SSRay - Reinforced Concrete

S.S.
Ray
Reinforced Concrete
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
...:
:.:
available
Blackwell
Science
[Best
coEJ
________________________
.
This book covers the analysis and design
of reinfcrCedconcreteelements in
foundations and superstructures in a
logical, step-by-step fashion. The theory of
reinforced concrete and the derivation of
the code formulae have been clearly

explained.
Thetext is backed up by numerous

illustrations,design charts and tables
referring frequently to the relevant codesof
practice. A large number of worked
examples coveralmost all types of
reinforced concrete elements.
The step-by-step approach will ensure

that:
all design requirements are logically

adhered to
standardised approach is established
in a design office
a simplified procedure for checking

and for quality assurance can be
implemented.
Is
I'
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Analysis and Design
S.S. RAY
BE (Cal), CEng, FICE, MBGS
b
Blackwell
Science
is
document
contains
z pagJ
1995 by
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First published 1995
Library of Congress
Cataloging in PublicationData
Set by Setrite Typesetters, Hong Kong

Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Bell and Bain Ltd., Glasgow
Ray, S.S.
from the British Library

ISBN 0-632-03724-5
Reinforced concrete: analysis and
design/S.S.
Ray.
cm.
Includesbibliographical referencesand
index.
ISBN 0-632-03724-5
1. Reinforced concrete construction.
p.
I. Title.
TA683.R334 1994
624.1'8341 dc2O
94-13306
CIP
'V
Dedicatedto my father Professor K. C. Ray
Page blank
in original
Contents
xiii
Preface
References
Chapter 1 Theory ofReinforced Concrete

1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
Notation
Introduction
Characteristicstrength of materials
Material factors
Material stressstrain relationship
Design formulaefor reinforcedconcrete sections
1.5.1 Singly reinforcedrectangularsection
1.5.2 The concept of balanced design and redistribution
of moments
1.5.3 Doubly reinforcedrectangularsection
1.5.4 Singly reinforcedflanged beams
Ultimate limit state shear
Serviceability limit state crackwidth
Serviceability limit state deflection
Ultimate limit state torsion
xv
1
1
2
3
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
11
17
18
18
1.11
Ultimate limitstate columns

Ultimate limit state corbels
19
31
1.12
1.13
WoodArmer combination of momenttriads

Serviceability limitstate bendingand direct loads
32
34
Chapter 2 Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams

2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Notation
Analysis of beams
Load combinations
Step-by-step design procedurefor beams
Workedexamples
Example2.1: Simply supported rectangularbeam
Example2.2: Three span continuousbeam
Example2.3: Design of beam with torsion
Figures for Chapter 2
Figure 2.1: Values of f3
Figure2.2: Simplified detailingrules for beams
41
41
43
47
50
65
65
73
85
99
99
100
VII
viii Contents
Chapter 3 Design of Reinforced ConcreteSlabs

3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Notation
Analysis of slabs
Load combinations
Step-by-step design procedurefor slabs
Worked example
Example3.1: Designof a two-way slab panel
Figures and Tables for Chapter 3
Figures 3.1 and 3.2: Elastic and elasto-plasticunit resistances
101
101
103
107
107
120
120
130
for one-wayelements, and support shears

1301
Figures 3.3. to 3.17: Moment and deflectioncoefficients for
1326
two-way elements
to
of
Figures 3.18 3.33: Location yield-lines for
13744
two-way elements
3.34:
rules
for
slabs
145
Figure
Simplified detailing
Table 3.1: Graphical summary of two-way elements
146
Table 3.2: Ultimate unit resistance for two-way
elements(symmetrical yield-lines)
147
Table 3.3: Ultimate unit resistance for two-way
elements(unsymmetrical yield-lines)
148
Table 3.4: Ultimate support shears for two-way
elements(symmetrical yield-lines)
149
Table 3.5: Ultimate support shears for two-way
elements(unsymmetrical yield-lines)
150
Chapter 4 Design ofReinforced ConcreteColumns
4.0
Notation
4.1
Analysisof columns
4.2
Load combinations
4.3
Step-by-step designprocedurefor columns
4.3.1 Rectangularcolumns
4.3.2 Circularcolumns
4.3.3 Rectangularand circularcolumns
4.4
Worked examples
Example4.1: Designofa biaxially loaded slender column
Example 4.2: Design of a column with predominant
momentabout the major axis
Example 4.3: Design of a member with uniaxial moment
151
151
152
154
155
155
161
164
164
164
169
and tension
176
and tension
183
Example 4.4: Design of a member with biaxial moment
Chapter 5 Design ofCorbelsand Nibs

5.0
Notation
5.1
Load combinations
5.2
Step-by-step designprocedurefor corbels
5.3
Step-by-step design procedurefor nibs
5.4
Worked examples
193
193
193
194
197
200
Contents ix
5.5
Example5.1: Designof a corbel

Example5.2: Design of a concretenib
Figures and Tables for Chapter 5
Figure 5.1: Chart for determiningzld
Table 5.1: Allowance for effectsof spallingat supports
Table 5.2: Allowance for effects of spallingat
supported members
Table 5.3: Allowance for constructioninaccuracies
Chapter 6 Design of Pad Foundations

6.0
Notation
6.1
Analysis for bearing pressure on soil
6.1.1 Isolatedsinglecolumnpad
6.1.2 Single column pads connectedby ground beams
6.1.3 Isolatedmultiplecolumn pad
6.1.4 Multiplecolumn pads connected by ground beams
6.2
Analysis for ultimate load
6.2.1 Isolatedsinglecolumnpad
6.2.2 Single column pads connectedby groundbeams
6.2.3 Multiplecolumn pads
6.3
Load combinations
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.9
212
212
213
213
213
215
215
218
218
219
222
223
223
223
224
224
225
226
226
226
229
231
232
Sign convention
Essentials of soil mechanics
6.5.1 Ultimate bearingcapacity
6.5.2 Settlementof foundation
6.5.3 Sliding resistance
Bearingpressure calculations
6.6.1 Rectangular Pad uniaxial bending no loss of
contact
232
6.6.2 Rectangular Pad uniaxial bending loss of contact 234
6.6.3 RectangularPad biaxial bending no lossofcontact 234
6.6.4 RectangularPad biaxial bending loss ofcontact
235
6.6.5 Multiplecolumn biaxial bending no lossof contact 238
6.6.6 Circularpad biaxial bending no loss of contact
238
for
239
Step-by-step designprocedure
pads
250
Worked examples
250
6.1:
RC
with
column
Example
pad
single
columns
264
6.2:
RC
with
multiple
Example
pad
side
in
cohesive
6.3:
Mass
concrete
bearing
Example
pad
277
soils
side
6.4:
Mass
concrete
in
Example
pad
bearing
cohesionless soils
283
for
6
289
Figures
Chapter
6.1:
Values
of
and
289
N,
Figure
Nq
N
6.2:
Calculation
of
mean
vertical
stresses
in
soil
290
Figure
6.3:
Plan
on
base
different
zones
291
Figure
showing
biaxial
6.4:
Pressures
under
base
Figure
rectangular
292
bending
6.7
6.8
200
208
x Contents
Chapter 7 Design ofPiled Foundations

7.0 Notation
7.1
Vertical load single pile capacity
7.2
Horizontal load single pile capacity
7.3
Pile group effects
7.4
Analysis of pile loads and pile caps
7.4.1 Rigid pile cap
7.4.2 Flexible pile cap
Load combinations
7.5
7.6
Step-by-stepdesign procedurefor piled foundations
7.7
Worked example
Example7.1: Pile cap for an internal columnof a building
7.8
Figuresfor Chapter 7
Figure7.1: Determinationof pile efficiency
Figure7.2: Bearingcapacity factorsfor deep foundations
293
293
Chapter 8 Design of Walls

8.0
Notation
355
355
357
8.1
8.2
8.3
Analysis of walls
8.1.1 Walls and propertiesof walls
8.1.2 Modelling for structural analysis
Step-by-stepdesign procedurefor walls
Worked example
Example8.1: Reinforcedconcrete cell
Chapter 9 Design of FlatSlabs

9.0
Notation
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Definitions
296
299
301
302
302
306
309
310
326
326
354
354
354
357
368
370
385
385
403
403
403
404
Analysisof flat slabs
of
flat
slabs
406
Design
412
for
flat
slabs
Step-by-stepdesign procedure
413
Worked example
413
9.1:
Flat
slab
construction
for
a
hall
Example
sports
435
Tables and Graphs for Chapter 9
Tables 9.1 to 9.6: Bending moment coefficients for design
of flat slabs
43843
Table 9.7: Bending moment coefficient for design of columns
in flatslab construction
444
9.1
to
9.18:
Correction
factors
for
moments
Graphs
bending
in flat slabs
44553
9.19
to
9.26:
Correction
factors
for
moments
Graphs
bending
in columns
Chapter 10 Design of Connections

10.0 Notation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Contents: type of connections
10.3 Anchorageand bond
4547
459
459
459
460
460
Contents
10.4
10.5
10.3.1 Basic rules of anchorageand laps

10.3.2 Designoftension laps
10.3.3 Design ofcompressionlaps
10.3.4 Curtailmentand anchorageof bars
Building ties
10.4.1 Peripheralties
10.4.2 Internal ties
10.4.3 Horizontalcolumn and wall ties
10.4.4 Vertical ties
Connections
Chapter 11 GeneralFigures,Tablesand Charts

Figure 11.1: Coefficient of momentof inertia of crackedsections
= 25 N/mm2
Figure 11.2: Valuesof
Figure 11.3: Valuesof v, for = 30N/mm2
Figure 11.4: Valuesof for = 35 N/mm2
Figure 11.5: Valuesof for = 40N/mm2 and above
Table 11.1: Area ofsteel reinforcement for various spacings
Table 11.2: Sectionalproperties
Table 11.3: Basic span/effective depth ratios for rectangularand
v forf
v
v
xi
461
463
464
465
467
467
468
469
470
470
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
flanged beams
496
Chart 11.4: Modification factor for compression reinforcement
496
Chart 11.5: Modification factor for tension reinforcement
Table 11.6: Nominal cover to all reinforcementincluding links to
497
meet durability requirements
Table 11.7: Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to
meet specified periodsof fire resistance
497
Tables 11.8 to 11.17: Design tables for rectangularcolumns
498517
Tables 11.18 to 11.27: Design tables for circularcolumns
51837
Index
538
Page blank
in original
Preface
I believe that the contentsof this book will prove to be extremely valuable
to practising engineers, students and teachers in the field of reinforced
concrete design. There are many excellent books available dealingwith the
design of reinforced concrete elements but, in my opinion, they lack
completeness in certain ways. The design of a reinforced concrete
member requires many checks in a systematic structured manner and the
step-by-stepapproach adopted in this book is intended to ensure that the
design process is complete in all respects. It is my view that the member
itself, when fully designed,does not constitute a complete design because
it ignores the connections to other members and to the foundationthat are
needed to provide true completeness of design for the structure. I have
attempted here to elucidate the necessary global analysis. Also, most
books on reinforced concrete design do not deal with the aspects of soil
structure interaction problems and are hence incomplete.
The highly structured step-by-step methodologyI have used makes the
book fully comprehensive and user-friendly. Accordingly, the task ofquality
assurance becomes less arduous and the product or output of a design
office becomes fully standardised if this approach is strictly followed. For
students, the book should prove to be invaluable because the essential
elementsof the theory of reinforcedconcrete are discussed, followed by a
structured approach to the design of all elements in a building, including
foundations and the connections of the reinforced concrete members to
each other to create a complete building. The numerousworked examples
should be very useful to students and practitionersalike. The book also
presents practical advice on designing reinforced concrete elements and
the student should benefit from learning the methods adopted in a design
consultancy.
My intention has been to illustrate the designprinciples at each stage by

a profusion of sketches. The book includes many more illustrations
than astandardtextbook on reinforcedconcretebecauseit was felt necessary
to clear all ambiguities in the codes of practiceby the use of diagrams,an
approach which should appeal to both practising engineers and students.
The book includes a lot more new design aids than are usually found in
the available books. For instance, the tables and charts included in this
book for the design of solid slabs and flat slabs cannot be found in other
published textbookson the subject. Referencesto many publishedbooks
on the subject of reinforced concrete are also given.
I would like to thank the British Standards Institution for their kind
using
XIII
xiv
Preface
to reproduce some of the essential tables from the codes of

