Section 2

Welding Positions
PA
PB
PC

Flat
Horizontal Vertical
Horizontal
Vertical Up
Vertical Down
Overhead
Horizontal Overhead

PF
PG
PE
PD
Welding Types BS:EN ISO 15614

111
114
121
131
135
136
141
311
141

MMA
FCAW No GAS Shield
SAW
MIG
MAG
FCAW Active Gas
- TIG
Oxy-Acetylene
Plasma Arc
Mitre Fillet Weld

BS:EN ISO 22553

A = Design Throat Thickness

Z = Leg Length

Relationship
a = 0.707 x z

or

z = 1.41 x a

Compound of Butt and Fillet welds.

A combination of Butt and Fillet welds used for T joints with full or partial
penetration or Butt joints between two plates with different thicknesses
Section 3
Weld Imperfections
Classification of Imperfections BS EN ISO 6520-1
Four Factors
Hydrogen Levels
> 15ml/100g Weld Metal Deposited
Stress
> 0.5 of the Yield Stress
Temperature
< 3000 C
Susceptible Microstructure
> 400HV Hardness
If any one factor is removed, Cracking is prevented.

Excessive Inductance in

Use Correct Inductance for Metal Thickness

MAG Dip Transfer.

Incomplete Penetration
Welding Current/Arc Voltage
Travel Speed.
Excessive Inductance in Improve Electrical Settings
MAG Dip Transfer,
Switch to Spray Transfer
Section 4
Destructive Testing
Can be divided into two groups
Measure a Mechanical Property
Quantitative Test
Asses The Joint Quality
Qualitative Test
Quantitative Tests
Are intended to demonstrate that the joints properties satisfy design
requirements.
Tensile: Transverse Welded Joint, All weld Metal
Toughness: Charpy, Izod, CTOD
Hardness: Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers.

BS EN 10002

Transverse Tensile Tests

Show that the strength of the Joint satisfies the Design Criterion.
Tensile Strength Rm is calculated by Maximum Load/Cross Sectional Area.
Yield Re or Proof Stress Rp
Ductility Measurements
Load Extension is % Elongation
To Calculate Elongation:
Change in Length
x 100
Original Length
To Calculate UTS
Load
= Ultimate Tensile Strength
Cross Sectional Area

Impact Toughness Test

The Charpy V Notch is the accepted method for assessing resistance to

Brittle Fracture by measuring the energy to initiate and propagate a crack
from a sharp notch.
Hardness Testing
The hardness of a material is its resistance to plastic deformation
determined by measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular
type of indenter:
Vickers
Uses a Square-Based Diamond Pyramid Indenter
Rockwell Uses a Diamond Cone Indenter or Steel Ball
Brinell
Uses a Ball Indenter
Crack Tip Opening Displacement:
Measures a materials Property - Fracture Toughness
Qualitative Tests
For Assessing Weld quality
Macro Test
Bend Test
Fillet Weld Fracture Test
Butt Weld Nick-Break Testing
European Standards.
BS EN ISO 9016
Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Materials
Impact Tests, Test Specimens Location, Notch Orientation
and Examination.
BE EN ISO 4136
Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Materials
Transverse Tensile Test.
BS EN ISO 1573
Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Material, Bend
Tests.
BS EN IOS17639
Destructive Tests on Welds in Metallic Material, Macro
and Microscopic Examination of Welds.
BS:EN ISO 17637 Non-Destructive Testing of Fusion Welds Visual
Inspection
Section 5
Non-Destructive Testing BS: EN ISO 17637
Radiography
X-Rays, Photon Energy
Betatrons and Accelerators

