thermal energy is generated as a by-product and this heat
is lost to atmospheric air or a body of water. Heat pumps can share this energy
with other heat pumps in a water source loop and apply it to heat air in other
zones.
The compressor always operates in the same direction but the evaporator and
condenser can change roles. The balance point is the intersection of the heat
pump capacity and the heating load totals. Heat pumps are often times more
cost efficient than other types of heating equipment.
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Exercises: 10.3
1. Explain the purpose and operation of a heat pump.
2. Fill in the blank below with the correct word to make the statement true.
In heating mode, the inside coil acts as the _______________.
3. Fill in the blank below with the correct word to make the statement true.
In cooling mode, the inside coil acts as the _______________.
4. What are some advantages for using a heat pump over other products that
perform similar functions?
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