I
practice. also wish to thank the US Army Armament Research and
Development Centre, Picatinny Arsenal, NJ and Amman and Whitney,
permission
ConsultingEngineers, New York for granting permission to reproducethe

extremelyuseful charts on the yield-line design of slabs in Chapter 3.
Finally this undertakingcouldnot havebeen successfully achievedwithout
the active encouragementof my wife.
S.S. Ray
Great Bookham
Surrey
The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author and the
correctness or otherwiseof the text is the author's responsibility. Taylor
Woodrow and its Group of Companies are in no way associatedwith the
productionofthis book and they have not adoptedthe book or any part ofit
as theirin-house standard.
References
1.
British Standards Institution (1985) Structural use of concrete. Parts 1, 2
and 3. BSI, London, BS811O.

2.
British Standards Institution (1986) Foundations. BSI, London, BS8004.
3.
British StandardsInstitution(1979) Codeofpracticefor design ofcomposite

bridges. Part 5. BSI, London, BS5400.
4.
American Concrete Institute (1983) Building code requirements for reinforced concrete. M83. ACI, Detroit, Michigan. USA, ACI 318.
5.
Tomlinson, M.J. (1982) Foundation Design and Construction, 3rd edn.

Pitman Publishing, London.
6.
Bowles, J.E. (1982) Foundation Analysis

Hill International, Tokyo.
7.
Tomlinson. M.J. (1987) Pile Design and Construction Practice, 3rd edn. E.
and Design, 3rd edn. McGraw-
& F.N. Spon, London.

8.
US Army Armament Research and Development Centre (1987) Structures

to resisttheeffects ofaccidental explosions, Volume IV: Reinforced concrete
design. US Army ARDEC, N.J., USA, US Army Standard ARLCD,
SP84001.
9.
Moody, W.T. Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates. US Department of the Interior, EngineeringMonograph No. 27, Denver, Colorado,
USA.
Reynolds, C.E. & Steedman, J.C. (1988) Reinforced Concrete Designer's

Handbook, 10th edn. E. & F.N. Spon, London.
11. Wood, R.H. (1968) The reinforcementof slabs in accordancewith a predetermined field of moments. Concrete, 2, No. 2, Feb. pp. 6976.
12. Armer, G.S.T. (1968) Discussion of Reference 16. Concrete, 2, No. 8,
Aug. pp. 31920.
13. Cheng-Tzu Thomas Hsu (1986) Reinforced concrete members subject to
combined biaxial bending and tension. ACI Journal, Jan./Feb. American
Concrete Institution, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
10.
14. British Standards Institution (1972) Wind loads. CP3: Chapter V: Part 2.
BSI, London.
xv
xvi
References
General references
Allen, A.H. (1983) Reinforced Concrete Design to BS8IIO Simply
Explained. E. & F.N. Spon, London.
Batchelor & Beeby (1983) Charts for the design of circular columns to
BS81IO. British Cement Association, Slough, UK.
British Standards Institution (1987) Design of concrete structures to retain
aqueous liquids. BSI, London, BS8007.
Park, R. & Paulay, T. (1975) Reinforced Concrete Structures. John Wiley
& Sons, New York.
Pucher, A. (1977) Influence Surfaces of Elastic Plates. Springer Verlag,
Vienna, Austria.
Roark, R.J. & Young, W.C. (1975) Formulaefor Stress and Strain, 5th
edn. McGraw-Hill International, Tokyo.
Chapter
Theory of Reinforced Concrete
1.0 NOTATION
A.
b
C0
C
d
d'
E
E
fk
frn
f,
ff
h
hf
h,
hmax
hmin
M'
M
N
p
p
q
Q
Deflectionof column due to slenderness

Net area of concrete in a column cross-section
Area of steel in tension in a beam
Area of steel in compressionin a beam
Area of bent shear reinforcement
Area of steel in column
Area of steel in vertical links
Width of reinforcedconcrete section
Width of web in a beam
Effective crack height at 'no slip' at steel
Internal compressiveforce in reinforced concrete section
Effective depth of tensile reinforcement
Effective depth of compressive reinforcement
Modulus
of elasticity of concrete
Modulus of elasticity of steel
Service stress in concrete

Characteristic strength of material
Mean strength of material from test results

Service stress
in steel
Characteristicyield strength of steel

Characteristic cube strength of concrete at 28 days
Overall depth of a concrete section
Thickness of flange in a T-beam
Initial crack height in reinforcedconcrete member
Maximum overall dimension of a rectangularconcrete section
Minimum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete section
Moment of inertia
Applied bending moment
Maximum moment of resistance of concrete section
Moment of resistance of concrete in flange
Moment of resistance of concrete in web
Ultimate axial load on column
Percentage of tensile reinforcement in a beam= 1OOAIbd
Percentageof total reinforcement in a column= 1OOA/bh
Shear flow (kN/m)
First moment of area above plane of interest
1
2 Reinforced Concrete
rb
s
S
T
v
v,
v
V
V
x
y
13a
13b
1.1
of a member in bending
Standard deviation
Spacing of shear reinforcement
Internal tensile force in steel reinforcement
Shear stress in concrete (N/mm2)
Design concrete shear stress (N/mm2)
Shear stress in concrete due to torsion (N/mm2)
Shear force in concrete section
Design concrete shear capacity
Design shear capacity of shear reinforcement
Depth of neutral axis from compressionface
Distance from neutral axis
Depth of lever arm
Curvature
Angle of inclination to horizontal of shear reinforcement

Angle of inclination to horizontal of concrete strut in truss analogy
Empirical factor governing deflectionof slender columns
Ratio of redistributed moment over elastic analysis moment
Factor governing moment of resistance of concrete T-section
Material factor
Deflectionof beam
Strain at yield of steel reinforcement
INTRODUCTION
Thecriteria which govern the design of a structure for a particularpurpose

may be summarised as follows:
Fitness for purpose
Safety and reliability
Durability
Good value for money

External appearance
User comforts
Robustness.
the overall geometry of the

be
structure and its components. It should possible to have unrestricted
and unhindered use of the structure for the purpose for which it is built.
Fitness for purpose is generally covered by
Safety
and reliability are assured by following the Codes of Practice for
loading, materials, design, construction and fire-resistance.
Durability is taken care of by the choice of the right material for the
purpose and also by bearing in mind duringthe design process,the requirements for proper maintenance.
Theory of ReinforcedConcrete 3
Good valueformoneyisperhapsthe most importantcriterion.The designer
should take into account not only the cost of materials but also the
buildability. the time required to build, the cost of temporary structures,
the costofmaintenanceover a period of time and in some casesthe cost of
demolition/decommissioning.
External appearance of structures changes over a period of time. The
designer should be aware of the effects of cracking, leaking, staining,
spalling, flaking, etc. of the materials in use. The designer should make
appropriate allowances to avoid the degradation of appearance.
User comforts are influenced by the vibrationof the structure due to wind,
road/rail traffic or vibratingmachinery. Large deflections under load also
cause alarm to the users. The designer should pay adequate attention to
alleviation of these anticipated discomforts.
Robustness comes with the chosen structural form and is determined by
the additional inherent strength of the structure as a whole to withstand
accidental loadings.Collapse of one key member in the structure must not
initiate global collapse.The design must foresee the dominoeffect' in the
structure and avoid it by careful planning.
1.2 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The characteristicstrength of a material is defined as the strength below

which 1 in 20 test results are likely to fall.
The value of the characteristic strength is defined statistically by the
following formula
fk =
1.64s
where fk = characteristicstrength of material

fm = mean strength of material from test results
1.64 is a factor which defines the 1 in 20 test results falling
belowfk
s is the standard deviation.
f,
The characteristic strength of concrete, is the cube strength of concrete

at 28 days.
The characteristic strength of reinforcing steel, is the strength at yield.
1.3
MATERIAL FACTORS
To obtain the design strength of materials a further factor called the
material factor 'ye, is applied. The material factor takes into account the
tolerances associated with the geometry, the variability of materials on
ReinforcedConcrete
site, the inconsistency in the manufactureand curingon site and the effects
of long-term degradation.
The values of Ym for theultimate limit state are as follows:
reinforcement
concrete in fiexure
1.15
or axial load 1.50
concrete in shear
bond strength in concrete
bearing stress
1.25
1.40
1.50
For exceptionalloads and for localised damage, Ym may be taken equal to

1.3 for concrete and 1.0 for reinforcement.
1.4
MATERIAL STRESSSTRAIN RELATIONSHIP
1.4.1 Short-term design stressstraincurve for normal weight concrete
0.57S /8m
uJ
u_J
U) U)
(.J_)
u_i
U)
I-_i
0.0035
STRAIN
SK 1/1 Short-term design stress

strain curve for normal weight
concrete.
The features of this design curve are as follows:
The initial elastic modulus of concrete may be defined as the initial

tangent to the parabolic curve which is given by:
E = 5.5('kN/mm2
\Im1
The ultimate stress in concrete for design purposes is defined as:

= 0.67
N/mm2
The ultimate strain in concrete for design purposes is taken as 0.0035.

Beyond that strain level the concrete loses its compressive stiffness.
Theory
of ReinforcedConcrete 5
The strain in concrete when the parabolic stressstrain relationship

reaches the ultimate stress level is given by:
= 2.4 x
Note:
10_4)
Concrete can withstand compressive stresses only. The tensile stress in

concrete is ignored in the design.
1.4.2 Short-term design stressstraincurve for reinforcement
SK 1/2 Short-termdesign stress

strain curve for reinforcement.
/8m
The features of this design curve are as follows:
The elastic modulus of steel reinforcementregardless of grade of steel
may be assumedas 200kN/mm2, which is the slope of the curve up to
yield.
The
but for design purposes it
yield stress of steel reinforcement is
will be taken as f/ym.
The stress after yield remainsconstant and is representedby a constant
stress line.
The stressstrain relationshipis identical in tension and compression.
= 0.87
= 2.0 x i03
forf = 460N/mm2
ReinforcedConcrete
1.5 DESIGN FORMULAE FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE SECTIONS
1.5.1 Singly reinforced rectangular section

O.9x
SECTION
STRESS
SK 1/3 Stressstrain diagrams ofa

reinforcedconcretesection subject
to bending moment.
STRAIN
Plane section remainsplane.