30KeV up to 20MeV
Above 400KeV

Conventional X-Ray, High Quality on Steel

Betatrons and Linear Accelerators

60mm
> 300mm

Thulium 90
Ytterbium169
Iridium 192
Cobalt 60

90KeV
120KeV
500KeV
1.2MeV

Four Isotopes in Use

Steel 7mm
Steel 12mm
Steel 10-75 mm
Steel 40-150mm

Mostly Used

Penetrating Power Dependant on KeV For X-Ray

Penetrating Power Dependant on Wavelength For Gamma Rays
Single Wall Single Image SWSI
Film Inside
Single Wall Single Image SWSI Panoramic
Film Outside
Double Wall Single Image Over 100mm DWSI
Film Outside
Double Wall Double Image Less Than 100mm DWDI
Film Outside
Volumetric Defects Found
Slag Inclusion, or Gas Porosity
Planer Defects Not Found
Cracks, Lack of Sidewall Fusion, Inter-Run Fusion
Advantages
Permanent Record
Sizing Non-Planer Defects
Used on All Materials
Direct Image of Defects
Good Thickness Penetration
Ultrasonic Testing
Portable
Direct Location Of Defect
Locate Planar Defects
Section 6
WPS/ Welder Qualification EN:ISO 15614
pWPS Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
WPQR Welding Procedure Qualification Record
Specification and qualification of welding procedures
materials,
welding procedure test.

for

Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS

Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer can write
Qualified WPSs

metallic

Essential Variables
Variables that have an effect on the mechanical properties of the
weldment and if changed beyond the limits of the specified by the
standards will require the WPS to be re-qualified.
BS: EN ISO 9606-1
Qualification of Welders-Fusion Welding
Section 10
Welding Processes
Arc Voltage
Arc voltage is related to arc length. For processes where the arc voltage is
controlled by the power source (SAW, MIG/MAG, FCAW) and can be varied
independently from the current, the voltage settings will affect the profile.
As current is raised, voltage will also need to be raised.
Welding Current
Welding current has a major influence on the depth of fusion/penetration,
The higher the current greater the penetration.
Polarity
Determines if the heat is concentrated at the electrode or parent metal
Process
MMA

Polarity DC+
Best
Penetration

TIG

Rarely used
due to
Tungsten
overheat
Used for all
metals and
virtually all
situations
Most common

GMAW solid
wires MIG
MAG
FCAW/MCA
W gas
shielded
and self
shielded
cored wires

DCLess
Penetration but
higher
deposition,
Root Passes,
weld
overlaying
Used for all
metals except
Al/Al alloys and
Mg/Mg alloys
Rarely used

AC
Not suitable for
some
electrodes
minimises arc
blow
Required for
Al/Al alloys to
break surface
oxides
NOT USED

Some
NOT USED
positional basic
fluxed wires
are designed
to run on -ve

SAW

Best
Penetration

Less
penetration but
higher
deposition
rate, used for
root passes
and overlaying

Used to avoid
are blow,
particularly for
multi-electrode
systems

Power Source Characteristics

OCV = 50 to 90V
Constant Current Power Source
Preferred type of power source for manual welding MMA an Manual TIG
Constant Voltage Power Source.
Preferred type of power source for welding processes that have a wire
feeder, MIG, MAG, FCAW and SAW.
Wire feed speed and current are directly related, as current increases so
does the wire feed speed with a increase in burn off rate to maintain arc
length/voltage.
Process
Electrical
Electrode Current
Characteristics
Type
MMA
Drooping/Constant
DC- ive, AC
Current
MIG/MAG
Flat, Constant
DC +ive
Voltage
MAG/FCAW
Flat, Constant
DC+ive, DC -ive
Voltage
Sub Arc
Drooping, Constant DC +ive, DC ive,
Current>1000amp
AC
Flat, Constant
Voltage <1000amps
Electro Slag
Flat, Constant
DC +ive
Voltage
Direct Current Electrode Positive
DCEP/ DC +ive 2/3 heat in Electrode
Direct Current Electrode -ive
DCEP/DC-ive 2/3 heat in work material
AC electron flow 50/60 cycles per second,