Applied moment on the section= M; Ym = 1.5 for concrete, 1.15 for steel.
C = compressive force in section
= O.4O2fbx
()fbo.9x
T = force in steel reinforcement
(LY)A.
= O,87fA.
A = area of tensile steel in section
where
d = effective depth from outer compressive fibre to centroid of

steel reinforcement.
By internal force equilibrium,
C= T
or
O.4O2fbx = O.87fA
or
x = 2.164k
fb
z = d O.45x =
or
or
/
d1
\fbd
/fA.
\fbd
=10.971-
d
(
z\(fbd
A=i1ii
\ d/\0.97f
M = O.87fAz =
=
M
fbd2
o.9o(1
()(i
=K=0.901-\ dJ\d
)fbdz
Theory
or
[0.5
of ReinforcedConcrete 7
+ (0.25 -
Maximum moment of resistant of concrete section is obtainedfor redistribution not exceeding 10%, when x = d12.
z = d 0.45x
or
0.775d
Moment of resistance of concrete (maximum), M', is given by

M' = 0.402fbxz
0.402fb()(0.775d)
= 0.156fbd2
Where redistribution exceeds 10%,
x
(I3b
0.4)d
Similarly,
M'
or
= 0.402fbxz
= 0.402fCUb(13b 0.4)d[d O.45(Pb 0.4)dj
= EO.4O2(I3h 0.4) 0. 1(I3b 0.4)2jfbd2
K' = O.4O2(h
where
ib =
0.4) O.lS(3b
0.4)2
(moment after redistribution)

.
.
(moment before redistribution)
.
< 0.9
1.5.2 The concept of balanced design and redistribution of moments

In a singly reinforcedsection, if the yield strain in steel = 0.002 and the
ultimate strain in concrete (= 0.0035) are simultaneously reached then a
balanced failure condition exists.
COMPRESSION
FAILURE
SK 1/4 Strain diagramsof

reinforcedconcrete section.
STRAIN DIAGRAM FUR

BALANCED FAILURE
COMPARATIVE
STRAIN DIAGRAM
ReinforcedConcrete
From strain diagram,
______
(d x)
0.0035
0.002
= 1.75 forf = 460N/mm2
or
x = 0.636d
The Code does not allow x to be larger than 0.5d ensuring that the steel
reachesits yield strain before the concretereaches the ultimatestrain. This
is designed to allow sufficient rotational capacity in the section.
The more redistribution of moment is allowed, the more rotational
capacity is needed from the section. The amount of rotation is dependent
on how under-reinforcedthe section is, or in other words, how quickly the
steel in the section reachesthe yield strain before the concrete reaches the
ultimate strain. To make sure that the rotational capacity exists in the
section to allow redistribution, the depth of neutral axis for the design is
of redistribution. The compression

failure is extremely brittle and must be avoided.
On the other hand, the Code has also put a limit to the minimum value
of x. It has done so by limiting z to a maximum value of 0.95d, which
limits x to 0.lld. This limitation is to avoid a very thin stress block at the
ultimate state.
fixed corresponding to the ratio
1.5.3 Doubly reinforced rectangular section
SECTION
STRAIN
SK 1/5 Stressstrain diagramfor

doubly reinforcedsection.
STRESS
Plane section remainsplane.

The design bending moment is greater than K'fbd2, which means the
concrete moment capacity is exceeded. The neutral axis is fixed by the
Code dependingon the amount of redistributionor x = (I3. 0.4)d 0.5d.
This in turn fixes the lever arm z to concrete compression.
C = compressive force in section

= compression in concrete and compression in steel
=
=
0.9x(")b +
(K'fcubd2)
+ 0.87fA
T = tensile force = 0.87fA
Equating C = T,
A=l/\K'fbd2\
J+A'
0.87fz /
Applied moment M is equal to the moment of the internal forces.

Taking moment about the centre of steel in tension,
M = K'fbd2 + 0.87fA(d d')
M K'f. bd2
A' = -_______
0.87f(d d')
= (K K')fbd2
d')
In the above formula it is assumed that the compressive steel will attain
yield. This is true provided d' is less than or equal to 0.43x or the strain in
the steel is at least 0.002 for f=460N/mm2. If dlx is greater than 0.43x,
the steel stress f. will be proportionately modified to account for the
reduced strain. Use in the equation for A instead of 0.87f.
0.87f(d
SK 1/6 Doubly reinforced beam

strain diagram.
A' = (K
K') fbd2
f(d d')
where
j = \0.57x/
(x__d' E E
fy
=
'(mE's
1.5.4 Singly reinforced flanged beams
The formulation is exactly the same as in a rectangularbeam with b equal

to thewidth of theflangeprovided0.9 times the depth of the neutral axisx
is less than or equal to the depth of the flange.
When 0.9x is greater than the depth of flange, then the following
analysis will apply.
10 ReinforcedConcrete
/8m
SK 1/7 Stressdiagramfor a
flanged beam section.
C1
= compressiveforce in flange only without web

=
(0.67Ju)(b
bW)hf
= 0.45f(b bW)hf
= compressive force in web as in a singly reinforced beam

= 0.45fb(0.9x) = 0.402fbx
T = tension in steel
C2
= 0.87fA.
(L)A
Themaximum allowable value of x equals0.5dwhen the concrete moment

of resistance reaches its maximum value.
Assume x = d12.
Taking moment about the centre of tensile steel,
M' =
C1d
hf\ +
C2(d 0.45x)
= 0.45f (b
/
bW)hfd
h\/
= fbd2 1/
hf\
b\/
+ 0.201fbd(d 0.225d)
hf\ +
0.157
= 1ffcu
Values of
(Chapter 2).
for different ratios of b/b and dlhf are found in Fig. 2.1
If the applied moment exceeds 3ffCbd2, then compressive steel in the

flange will be required.
To find the tensile steel take moment about C1 assuming x = d/2.
M=
Td
hf\
hf
C20.45x
/ hf\
0.87fAd
M + 0.1fbd(0.45d h)
0.87f(d 0.Shf)
0.1fbd(0.45d
hf)
Theory of ReinforcedConcrete
11
Another approach to the design of flanged beams is

presented below,
When x = hf/0.9, the stress block is situated entirely in the flange.
C=
compressive force = bhf
(0.67
hf
lever arni = d
2
Mf =
hf
0.45fcubhf(\d
This is the flange resistance and if the applied moment exceedsthis value,
then the web comes into compression.
The moment to be carried by the web is M, when M is the applied
moment.
M = M (compression in flange only outside web) x (leverarm of

flange)
= M 0.45f(b
=M-Mf (b
=M
Find Mf, and
Design for
M(1
hf
bW)hfd
b .)
if Mf is less than M, then find M by the above formula.
M as for a rectangularbeam with width equal to

for Mf and A2 for M.
h. Find A1
Total A=A1 +A2
A1 =
0.45f(b
b)hf
0.87f
= M
0.87fz
when
and z
Note:
1.6
K=
Jcu, ,j2
dLO.5
+/
K\
(\0.25
The design against M may follow Section 1.5.3, which means that the
flanged section may be doubly reinforced, if required.
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE SHEAR
The horizontal shear stress in a homogeneous,isotropic, uncrackedbeam

is given by the classical expression:
12
ReinforcedConcrete
SK 1/8 Calculation of shear stress

in a homogeneous section.
VQ
V=
where
Q = first momentof area above line 11 = Ay

= second moment of area of the section about xx
b = width of section on line 11
v = shear stress at line 11
V = shear at the section
A = area of section above line 11
y = distance of the centroid of area A from the neutral axis.
Shear flow, q = VQ
In a concrete beam where concrete is ignored, the horizontal shear stress

can be included in the expressionbelow for horizontal equilibrium under
the neutral axis.
dT = vbdx
The shear flow in the tension zone of concrete will be constant because the
concrete is ignored.
5TRE55
SHEAR FLOW
SK 1/9 Calculation of shear stress.
Theory of Reinforced Concrete 13
T4
SK 1/10 Shear stress in a

reinforced concrete section.
From the above expression,

V
1 /dT
= I/
II
M
=
or
b/ \dx
dM
=dT
z
v=
dx
bz
For convenience in the ultimate limit state the Code shear stress index
is
taken as:
V
v=
bd
Effective shear in haunched beams
Veff
= V Csine'
= V C'tanO'
=VM
tanO'
z
VE
A
SK 1/11 Effective shear force in a

beam with variable depth.
TENSILE
STEEL
14
ReinforcedConcrete
COLUMN
CONTINUOUS BEAM
SIMPLY SUPPORTED END
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
1.6.1
SK 1/12 Effective shear force

diagrams for beams with variable
depth.
Principleof 'design concrete shear stress'

Shear is resistedin concrete beams by the combinedactionofthe following:
Shearresistanceof concretein compressionzone. Dowel forcein tension
bars across a crack. Aggregate interlocking across the inclined crack in

tension zone.
TheCode formulatakes into accountthe dowelforce of the tensilesteel
and the formula is essentially of empirical nature arrived at from test
results.
Shearreinforcement
V.
truss analogy
= shear force to be resisted by reinforcement
Cot
Co
1- p
CRACK
C
d
rUPPORT
SK 1/13 Truss analogyof shear
reinforcement.
FORCE DIAGRAM
From the force diagram,

V. = C' sin 13 = T' sinc
where
C' = concrete strut force

T' = tensile force in shear reinforcement
= resultant of all forces in shear reinforcement within the
spacing S.
From geometry:
S = z(cot
+ cot3)
T'. =
V=
sinc
S
T' =
or
or
V0
z(cot + cot3)
sin c(cotc +
O.8?f,Asb
or
_______
cot13)
V.,
__________________
Zsin c(cot + cot 13)
= 0.87fYA5h(cos + sin cot13)
()
The Codeuses(d d') in place of z in the formula.

When vertical stirrups are used and the concrete struts are assumedinclined
at 45 to horizontal then = 900 and (3 = 45.
V5
0.87f5A5()
V0
0.87f5A5
==
bz
bS
(v v)
or
Note:
bS(v v)
O.87f
The assumptions in the above truss analogyare:
Bond forces are sustained along the length of the beam where shear
reinforcementis
The lever arm zrequired.
is assumed constant over the section with variable
moment producing the shear to be resisted. The diagonalcompressive
stress in concrete struts calculated from the analogy is equal to vI
[sin213(cot + cot 3)1 is sustainable.
1.6.2 Additional tensile steel in conjunction with shear reinforcement

Referring to SK 1/13, assume that a diagonal crack forms in concrete
when the shear force exceedsthe concrete shear capacity, V. Assume that
the ultimate shear force is V, = V, + V, where V., is resisted by shear
reinforcement.
Sections 11 and 22 are taken at two ends of a diagonal crack.
Consider the free body diagram of internal forces.
Assume that the tensile force requirement at section 2 is also divided in
two parts. When the shear becomes V, the tensile force required is T,
and for V it is T.
Assume that the moment at section 2 is M2 correspondingto V, and M2
correspondingto V.
Vu = Vc + V.
T == T + T
M2 + M2
T' is the tensile force in the shear reinforcement.
M2
Initially assume a shear of V. on section.

Taking moment about the concrete compressive force C at section 11,
M1 = Vx = M2 + Vzcofl3 = Tz
or
Note:
T=
M2
z
+ Vcot3
At this stage T' = 0.

Next assume a shear of V on section.
Taking moment about the concrete compressive force C at section 11,
M1 = Vx = M2 +
or
Vzcot = Tz +
M2
(S Tsinc
T=+
Vcot ;
\2Z/
Z
() T'sinc

Substituting:
T'sina = Y
and
S = z(cot + cot3)
we get:
T=
()(cot1
cotc)
T = T + T = /M2.+M2\ + Vcot[ + (\)(cot1

=
cot)
+ Vcot + ()(coti Cot)
This demonstratesquite clearly that when diagonalcracks form in concrete due to shear exceeding V, additional tensile steel will be required
over and above MIz.
This requirement is not explicitly covered in the Code. The rules of
curtailmentof reinforcementare deemed to satisfy this requirement.
Note:
At locations of very high shear this additional requirement should he
checked.
1.7 SERVICEABILITYLIMIT STATE CRACK WIDTH
The basic assumptions to find crack width for flexure are summarised
below:
(1) Plane section remains plane before and after bending.

(2) Concrete compressive stress diagram is linear and triangular. The
stress is directly proportional to strain.
(3) The short-term Young's modulusof concrete may be used.
(4) The steel reinforcementdoes not go beyond yield.
(5) The loading is at serviceability limit state.
(6) Effective crack height at no slip' is C, which is the minimum cover
to reinforcement.
(7) Mean crack spacing is 1.5 C0.

(8) Initial crack height h, is up to the neutral axis and the maximum
crack width is a function of the ratio C01h0 to takeinto account slip
and internal cracks in concrete.
(9) Stiffening effect of tension in concrete is allowedfor by an empirical
term.
(10) The equation for the determination of maximum crack width is
empirical and is a close fit of test results. It is anticipated that 1 in
S results will exceed the prediction by the formula.
For the formula and its application,see Chapter 2.
18
1.8
Reinforced Concrete
SERVICEABILITYLIMIT STATE DEFLECTION
Calculatemomentsat service load without redistribution.
SECTION
________
SK 1/14 Doubly reinforced
STRAIN DIAGRAM
________________
section.
The assumptionsfor the analysis of the section are similar to assumptions

(1) to (5) in Section 1.7.
f.
Find the depth of neutral axis, x, and find the stresses in concrete,
the stress in steel, by following Step 25 of worked example in
Chapter 2. This method ignores the concrete under the neutral axis.
f.
and
Curvature =
= ft =
Tb
xE
ft
(d x)E.
Alternatively,calculatex as previously and then allow a tensile stress in

concrete up to 1 N/mm2 short-term and 0.55N/mm2 long-term.
Deflection,
= K1(
\
where K depends on the shape of the bending moment diagram.

BS811O: Part 2: 1985 [11 in Table 3.1 gives different values of K for
various loadings and support conditions. The principle of superposition
may be used to combinedifferent types of loading.
1.9 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
hmax hm,n
TORSION
Jhmin/2
hp
o>cJ]hmin/2
SK 1/15 Membrane analogy for
torsion.
By principles of membrane analogy it is known that 2 times the volume

includedbetween the surfaceof a deflected membrane and the plane of its
outline is equal to the torque in a twisted member.
Applying this analogyto a rectangularsection gives a pyramidaldeflected
membrane.
Volume of pyramid = hjri H +
(hminH'\(
2
hmin(hmax
max
hmin)H
'1mm
By membrane theory it is known that the torsional shear stress is the slope
of the angle of the deflected membrane.
tan0=
H
(hmin/2)
T= 2 x
Substituting
volume
=v
of pyramid =
)m
hmin
hmin
3
2T
v=
h2
mint
1.10
H= Vt(hmmn/2),
(Vthnin\(
or
/
hminHhmax
hmin
max
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE COLUMNS
LOAD
SK 1/16Typical loadstraincurve
of a column.
1.10.1
Axial load capacity of columns

Taking creep and shrinkageof concrete into consideration it is difficult to
predict the actual stresses in a short concrete column subjected to service
axial load in the elastic range, because initial compressive stress from
concrete gets transferred to the steel due to creep of concrete. But at the
ultimateload stage it is easier to predict the ultimate load-carrying capacity
because the concrete ultimate strain of 0.0035 is much higher than steel
yield strain. Hence, the steel reaches its ultimate load-carrying capacity
long before concrete gets there.
The ultimate load-carrying capacity of a short reinforced column may be
written as,
=
where
(O.o7fcu)
(-)A
= O.45fA + O.87fA
A = net concrete cross-sectional area
= area of compressivesteel reinforcement.
TheCode equations allow for a nominal eccentricity and the formulaeare

changed to one of the following depending on application:
N = O.4fA + O.75fA
for a column with nominal eccentricityof load meaning a column with
no design moments and eccentricloads. The eccentricity is allowedfor the
constructionaltolerances.
N = O.35fA + O.67fA
for a column supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of
beams. The spans of the beams on either side of the column should not
differ by more than 15%. To allow for a certain eccentricity of loadingdue
to the variations in spans and the location and disposition of live loadings
on spans, the equation has been modified.
1.10.2 Axial load capacity of slender columns
The strength of a slender column depends on:

(1) Effective height-to-width ratio, where the effective height depends on
the rotational end restraints and the lateral restraints by bracing.
(2) The flexural rigidity of the column section which determinesthe Euler
critical buckling load.
(3) The duration of loading which influences the strength and deflections
due to creep.
The Code uses the 'Moment Magnifier Method', whereby the effect of
slenderness is transferred into an equivalent deflectionand an additional
momentgiven by the product of this deflection and the applied direct load.
Madd
where
= Na
a=
I3a1(hZ
K(NUZ-N
NbaI
Theory
Nba! = 0.25
fbd
of ReinforcedConcrete
21
approximately (see Section 1.10.4.1).
h = dimension of column in the plane of bending considered

b' = shorter dimensionof column for uniaxial bending, or
= dimension of column in the plane of bending considered for
significant biaxial bending
= effectivelength ofcolumnin the planeofbendingconsidered.

(See Chapter 4 for further explanation.)
1.10.3
Axial load and moment on column

The assumptions for the analysis of the section are exactly the same as in
the case of beams and the analysis depends on strain compatibility. The
design is usually carried out by the use of published charts which have
been derived using the following assumptions:
(1) Plane section remains plane or the strain compatibility is assumed.
(2) The concrete stress block is assumed rectangular-parabolic.
(3) The stressstrain curve for steel is bilinear.
To use the charts to find the total area of steel required, the following
NIbh, MIbh2 and the d/h ratio. (See
parameters are required:
Chapter 4 for further explanation.)
f,
1.10.4
Column interaction diagrams
1.10.4.1 Rectangular section
If column charts are not available and a hand calculation is required

or, where the column size and reinforcement are known and the column
load-carrying capacity with variable eccentricity is required for assessment
purposes, the following design proceduremay be followed. The interaction
diagram of a column with known areas of steel will illustrate the ultimate
SK 1/17 Elevation of a column.
Bending Moment
And AxiaL Load
Equivalent System
e = M/N
load-carrying capacityof the column section subjected to uniaxial bending
moment.
N = applied ultimate direct load
M = applied ultimate coacting bending moment

e = MIN = eccentricityof direct load
C = resistance of concrete in compression
= resistance of steel in compression
T = resistance of steel in tension
Column
Section
Ultimate
Strain
Diagram
Stress
Diagram
Idealised
Stress
Diagram
SK 1/18 Stress and strain

diagrams.
Balancedfailure
A balancedfailure occurs when the tension steel just reaches yield at the
same time as the extreme compression fibrein concrete reachesthe ultimate
strain of 0.0035.
= characteristicyield strength of steel
E5 = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200kN/mm2

Xb = depth of neutral axis at 'balanced failure'
From the strain diagram:

0.0035
fy/EsYm
(dxb)
xb
assuming
= 460N/mm2
= 1.15 for steel
Ym
= 200kN/mm2
Csf
Strain Diagram
=0.002
..Cc00035
SK 1/19 Strain and force diagram
at balanced failure.
44
Ics
At Balanced
Failure.
Force Diagram.
$N
the above equation reduces to:

0.0035
(dxb)
Xb
OF
0.002
X = 0.636d
Nb
= ultimate load at balanced failure

= C, + C T
= A (0.87f) +
(O.o7fcu)
Yrn
b A,(0.87f)
For a symmetrically reinforcedsection where A, = A, and the compression

reinforcementreaches yield strain, the terms for C, and T cancel each
other out.
N = 0.256fbd
The strain in compression steel is governed by the value of d'.
The yield strain in compression steel is fy/EsYm.
E,=200kN/mm2 and Ym= 1.15.
For Grade 460N/mm2 steel, this yield strain =0.002.
At balanced failure' condition:
0.0035
Xb
Assuming
(Xb
d')
=0.002and Xb = 0.636d, the maximum value of d' to produce
yield strain in compressionsteel is given by:
d' = 0.273d
or
= 0.78 minimum to produce yield strain in compression reinforce-
ment at balanced failure'.

For a symmetrically reinforced section,
Mb = moment to produce balanced failure
d/h = k
p = 100A/bh = percentage of reinforcementwith respect to tension
reinforcementonly
=
fy 460N/mm2
d'/h = (1 k)
d"/h = (k 0.5)
Taking moment about the centroid of the section,

for k0.78
= 0.4O2fCUxbb(0.5h O.4SXb) + 0.87Afh(k 0.5)

+ 0.87Afh(k 0.5)
for k<0.78
Mb
= 0.4O2fCUxbb(0.5h
Mb
where
+ Afh(k 0.5)
f. = E.
and r., =
O.4SXb)
+ 0.87Afh(k 0.5)
O.OO3S(xb
d')
Xb
for k0.78
Mb
bh2
= 0.256fk(0.5
0.286k) + 8p(k 0.5)
0.286k) + 4p(k
for k<0.78
bh2
0.256fk (0.5
+ llp(1.636k 1) (k
Note:
0.5)
0.5)
In the above equations use O.5p instead of p if p is the percentageof total

reinforcementin the column.
d
Tension Failure But Comression
Steel Does Not Reach Yield.
Typical Tension Failure x>c.
Balanced FaiLireCX =
x).
CcOOO35
mEs
comessureI
(x>
Tensile Steel Does Not Reach Yield
Xb).
SK 1/20 Strain diagramof column

for various types of failure.