With AC direction of flow changes 100/120 times per second

Section 11
Manual Metal Arc/ Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
Constant/Drooping Characteristic.
As arc length voltage amperage .
Polarity
DC+ive 70/30
DC-ive 30/70
AC 50/50
MIG/MAG
WFS Current, Voltage controls Arc Length, Wire Feed Sets Current.
Inductance, in Dip controls rise in current.
Sub Arc
Drooping, Constant Current>1000amp
Flat, Constant Voltage <1000amps
DC +ive, DC ive, AC
BS:EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrode
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
E = Covered Electrode
50 = Yield Strength N/mm2
3 = Toughness
2Ni = Chemical Composition
B = Flux Covering
AWS
E 6013
E = Covered Electrode
60 = Tensile Strength (psi)
1 = Welding Position,
3 = Flux Covering.
BS:EN 2560 Electrode Designation
1
All Position
2
All Position Except Vertical Down
3
Flat Butt/Fillet Horizontal Fillet
4
Flat Butt/Fillet
5
Flat Butt/Fillet, Horizontal Fillet, Vertical Down
Electrode types for MMA BS:EN 2560
Rutile Electrode AWS E6012, DC: E6013 run on AC
High proportion of Titanium Oxide
Used AC/DC all positions
Basic Electrode AWS E7016 or E7018, AC and DC
High Proportion of Calcium Carbonate
Low Hydrogen

Cellulosic Electrode AWS E6010 types DC: E6011 types AC.

Cellulose Powder, Wood Four in coating.
Argon Ar or Helium/Argon mix.
Gas lens reduces eddies in gas flow
Section 12
TIG Welding
Constant/Drooping Characteristic.
As Arc length increases, Voltage increases amperage decreases.
Section 13
MIG/MAG Welding
Process Characteristics
Sloping characteristic. Small change in Voltage, Large change in
Amperage,
Direct Current Electrode Positive.
Semi-automatic set controls arc length.
VOLTAGE: The most important setting in spray transfer as it
controls the arc length.
In Dip transfer Inductance controls the rise in Current.
both Wire Feed Speed/Current and Voltage will heat input.
Wire Feed Speed automatically Current.
Shielding Gases.
ARGON: For all metals weldable by MIG
CARBON DIOXIDE: Ferritic Steel Supports Dip and Globular, (not Spray).
ARGON Based Mixtures
Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration
>20Ar + He, > 80Ar + O2, CO2 Can Spray and Dip.
Metal Inert Gas, Metal Active Gas
MIG.
Usually Ar Shielding
Can be Ar + He mixture, gives hotter action.
Used for non-ferrous alloys Ai Ni.
MAG.
Has oxidising gas shield.
100% CO2 ferritic steels
Dip and Spray Ar + 12/20% CO2 . Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
Spray Transfer Ar + 1-5% O2 Stainless Steel and some Low Alloy Steels.
Pulse Transfer Ar Co2
INDUCTANCE: is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the
rate of current

Transfer Modes.
Spray Transfer: V > 26: I > 220
Thick materials, Flat Welding, High Deposition.
Globular Transfer:
Between Dip and Spray. (Gravity)
Mechanised MAG process using CO2
Dip Transfer: V < 24; I < 200
Thin material Positional Welding.
Pulse Transfer: Spray + No Transfer Cycle.
Frequency Range 50-300 Pulses/Second.
Positional Welding and Root Runs:
Contact Tip Width Distance:
Increase CTWD lowers current.
Decrease CTWD Increases Current
These values depend on Gas Mixture
Section 14
Submerged Arc Welding
Drooping, Constant Current>1000amp (Preferred)
Flat, Constant Voltage <1000amps
Arc Voltage
Arc Voltage Arc length
Power Source controls Current.
DC limited to 1000A by severe Arc Blow.
Travel Speed
in travel speed, heat input per unit length
Section 16
Group
Rutile