Tension failure
When N<Nb and f=f/ym, a tension failure condition will apply. The
column behaves more like a beam in this condition.
N= C + C T
Assuming symmetrical reinforcementand yield strain
compression steel,
in both tension and
N = C = O.402fbx
N
x=
or
0.4O2fb
Check that
= 0.0035(x d')
or
2.331h(1
forf = 460 N/mm2
0002
k)
This ensures that the compression steel has reached yield.

For a symmetrically reinforced rectangular section,
1N\)
x=
2.4875(
x
h
for
\fbh/
= 0.5[(B2 + 4C) B1
2.331(1
for
k)
< 2.331(1 k)
B = 7.463(-- 2.4875(--
where
\fbh
C =-
17.413(1
k)()
Taking moment about the centroid of the section,

for
2.331(1k)
M = 0.402fxb(0.5h 0.45x) + 0.87Afh(k
+ 0.87Ajh(k 0.5)
for
<2.33(1
k)
M = 0.402fxb(0.5h 0.45x) + 0.87Afh(k
+ Afh(k
for
2.331(1
M
fbh2
0.5)
0.5)
0.5)
k)
0.402((0.5
hi
8p(k
0.45(
\h// +
0.5)
26
Reinforced Concrete
for
<2.331(1 k)
fbh2
llp(k
0.45(1 +
0.5)
h/i
0.402()[0.5
h
7p[(l k)/(x/h)](k
0.5)
Compressionfailure
When N> Nb, a compression failure condition applies.
N = C, + C. T
Assuming symmetrical reinforcement and yield strain in both tension and
compression steel,
N = C = 0.402fbx
or
0.402fbh
IN
2.4875k
fbh
For the tensile steel to be at yield,
0.002
for = 460N/mm2
or
0.0035 (d
or
0.636k
x)
0.002
For both tensile steel and compressionsteel to be at yield,

0.636k
2.331(1
k)
steeldoes not yield,

Whencompression
for 0.636k
<2.331(1 k),
= 0.5[(B2 + 4C) B]
where B =
C=
7.463(
I 2.48751
17.413(1
IN
\fbh
When tension steel does not yield,
for 0.636k
<
2.331(1
- B]
= 0.5[(B2 + 4C)
B = 27.363("
where
2.4875(--\f11bh
C = 17.413k(1?
\f
When tension steel and compression steel do not yield,
for 0.636k
<
<2.331(1 k),
- B]
= 0.5[(B + 4C)
B=
where
fI
34.826(-_"
fbh
2.4875(__
C = l7.413(
Taking moment about the centroid of section.
For both tension and compression steel going into yield,
M = 0.402fxb(0.5h 0.45x) + 0.87A,fh(k
+ 0.87Afh(k
0.5)
0.5)
For tension steel only going into yield,

M = 0.402fxb(0.5h 0.45x) + 0.87Afh(k 0.5)
+ Afh(k 0.5)
For compression steel only going into yield,

M = 0.402fxb(0.5h 0.45x) + Afh(k 0.5)
+ 0.87Afh(k 0.5)
For both tension and compression steel not going into yield,
M = 0.402fxb(0.5h 0.45x) + Afh(k
for
0.5) + Afh(k
k)
M
fbh2
for 0.636k
M
fbh2
0.402()[0.5
h
0.45(f)]
h
+ 8p(k
0.5)
<2.331(1 k)
/x\1
= 0.4021/x\1
II 0.5 0.451 II + Fllp(k 0.5)
\h/i
\h!L
f7p[(1
k)/(x/h)1 (k 0.5)
fcu
0.5)
28
ReinforcedConcrete
for 0.636k
fbh2
2.331(1
0.402(10.5
h/L
1('
L
fbh2
Note:
k)
for 0.636k
<<
2.331
0.45(i)]
h
(x/h)f0.5)]
0.5)
(1
= 0.402(10.5
\hJL
k).
7p(2k
0.45(1 +
h/J
1)(k 0.5)
(x/h)f
In all above equations use O.5p instead of p if p is the percentageof total

reinforcementin the column.
Symmetrical rectangularcolumn interaction tables for columns subject to
uniaxial bending and direct load
Tables 11.8 to 11.17 (Chapter 11) have been prepared by solving by
iteration the following equations. Assuming equal reinforcementin each
face of the rectangular section and assuming that all steel reinforcementis
in tension,
b = width of rectangular section

d1 = depth of the top layer of reinforcement near the compression
face from the compression face
d = depth of the bottom layer of reinforcementnearthe tension face
i.e. the effective depth
h = overall depth of section
e = MIN= eccentricity of load from the centre of the rectangular
section, assuming that the concentrated load N always acts at the
centre of the rectangular section
fi == stress in steel at depth d1
stress in steel at depth d
A1 = A/2, i.e. equal reinforcementon each face
p = percentage of reinforcementin column = 10OA/bh
x = depth of neutral axis from compression face
k = d/h
d1Ih = 1k
0.87f = 0.87x460=400N/mm2
x)/x=700 (d1 x)/xsI400IN/mm2
fi == Eci=200x103x0.0035x(di
700 (d x)/x 14001N/mm2
A == area of concrete in compression=0.9bx = 0.9bh(x/h)
N (0.67fcuIYm)Ac (AI2)(f1 f)
0.402f()
()(fi + f)
Taking moment about the centre of the rectangular section,

/h
Ne = /O.67j\
O.45x)
(1
0.402f()bh2(0.5 0.45(i))
k)h)(f.
bh2()(k
f.)
0.5)(f
fbi)
DividingNe/bh2 by N/bh we get E/h.
+
= 0.402f()(0.5 o.45())
0.402f()
x
\h
x
h
or
fi
= 700(1
f=
- ()(f + f)
70(11
fi =
()(k - 0.5)(f, - fi)
700(k
k
400 N/mm2
_)
h
4001N/mm2
For a range of valuesoff11, k and p. the above equationscan be solved for

different values of e/h. Tables 11.8 to 11.17 give N/bh for different values
of e/h.
Note: The above equations are valid up to x = 1.lllh.
1.10.4.2 Circular rection
fJ
C.G. of St,ssed Area
SK 1/21 Circularcolumn
diagram.
strain
h5
h=2R
R = radius of circular section

= areaof equivalentuniformstressedsection of concrete bounded by a
line at 0.9x from compression face
= centroid of stressed section of concrete
30
Reinforced Concrete
x = depth of neutral axis from compression face

e = eccentricity of applied load = MIN
N = applied direct load at centre of section

M = applied equivalent uniaxial moment
p = percentage of reinforcement= 100AhtR2
k = h/h
= angle to the corner of equivalent uniformly stressed area subtended

at the centre of section, or the angle subtended to the line at 0.9x
20
from compressionface
A = total area of steel in six bars

= R2(0sin0cos0)
2sin3O
= RI 1 __________
3(0 sin OcosO)

First layer of steel is at d1, second layer of steel is at d2, and third layer is
L
at d3.
Note:
If x is greater than d1, d2, or d3 then the corresponding steel is in

compression.
N=
- ()(fi +
(O.67fcu)A
= 0.45R2f(0 sinOcosO)
N=
fi =
0.45f(0 sinOcosO)
O.OO35ES(d1
R
= 700(_
or
+ fs3)
(-)(f + fs2 + fs3)
()fi
+ fs2 + f3)
14001 N/mm2
_x)
- R-)
fs2
14001N/mm2
Id2
R
R
700\__
fs2 =
14001N/mm2
d3
R
14001N/mm2
kcos30
(_-_)(i
cosO)
= 1 + kcos30
R
= 1.11 (1
cosO)
2sin3O
3(8
sinOcosO)
Taking moment about the centre of section assuming that the applied load
N is always at the centre of section,
Ne = O.45R2f(O sinOcos8)(R 1) +
= O.45R3f(e
O.45f(O sin
sin8cosO)(1
Dividing Ne/R3 by N/R2 we
()(kRsin6o0)(fsi
(R1)(k
O)(f
fbi)
fbi)
get eIR.
+
OcosO)(l
O.45f(O sin9cos8)
((ksin6o0)(f3
f)
()u + j2 + f3)
= 1.0866k
zd
RRR
Fora range of valuesof k and p. the above equationscanbe solved for
different values of e/R. Tables 11.18 to 11.27 give N/R2 and z/R for
different values of e/R.
Note: The above equations are valid up
to x = 1.111/i = 2.22R.
1.11 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE CORBELS
SK 1/22 Concrete corbel.
Strut and Tie Diagram
The derivation ofFig. 5.1

V
Vbd
Strari Diagram
32
Reinforced Concrete
From the strut and tie diagram:
F = T + Fcos3 = T +
F = (O.67fcu)b 0.9xcos
= 0.402fbxcosl3
V= FsinI3
= 0.402fbxcos13sin3
a
cos= (a +
sin1=
V
(a + z2)
= = 0.402fx
bd
za
(a + z2)d
= 0.4021 II xa
\dJ \a +
Substitutingx = (d z)I0.45,
0.893k
(a)2(z)2
From
1.12
the above equation the graphs in Fig. 5.1 have been drawn.
WOOD-ARMERCOMBINATION OF MOMENT TRIADS
Ay
I
Mxy
My
liii A
Mxy
SK 1/23 Momenttriad in a slab panel.
M*x
SK 1/24 Directionof orthogonal reinforcement

in a slab panel.

Orthogonal reinforcement
Bottom steel
M == M + M.
M M. +
If M<O, then M=O
and
M=M+
If M<O, then M=()

and
M= M+
M
Top steel
M = M,
M= M
M.
M%.V
If M>O, then M=()

and
M<=M,
If M>O, then M=O

M,
and
M=M
Skew reinforcement
SK 1/25 Directionof skew

reinforcementin a slab panel.
Bottom steel
M = M + 2M cot ct + Mcot2c +
-
M=---+
sin s
+ Mcotc
sincr
If M<O, then M=O
+ Mcotc
sincy
\/
(M Mcot)2
+
M = ()JM
\sin2 cyl \
+
M 2Mcot x + Mcot2
If M< 0, then M = 0
(M + Mcot)2
and M = M1 + 2M cot + M cot2 +
/
and
Top steel
+ Mcot
___________
M = M + 2Mcotc + Mcot2c Mr
sinc
-
M = Sin
+ Mcot
sinc
If M>0, then M=0

and
/
(M1 Mcotc)2
M= /IIlM
\
\sin2J
M + 2Mcota + Mcot2a
1
If M>0, then M=O

and
1.13
1.13.1
M = M + 2Mcotc + Mcot2
(M + Mcota)2
M
SERVICEABILITYLIMIT STATE BENDING AND DIRECT LOADS

Serviceability limit state: uniaxial bending
C' = compressive force in bars in compressionwith allowance for area of

concrete occupiedby bars
C = compressive force in concrete stress block assumedtriangular
Neutrul
Axis
As
SECTION
SK 1/26 Serviceability uniaxial bending.
SIRESS
______
STRAIN
______
T=
tensile force
in bars in tension
M = applied bending moment

x = depth of neutral axis from compressive face
= strain in extreme compressive fibre of concrete
= strain in compressive
= strain in tensile steel
steel
m = EIE
From strain diagram,

c,
=
or
xd'
x
or
f E/
f
f
=-i
E\dd'
E(
C = O.5bxf
C' =
fA fA((x\
d'
= (in
1)fA
d'
x
Id x
T = fA. = mfA(
\
Taking moment about the steel in tension,
C(d
or
O.5bxf(d
+ C'(d d') = M
+ (m
1)fA
d')(d
- d') = M
Equatingthe loads on the section,
C + C' = T
or O.5bxf + (m 1)fA ____ ,l
\ X /
= mfA(fdx
\
Eliminating f,, and multiplying by 2x/bd2,

d2
+ 2(rn
1)A(x d') 2mA(d x) =

bd2
bd2
p = A/bd and p = AIbd,
Simplifying, and substituting
(x)2
or
+ 2[(m
- l)p' + mpj() -
2[(m
- 1)'() + mp] =
+
+
+
{[mp (m 1)p'] 2[mp (m
[mp + (m l)p']
i)()p]}2
Put p' = 0, wherecompressive steel is not present.