Constituent
Shield Gas
Titania
Mainly CO2

Basic

Calcium
Compound
s
Cellulose

Cellulosic

Mainly CO2

Uses
General
Purpose
High Quality

Hydrogen +
Pipe Root Run
CO2
Welding Consumables

AWS A5.1
E6013
E7018
E6010

Examples of AWS Electrode Flux Types

Cellulosic, Flux ends in 0-1 E.g. E6010, E7010, and E8011
Rutile, Flux Ends 2-3-4, E.g. E5012, E6012, E6013, and E6014
Basic Flux Ends, 5-6-7-8, E.g. E6016, E7017, E8018 and E9018

Gas Type
Pure Argon

Common Gases and Mixtures used

Proces Used For
s
MIG
Spray or Pulse Welding
Aluminium Alloys

Pure CO2

MAG

Dip Transfer Welding of

Steels

Argon +
5-20% CO2

MAG

Dip Spray or Pulse

Welding of Steels

Argon +
1-2% O2 or
CO2

MAG

Spray or Pulse Welding

of Austenitic or Ferritic
Steels only

for MIG/MAG
Characteristics
Very Stable Arc with
poor Penetration and low
spatter levels
Good Penetration,
unstable arc and high
levels of spatter
Good penetration with a
stable arc and low levels
of spatter
Active additive give
good fluidity to the
molten stainless and
improves toe blend

Fused Fluxes (Granulated)

Mixed together and baked at high temperature >10000 C components
fuse. When cooled, pulverised.
Good Chemical Homogeneity.
Less Hygroscopic.
Fines, Fine Powder.
Easily recyclable.
Agglomerated Fluxes
Mixture of Components baked at lower temperature and bonded by
agents into small particles, granules easily friable (easily crushed)
Deoxidisers and Alloying Elements can be added, improve strength and
toughness
More Hygroscopic.
Gas my evolve from slag, lead to porosity.
Core Elements and their function
Aluminium Deoxidize and Denitrify
Carbon Increase Hardness and Strength
Manganese Deoxidize and increase strength and toughness
Molybdenum Increase Hardness and Strength
Nickel Improve hardness, Strength, Toughness and Corrosion
Resistance

Section 17
Weldability of Steels
Four Factors
Actual Chemical Composition.
Weld Joint Configuration.
Welding Process to be used.
Properties required from the weldment.
Cooling Rate tend to Increases as:
Heat input decreases (low energy input)
Joint thickness increases (bigger heat sink)
Lamellar Tearing (occurs in rolled products)
Cracks only occur in the rolled products e.g. plate and sections
Most common in C-Mn Steel
Cracks usually form close to bust just outside the HAZ
Cracks tend to lie parallel the surface of the material and the fusion
boundary of the weld having a stepped aspect.
Steel Alloying Elements
Iron (Fe)
Main Steel constituent, on its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C)
Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with major
influence on HAZ hardness, Decreases Weldability typically < 0.25%.
Manganese (Mn)
Secondary only to Carbon for strength, toughness and ductility,
secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with Sulphur to form
Manganese Sulphides typically). 0.8% is residual from Steel deoxidation? Up to 1.6% (in C-Mn Steels) improves strength and
toughness.
Silicone (Si)
Residual element from Steel de-oxidation typically to 0.35%
Chromium (Cr)

For Creep resistance and Oxidation (Scaling) resistance for elevated

temperature service. Widely used in Stainless Steels for Corrosion
resistance. hardness and Strength but Ductility Typically: 1 to
9% in low Alloy Steels.
Nickel (Ni)
Used in Stainless Steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids,
strength and toughness.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Affects hardenability, Steels containing Molybdenum are less
susceptible to temperature brittleness than other alloy steels.
Increases the high temperature tensile and creep strength of steel.
Typically 0.5 to
1.0%.
Niobium (Nb)
Vanadium (V)
Grain refiner, typically 0.05%
Titanium (Ti)
Copper (C)
Present as a residual, (typically < 0.30%) added to weathering steels
( 0.6%) to give better resistance to atmospheric corrosion
Classification of Steels
Low Carbon Steel
0.01 to 0.3% Carbon.
Medium Carbon Steel
0.3 to 0.6% Carbon.
High Carbon Steel 0.6 to 1.4% Carbon.
Plain Carbon Steels contain only Iron and Carbon as main alloying
elements, but traces of Mn, Si, Al, S and P may be present.
Alloy Steels
Low Alloy Steels
<7% alloying elements
High Alloy Steels
>7% alloying elements
Alloy Steels are considered the type of steels that contain extra alloying
elements other than Iron and Carbon.
Weldable C, C Cm and Low Alloy
Carbon Steels
Carbon content up to about 0.25%
Manganese up to 0.8%
Low Strength and moderate toughness.
Carbon Manganese Steels
Manganese up to 1.6%
Carbon Steels with improved toughness due to additions of
Manganese
Weldable Low Alloy Steels

Elevated Temperature Applications

Chromium (Cr) and Molybdenum (Mo) additions give improved
strength at high temperatures and good creep resistance
Typical Steels
2.25% Cr + 1% Mo
9% Cr + 1% Mo

Steels for Low Temperature Service

Ni additions give good Toughness at low Temperatures
Steels can be referred to as Cryogenic Steels
Typical Steels
3.5% Ni Steels
9% Ni Steels.
Types of Stainless Steel
Austenitic Grades
Alloyed with Chromium and Nickel
304 and 316 (18% Cr + 8% Ni)
Main Phase is Austenite, (Wide range of applications)
Very low temperature service (Cryogenic)
High temperature service.
Moderate corrosion resistance
NON-MAGNETIC
Low thermal conductivity, (hold the heat during welding)
High coefficient of expansion (more distortion during welding)
Ferritic and Martensitic Grades
Alloyed with Chromium (low or no Nickel content)
13% Cr (ferritic) 13% Cr + 4% Ni
Ferritic grades have ferrite as main phase so can be magnetised
Martensitic grades have martensitic as main phase
Similar to C and Mn steels but improved corrosion resistance
Not suitable for very low temperatures, some ferritic grades have
good resistance to scaling at high temperature.
Duplex Grades
Alloyed with Chromium & some Nickel.
22%Cr + 5%Ni & 25%Cr + 7%Ni.
Called Duplex because there are two phases, 50% ferrite + 50%
austenite.
Presence of ferrite = Magnetised.
Good resistance to certain types of corrosion.
Not suitable for very low temperatures.

High Heat Input Slow Cooling

Low Toughness (grain growth)
Reduction in yield strength
Low Heat Input Fast Cooling
Increased Hardness
Hydrogen Entrapment
Lack of Fusion.
Section 19
Residual Stresses and Distortion
Leads to Distortion
Affect dimensional stability of welded assembly
Enhance the risk of brittle fracture
Parent material properties
Thermal expansion coefficient, greater the value greater the residual
stress
Yield strength. Greater the value greater the residual stress
Thermal conductivity, higher the value, lower the residual stress
Factors
Joint Design
Amount of restrain
Fit-up
Section 20
Heat Treatment
Improves mechanical properties
Changes microstructure
Reduces residual stress level
Change chemical composition
Normalising
Rapid heating to 900 C soak temperature (100% austenite)
Short soak time at temperature
Cool in air to ambient temperature
Quenching and Tempering
Rapid heating to 9000 C soak temperature (100% austenite)
Short soak time at temperature
Rapid cooling by quenching in water or oil.
Reheat to tempering temperature, soak and air cool
Solution heat treatment
Rapid heating to 10500 C soak temperature (100% austenite)
Short soak time at temperature
Rapid cooling by quenching in water or oil.
Annealing
0
Rapid heating to 900 C soak temperature (100% austenite)
0

Short soak time at temperature

Slow cool in furnace to ambient temperature
PWHT (C Mn Steels)
0
Heating to 600 C soak temperature
Controlled heating rate from 3000 C to soak temperature
Minimum soak time at temperature
Controlled cooling to 3000 C