Having found x using the above expression,find ft.
M
0.5bx(d
x/3)
+ (m
1)A(x d')(d
d')/x
M
k2bd2 +
where k2
k3
k3A(d d')
x
\2d/\
= (m
- 1) (i -
Id
ft = tensile stress in steel = mfI
1.13.2
Serviceabilitylimit state: uniaxial bending and compression
Neutral
Axis
STRESS
STRAIN
SK 1/27 Serviceability uniaxial bending and thrust.
Using the same symbols as in Section 1.13.1 and N is the compressive

force, equating the loads on the section:
C' + C = N. + T and e =
The output from a computer program will give an axial compression of a

member with a coacting moment. This axial compression theoreticallyfor
a reinforced concrete section may be consideredas acting at the centroid
of the stressedsection. This will mean finding the centroid of the stressed
areaignoring concrete in tension. On theother hand, the line of application
of the compressive load may also be assumedto coincide with the centroid
of the full concrete section ignoring any reinforcement.
of Reinforced Concrete
Theory
37
The distance of the centroid of the stressed area from the compressive
face of the rectangular section is called g and may be found by taking
moments of all transformed areas of steel about the compressive face of
the section
g
bx(x/2) + (m I)A.d' + mAd
bx+(m1)A+mA
g=
the load is assumed to act at the centroid of the full
where
concrete section ignoring steel.

(See Section 1.13.1 for expressions of C and C'.)
Taking moment about tension steel,
_Nc(e+d_g)+C'(d_d')+C(d_)o
or N(e + d g) + (m
+ O.5bxf(d
or (m
l)fA(x
d
x
)(d
- 1)(1 - )(d - d') + O.5bx(1
=N.l1(e d g) +1
cL
g) +
k1
= [(e
k2
= (-)( 1 x
3d
\2d/ \
= (m
1)(l
\
where k1, k2 and k3 are non-dimensional constants.
+ k2bdf = k1N
k3(1
or
k1N
f=
k3(1
+ k2bd
T = C' + C N
or
Af. = (m
l)fA
d')
= k3fA + O.5bxf N
or
f= f(k3A + A,O.5bx)
+ O.5bxf
d')
From strain diagram, see Section 1.13.1
f
or
= m(d
x)
X(f)
mf
The procedure is to assume x and then calculate andf. and then check
x. Repeat this process until convergence is reached.
1.13.3
Serviceability limit state: uniaxial bending and tension
Neufral
Axis
SK 1/28 Serviceability uniaxial bending and tension.
Using the same symbols as in Section 1.13.1 and A1 is the tensile force,
equating the loads:
M
C'+C+NT
and
The expressions for e, g, k2 and k3 are exactly the same as in Section

1.13.2 and g may be taken equal to h/2 where the point of applicationof
the tensile load is at thecentroid of the full concrete section ignoring steel.
(See Section 1.13.1 for expressionsof C and C'.)
Taking moment about tensile steel,
N(e+gd)+ C'(dd')+ C(d_) =0

or
(m
=
1)(1
+ g)
- i]
d')'-- + 0.5bx(1
k1
+ g)
[(e
k2=(-V1\2d/\ 3d
k3
or
= (m
i)(i
k1N
f=
k3(1
or
+ k2bd
Af, = T = C' + C + N
+
+N
f. = f(k3A O.5bx)
d
(1 +f_
mf
asin Section 1.13.2. Checkassumedvalueofx andrepeat until convergence is
reached.
Page blank
in original
Chapter 2
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams
NOTATION
2.0
a'
acr
A
A,
A,
A,
b
bc
Cmin
d
d'
d1
E
E,
f,
ff
F
Fht
G
h
h1
hmax
I
I
Compression face to point on surface of concrete where crack width is

calculated
Centre-to-centredistance between bars or groups of bars
Point on surface of concrete to nearest face of a bar
Gross area of concrete in a section
Area of steel in tension
Area of steel in compression
Area of steel in vertical links
Breadth of compression face of beam mid-way between restraints
Width of section at centroid of tensile steel
Average web width
Coefficient of torsional stiffness
Minimum cover to tensile reinforcement
Torsional stiffness
From tension face of concrete section to centre of tensile
reinforcement
Modulus of elasticity of concrete
Service stress in steel reinforcement
Revised compressive stress in steel taking into account depth of neutral
axis
Characteristicyield strength of reinforcement used as links
Coefficient for calculation of cracked section moment of inertia
Tensile force in a bar at start of a bend
Shear modulus
Overall depth of a concrete section
Thickness of flange in a T-beam
Maximum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete beam
Minimum overall dimension of a rectangularconcrete beam
Moment of inertia
Clear span or span face-to-face of support
41
42
Reinforced Concrete
4,
Effective span
Centre-to-centredistance between supports

modular ratio = E/E
Appliedbendingmoment
Design bending moment modified to account for axial load
Moment of resistance of concrete in flanged beams
Axial load
Percentage of tensile reinforcement
Percentage of compressive reinforcement
Internal radius of a bend in a bar
Spacings of bent bars used as shear reinforcement
M
Md
Mr
N
p
p
r
Sb
S,
Spacing of vertical links
Applied torsion
Proportion of total torsion carried by each rectangle of an I-, T- or
T
v
v
v1
v,
Vt,mjn
V
Vb
V
V.
Vmax
Vnom
Wmax
x
x1
Yi
13
13b
Em
Emh
L-section

Design concrete shear stress (N/mm2)
Shear stress in concrete due to torsion (N/mm2)
Ultimate permissibletorsional shear stress (N/mm2)
Design concrete torsional shear stress (N/mm2)
Shear force carried by bent bars
Shear force capacity of concrete section
Shear force carried by vertical links
Ultimate maximum shear forces allowed on section
Shear force capacity of concrete section with minimum vertical links
Design shear resistance of concrete
Maximum crack width (mm)
Centre-to-centreof two external vertical legs of a link
Centre-to-centreof two external horizontal legs of a link
Depth of lever arm
Factor governing moment of resistance of concrete T-section
Material factor
Calculatedstrain in concrete at depth h
Strain with stiffeningeffect corrected
Strain at centre of steel reinforcement
Yield strain in steel reinforcement
Strain at centre of compressivereinforcement
Strain at depth h corrected for stiffeningeffect
Calculatedstrain in concrete ignoring stiffening effect
Poisson's ratio
Diameter of a reinforcing bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 43

2.1
ANALYSIS
OF BEAMS
2.1.1 Effective spans
_______f3
IL
SK 2/2 Continuousbeam.
SK 2/3 Cantilever beam.
SK 2/1 Simply supported

beam.
Simply supported or encastr

Continuous
I=
Cantilever
I = I+
where
'e = smaller of (1 + d) or 10
1.
1 = centre-to-centredistancebetween supports
1e
effective span
= clear span or span to face of support

d = effective depth of tension reinforcement.
2.1.2 Effective width of compression flange
12
SK 2/4 Effective width of

compression flange.
SECTION A -
Simply supported T-beam
b=
Simply supported L-beam
b=
+b
Continuousor encastr T-beams
b = s-+
7.14
Continuousor encastr L-beams
b = k--- +
14.29
b
b
where
Note:
b=
effective
width of
compressionflange
b = average width of web.
Use actual b if it is less than the calculated b using the above formulae.
A typical example may be a precast T-beam.
2.1.3 Moment of inertia

Method 1 Gross concrete section only
Find moment of inertia of gross concrete section
see
Table 11.2.
Method 2 Uncracked transformed concrete

If reinforcement quantities are known,find moment of inertia of transformed concrete section using Table 11.2.
Method 3 Average ofgross concrete section and cracked section
SK 2/5 Doubly reinforcedbeam.
I = 0.5 (Ibh3
+
\12
Fbh3)
where
I = moment of inertia of rectangular concrete section

b = width of rectangular concrete section
h = overall depth of rectangular concrete section
F = factor see Fig. 11.1 for values of F.
p = 100 bd
where
A = area of tensile reinforcement
d = effective depth to tensile reinforcement.
p' = 100
where
bd
A = area of compressive reinforcement.
Design
m = modular ratio =
of ReinforcedConcrete Beams
45
The graphsin Fig. 11.1 havebeen drawnfor p = 0 andp = p. Intermediate

values may be interpolated.
Note: The preferredmethodis Method3forrectangularsections. Wherereinforcement quantities are not known, an assumption may be made of the percentage of reinforcement.
T-beams and L-beams in a frame or continuous beam structure should
be treated as rectangularbeams for the purposeof determining moment of
inertia. The width of the beam will be taken equal to
b.
2.1.4 Modulus of elasticity

Modulusof elasticity of reinforcement steel
E = 200 kN/mm2
Modulusof elasticity of concrete, E, for short-termand long-term loadings
is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Modulus of elasticity of concrete: short-term and long-term loading.
(N/mm2)
20
25
30
40
50
60
Short-term loading, E
(kN/mm2)
Long-term loading, E
(kN/mm2)
24
25
12
26
28
30
32
13
14
15
16
12.5
Note: Wind load is short-term loading and dead load is long-term loading.
2.1.5 Torsional stiffness
For a rectangular section the torsional stiffness, C, is given by

C = ch3rninhmax
where
c = coefficient from Table 2.2
hmax = maximum overall dimension

hmin
of rectangular section
= minimum overall dimension of rectangular section.
h.
SK 2/6 Component rectangles of a

beam to find torsional stiffness.
The torsional stiffness of a non-rectangularsection may be obtained by

dividing the section into a series of rectangles and summingthe torsional
stiffness of these rectangles.
Table 2.2 Values of coefficientc.
1
1.5
10
0.14
0.20
0.23
0.26
0.29
0.31
hmin
The coefficient c is given by the following formula:

1 116
c=
where
I
16L3
k=
/
\
3.36k1 1
k4
12
hmin
T1max
2.1.6
Shear modulus
Shear modulus, G, is given by
G =
where
Note:
(1
+ t) = 0.42E
for concrete
= Poisson's ratio.
In normal slab and beam or framed construction,torsional rigidity of RC

beams may be ignored in the analysis and the torsional stiffness may
be given a very small value in the computer analysis. Torsional rigidity
becomes important only where torsion is relied on to carry the load, as in
curved beams.
Design
of ReinforcedConcrete Beams 47
2.1.7 Poisson's ratio

Poisson's ratio for concrete = 0.2
2.1.8 Shear area
Shear area of concrete =
where
A = gross cross-sectional area of concrete.
Note: The shear areaof concrete is entered as input to some computer programs
when the analysis is required to take into account the deformationsdue to
shear.
2.1.9 Thermal strain
The coefficients of thermal expansion are given in Table 2.3 for different
typesof aggregate used.
Table 2.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion.

Aggregate type
Flint, Quartzite
Granite, Basalt
Limestone
Coefficient(x 10 1/c)
12
It)
Note: Normallyfor ultimate limit state no specific calculations are necessaryfor

thermal loads. Thermal calculations should be produced for structures in
contact with hot gases or liquid.
2.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS

2.2.1 General rules
The following load combinations and partial load factorsshould be used in
carrying out the analysis of beams:
1.4 DL + 1.6 LL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
LC1:
LC2:
LC3:
LC4:
LC5:
1.0 DL
1.4 DL
1.0 DL
1.2 DL
+ 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
+ 1.4 WL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
+ 1.4 WL + 1.4 EP + 1.4 WP
+ 1.2 LL + 1.2 WL + 1.2 EP +
1.2 WP
Note: Load combinations LC2 and LC4 should be considered when the effects of
dead load and live load are beneficial.
where
DL
= dead load
LL = live loador imposed load
WL = wind load
WP = water pressure
EP = earth pressure.
The general principleof load combination is to leave out the loads which
have beneficial effect. If the load is of a permanent nature, like dead load,
earth load or water load, use the partial load factor of 1 for that load
which producesa beneficial ratherthan adverse effect. This rule of combination will be used for design as well as for the check of stability of a
structure.
I1
2.2.2 Rules of load combination for continuous beams
LC1 ON ALL SPANS
LC1
LC1
LC1
'
I
LC1 ALTERNATEWITH LC2fQR MAXIMUM
MIDSPAN MOMENT
LC1
I
SK 2/7 Continuousbeam loading
sequences.
i2
I'
LC i
LC,
1'
ON ADJACENT SPANS ALTERNATE WITH

FOR MAXIMUM SUPPORT MOMENT
(1) Load all spans with LC1.

(2) Load alternate spans with LC1 and other spans with LC2.
(3) Load beam in the repeated sequence of two adjacent spans loaded
with LC1 and one span loaded with LC2. This sequence gives the
maximum support moment between adjacent spans. This is not a
normal requirement, as per clause 3.2.1.2.2of BS8110: Part 1: 1985.111
2.2.3 Redistribution of moments

2.2.3.1 Continuous beams
SK 2/8 Continuousbeam typica!
LRedistributed Moment
moment redistribution.
Usually 10% redistribution of moments may be allowed from those

obtained by elastic analysis. Redraw bending moment diagram with redistributed moments.Calculate revised shear. Reduction of support moment
means a correspondingincrease in span moment. For structural frames
over four stories high providing lateral stability, the redistribution of
moments should not exceed 10%. Resistance moment at any section must
be at least 70% of moment at that section obtained by elastic analysis.
2.2.3.2 Frame structures
No reduction or redistribution of moments is allowed from the columns.

2.2.3.3 Continuous one-way spanningslabpanels
Usually 10% redistribution
obtained by elastic analysis.
of
moments may
be allowed from those
2.2.4 Exceptional loads

Exceptional loads may be any of the following.
(1) Accidental loads of very low probability properly quantified. The
definition of low probability may vary from project to project and will
be agreed with the client.
(2) Probable misuse and its effect accuratelyquantified.
(3) Once in a lifetime veryshort-termloadswhich are accurately quantified.
Note: With exceptional loads some rectification of local damage after the incident
may be necessary.
Load combination to be considered:
LC = 1.O5DL + 1.05LL1 + 1.O5EL + 1.05WL1

where DL = full expecteddeadload
LL1 = full expected live load if this is a storage building,
wise, one-third of expected maximum live load
EL = exceptional load
WL1 = one-third of expected maximum wind load.
other-
2.3
STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR BEAMS

Step 1 Analysis
Carry out analysis follow Section 2.1.
Step 2 Moment envelope
M(-ve)
SK 2/9 Typical momentenvelope

of a continuousbeam.
M(.ve)
Draw maximumminimum ultimate load bending moment envelopeafter

redistribution.
Step 3 Shear envelope
Vmax
SK 2/10 Typical shear envelopeof
a continuousbeam.
Draw maximumminimum ultimate load shear force envelope after

redistribution.
Step 4 Axial loads
Determine coacting axial loads with maximum and minimum bending

moments respectively. Ignore axial load if less than O.1fbh.
Step 5 Torsions
Determine coacting torsions with maximum and minimum shear forces
respectively.
Design
of ReinforcedConcrete Beams Beams 51
SK 2/11 Dimensionsto compute

axial load in beam.
Step 6 Cover to reinforcement

Determine cover required to reinforcementas per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Find effective depth d, assuming reinforcementdiameter.
SK 2/12 Rectangular beam

effective depth.
Step
Effctive span
Determine effective span
see Section 2.1.1.
Step 8 Effective width of compressionflange

Determine effective width of compression flange see Section 2.1.2.
Step 9 Slenderness ratio
r
flL.4J
V/f/1'//fA
H.
SK 2/13 Simply supported and continuous

beams.
SK 2/14 Cantilever beam.
Check slenderness of beam as per clause 3.4.1.6 of BS8IIO: Part 1:

1985.111
For simply supported and continuousbeams,

1<60b
or
250
b2
For cantilever beams,
1<25b or
100
where
M
or actual d, whichever is lesser
\O.156fb1
\/
b = effective width of the compressionflange
M = design ultimate moment.
d = !(
Step 10 Design for moment rectangular beam

Select critical sections on beam for bending moment. Find the following
parameters at all criticalsections, for rectangularbeamsand flanged beams.
SK 2/17 Rectangularbeam

moment and axial load.
stress diagram.

doubly reinforced.
Md
= M + N (0.5h d1)
for N
0.1fbd
Note: For N> 0.1fbd, design as column (see Chapter 4). Md may also be taken
and N may be totally ignored. (Sign
equal to M where
convention: N is +ve for compression.)
N0.1fbd
K=
z
Md
fbd2
d[0.5
= d
0.95d
/(o.25
0.91]
0.45
A=
Md
0.87fz
K' = 0.156
K' =
O.4O2(13b
I3b =
M2
< 0.9
O.87f
when redistribution does not exceed 10%
0.4) O.l8(13b
exceeds 10%
M'
0.4)2
when redistribution

where
M2
moment after redistribution; M'
= moment before redis-
tribution
When K>K',
x=
A'
d[0.5
d z
0.45
(K
(o.25
O.5d
K')f11bd2
0.87f (d d')
A = K'fbd2 + A'
0.87fz
N
- ___
0.87f
SK 2/18 Straindiagram.
If d'/x>0.43x,
A'
(K K')fbd2
f(dd')
K'f
bd2
O.87fz
+A.
,/xd'\f
0.57x
fS
0.87f
strain
c = (\ 0.57xd'\
because steel
where e3, correspondsto steel stress fy/Ym. as in Section 1.4.2.
Note: The flanged beam becomes a rectangular beam
produces tension in the flange.
if the bending moment
Design charts in BS811O: Part 3: l985' may be used if designparameters

fall within the scope of the charts.
Step 11 Design for moment flanged beam
b
SK 2/19 Flanged beam singly

reinforced.
A flanged beam should be designed as a rectangular beam with width

equal to the effective width of flange in compressionif x s 1.lhf.
If x> 1.lhf, find bIb and d/hf.

Obtain
Calculate
from Fig. 2.1.

M1 = I3ffCUbd
If MrMd,
+ O.1fbd(O.45d
Md
A
h1)
N
_____
O.87f(d O.Shf)
O.87f
If M< Md, follow Section 1.5.4 using the second approach to design of
flanged beams.
Step 12 Maximum allowable shear stress

Find maximum shear in beam from shear envelope at the face
or under a concentrated load.
Find v = V/bd.
vsO.8 Vf5N/mm2
Change beam geometry if this condition is not satisfied.
Check
SK 2/20 Rectangularbeam.
SK 2/21 Flanged beam.
of support
Design
of Reinforced Concrete Beams
55
Step 13 Design for shear
VL 'j
jJx
SK 2/22 Critical section for shear. Shear check
based on bottom reinforcementadequately
anchored.
SK 2/23 Critical section for shear. Shear check

based on top reinforcement adequately
anchored (A. to continue at least 3d from face
of support).
Select critical sections on beam which are at a distance of 2d from the

face of support or concentrated load. Find the following parameters for
rectangular and flanged beams.
V = design ultimate shear force
v
0.8
\/f
5N/mm2
bOA.
bd
Find
v,,
from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
When axial load in compression, N, is present,
v = v + 0.6
Note:
0.8 Vf
()
5N/mm2
N/Ac is average stress in the concrete section. Vh/M 1 and moment

and shear at the section under consideration must be for the same load
combination. N is +ve for compression and ye for tension. To avoid
shear cracks at ultimate load, limit shear stress to
v=v \I\/7
/(1-1----
Replace v, by
Av
v where axial load is present.
FindA. = 0.4bS
0.87f
f,,,
460N/mm2
for links.
areaof links,
at a spacing of S for the zone where
shear is less or equal to Vnom. From the shear force envelopedetermine
zones where V exceeds Vnom = (v + O.4)bd
Provide minimum
P*1ff+1
. . (4 .
I.,
a.>.
SK 2/24 Elevation of beam

showing shear reinforcement.
SK 2/25 Single system of bent-
up shear reinforcement.
= bS (v
Find
v)
0.87f
Replace v, by
Provide
SK 2/26 Multiple system of

bent-up shear reinforcement.
v where axial load is present.
area of links, A0, at a spacing of S. at the section of the beam in
consideration.
For a mixture of links and bent-up bars,
Vb + V.,
(v v)bd
where
Vb = A.,b(O.87fV)(cos
V = A.,(0.87f)
+ sin cot)
d')
and 1
Sb
450
0.5(v v0)bd
Replace v by v where axial load in compression is present.

Note: Step 14 below maybe omitted if at Step 13 the critical section is selected at
a distance of d from the face of support or from theconcentrated load. No
further checkswill be necessary at the face ofsupport or at the concentrated
load.
Step 14 Alternative design for shear
Find Vmax = 0.8
bd, or = Sbd, whichever is less.
Complete the table below:
\/f
Distance from face of

support or concentrated
load
2.OOd
1.75d
1.50d
1.25d
1.OOd
0.75d
0.50d
0.25d
Vnom
= Vc,nc+ 0.4bd
Vconc
< Vmax
(v + 0.4)bd
vbd
(1.143v+0.4)bd
1.143v0bd
(1.333v+0.4)bd
1.333vbd
1.fwbd
2.0vbd
(1.6v0+0.4)bd
(2.0v+0.4)bd
(2.67v+0.4)bd
(4 ++ 0.4)bd
(8v
0.4)bd
2.67vbd
4.0vbd
8.0vbd
Design
Distance from face of
support or concentrated
load
V
(actual shear force)
2.OOd
1.75d
1.50d
1.25d
I .OOd
0.75d
0.50d
0.25d
Satisfy the following conditions:

when
Vnm,
0.4bS
0.87f
when V> Vn, calculate
(0.S7f)
V Von
Theshear resistance may be providedby a combination of links and bentup bars.
Step 15 Minimum tension reinforcement

b
A5
SK 2/28 Rectangular beam.
SK 2/27 Flanged beam.
For flanged beam web in tension, find b/b.

If b/b <0.4
0.0018bh
If b/b
A,
0.4
0.0013bh
f=
for f =
for
460 N/mm2
460N/mm2
58
Reinforced Concrete
For flanged beam flange in tension,

for T-beam A6 0.0026bh
for = 460N/mm2
for L-beam A6 0.0020bh
for f,, = 460N/mm2
For rectangular beams,
A6
forf = 460N/mm2
0.OOl3bh
Step16 Minimum compressionreinforcement when designed as doubly reinforced

For flanged beam flange in compression.
A.
0.OO4bhf
For flanged beam web in compression,
0.002bh
For rectangular beam,
0.OO2bh
Note: Minimum compression reinforcement in beams will

compression reinforcementis required.
be used only when
Step 17 Minimum transverse reinforcement inflange

b
SK 2/29 Minimum transverse

reinforcementin flange of flanged
beam.
For flanged beams over full effective flange width near top surface, use
1.5hfmm2/m reinforcement for the whole length of the beam. Normally
this amount of reinforcementis provided in the slab at the top surface over
the beam as part of slab reinforcementwhen the flanged beam forms part
of a beamslab construction.
Step 18 Minimum reinforcement in sideface ofbeams
d= dia. of bar
Sb
I/Sbb
250mm
b = actual, or 500mm, whichever is the lesser.
Design
SK 2/30 Minimum reinforcement

side face of beam.
AO. 001 25bh
Note: To control cracking on the side faces of beams use small diameter bars at
close spacings. The distributionof these bars should he over two-thirds of
beam's overall depth measured from tension face.
0.00125bh
on each side face as shown.
Step 19 Deflection

flanged beam.
SK 2/32 Simply supported or

continuous beam. M = moment
at midspan.
SK 2/33 Cantilever beam. M=

momentat support.
b/b
Find
for flanged beams.
Find 1/d.
Find basic span/effectivedepth ratio from Table 11.3.
Note:
If b/b is greater than 0.3, then interpolate between values in Table 11.3
assuming
b/b equal to 1 for rectangularbeamsand 0.3 for flanged beams.
60
Reinforced Concrete
Find service stress
where
I3b =
\ fA
f()
5
rcd)
prov
M/M'
M= moment after redistribution
M' = moment before redistribution

A rcqd == area of steel required from calculations
A prov area of steel actually provided.
Find M/bd2.
Find modification factor for tension reinforcementfrom Chart 11.5.

Find l00A/bd.
Find modification factor for compression reinforcementfrom Chart 11.4.
Find modified span/depth ratio by multiplying the basic span/depth ratio
by the modification factor of tension and compression reinforcement.
Check 1/d < modified span/depth ratio
Note: Table 11.3 can be used for up to a 10m span. Beyond a 10 m span multiply
these values by 10/span except for cantilevers where deflection should be
calculated (see Section 1.8 for calculationof deflection.)
Step 20 Maximum areas of reinforcement
For all beams,
A.
Step 21
0.04bh
0.04bh
Containment of compression reinforcement
Designed compression reinforcementin a beam should be contained by

links.
Minimumdiameter of links = 0.25 times diameter of largest compression

bar, or 6mm, whichever is greater.
Maximum spacing of links = 12 times diameter of smallest bar in
compression.
d' is greater of
SK 2/34 Containmentof
U25 Di or 5mm
compression reinforcement.

Step 22
Bearing stress inside bend
Ix
SK 2/35 Bearing stress inside

bend.
Check bearing stress inside bend where it is required to extend the bar for
more than 4 x diameter beyond the bend because the anchorage requirement is not otherwise satisfied.
Satisfy that
bearing stress=
Fb
2f
1+2(i)
where Fbt = tension in bar at the start of bend

ah = centre to centre of bar, or, cover plus diameter of bar.
Step 23 Curtailment of bars

Follow simplified detailingrules for beamswhere the load is predominantly
uniformly distributed and spans in a continuousbeam are approximately
equal. Follow bending moment diagram for other cases.
Step 24 Spacing of bars
Minimum clear spacing horizontally = MSA + 5
diameter of bar
where MSA = maximumsize of aggregate.

Minimum clear spacing vertically between layers =
Maximum clear spacing of bars in tension
Service stress in
bar
/ 5 \/A
f = fy
i
OIJb/
rcgd
'1s prov
47000
2MSA
300
(See Step 19 for explanation of I3b.)

The distancebetween the corner of the beam and the nearest longitudinal
bar in tension should not be greater than half the maximum clear spacing.
Note:
In normal internal or external condition of exposurewhere the limitation

of crack widths to 0.3mm is appropriate, Step 24 will deem to satisfy the
crack width criteria.
Step 25 Torsional shear stress
1
SK 2/36 Rectangular section torsional shear
stress.
SK 2/37 Division into rectangles

section.
of composite
Check torsional shear stress.

Find ultimate torsion T from analysis.
For a rectangular section, torsional shear stress, v1, is given by
2T
,2
'tmin
mm
'tmax
For I,T or L-section, divide each section into component rectangles.

Proportion of total torsion carried by each rectangle= T
Thninhmax
(h1 hmax)
Torsional shear stress for each section
vt=
2T,,
:2
min
Tmax
hmin
Design
63
For hollow and other box sections, follow the method in Chapter 8.
If wall thicknessin a rectangularhollow sectionexceedsone quarter of the
dimension in that direction, treat the hollow section as a solid rectangle.
Calculate
Vtmin = 0.067
v1, = 0.8
\/f
Vf <0.4N/mm2
5 N/mm2
't < 't.min, no torsionalreinforcement is required.
ft
-A
(areaof two outsidelegs)
(IongitudinaIreinforcement)
ft
of
Spacing
=
Links
Sx, Y1/2 and 200

SK 2/39 Elevation ot torsionalreinforcementin
beam.
SK 2/38 Torsionalreinforcement
in beam.
If
Vtmin
< v < v, provide torsional shear reinforcementby closed links
and longitudinal bars.

Check
Check
fYi
v < v
(v + vt) <
where v = flexural shear stress.
A.,,
0.8x1y1(0.87f)
A> Aj(xi + Yi)

3vJy
Note:
Add torsional reinforcementto already calculated shear reinforcement.
S < x1, or
or 200mm, whichever is the least
Step 26 Crack width in flexure

Serviceability limit state
Load combination LC7= 1.ODL+ 1.OLL+ 1.OEP+ 1.OWP+1.OWL

Note: Omit loadings from LC7 which produce beneficial
effect.
rather than adverse
64
Reinforced Concrete
SK 2/40 Critical dimensionsfor

crack width calculations.
SK 2/41 Strain diagramfor crack

width calculations.
SECTION OF BEAM
STRAIN

rectangularbeam.
3acr Em
"max =
1+
Em
Note:
= Cl
b1(h
Cmin)
(h x)
x)
(a' x)
3EA(d x)
r is the strain due to load combination
LC7.

where
b is the width of thesection at thecentroid of tensile reinforcement.
For a rectangular section,

Note:
A flanged beam is a rectangular section if
x l.lh.
E,
x=
d{[(rnp
+ (in
(mp + (in
1)p')2 + 2(mp +
(in
1)p)}
(See Section 1.13.1.)
bd
A,
bd
M
k2bd2 +
k3A(d d')
x
k2=) 1-
k3 =
f, = rnf
1)
(1
1)
= fs
E,
= (h
Emh
Note:
E,
b(h x)2
3 E,A,(d x)

Step 27 Design ofconnections to other components

Follow Chapter 10.
2.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 Simply supported rectangularbeam
Clear span = 6.0 m
66
ReinforcedConcrete
UDL
111111111111111111111111
SK 2/43 Simply supported beam.
Overall depth = 500mm

Width =300mm
Width of supportingwalls= 200mm
All reinforcementto be used is high yield steel with f,, = 460 N/mm2.
Note: Steps 15 form part of the analysis and are excluded from
example. For a typical analysis see Example 2.3.
the worked
Step 6 Determination of cover

Maximum size of aggregate = 20mm
Maximum bar size assumed= 32 mm
Maximum size of link assumed= 10mm
Exposure condition= severe

Fire resistance required = 2 hours.
Refer to the following tables in Chapter 11:

Table 11.6
Table 11.6
Table 11.6
Table 11.6
Table 11.7
grade of concrete = C40 for severe exposure

minimum cement content = 325 kg/m3
maximum free water/cement ratio= 0.55
nominal cover= 40mm
nominal cover to beams for 2 hours fire resistance =40mm
For2 hours fire resistance,minimum width of beam = 200mm, from Figure

3.2 of BS811O: Part 1: 1985.11]
SK 2/44 Section of rectangular

beam.
Design
Effective depth, d, is given by:
d = overall depth nominal cover
= 500 40
16 = 434mm
10
dia.
of link half dia. of bar
Step 7 Determination ofeffective span

I + d = 6.0 + 0.434 = 6.434m
4,
= 6.2m
Therefore
1L
= 10 = 6.2m
Step 8 Determination of effective width

Not required.
Step 9 Check slenderness ofbeam
/ = 6.Om
60b = 60 x
250
Satisfied
250
300 mm
3002
434
= 18.Om
=51.84m
/ < Ohc < 250b

d
Step 10 Design for moment rectangular beam
45 18N/mm2
F
tJl
SK 2/45 Stress diagram of
rectangularbeam.
Maximum ultimate bending moment = 216 kNm

Maximum shear at face of support= 140 kN
Shear at 2d from face of support=96 kN
Shear at d from face of support= 116 kN
Direct load, N=OkN
Md = M= 216kNm
=40 N/mm2
1O4
216 )<
K = Md =
fbd2
=
=
d[0.5
40
10
x 300 x 4342
(o.2s
d[O.5 (o.2s
0.88d = 382mm
= 0.0956 < 0.156
- 0.0956)]
dz = 434382 = 116 mm
0.45
AS
0.45
Md
0.87fz
= 216 x 106 = 1413mm2
0S7 x 460 X 382
Use 3 no. 25mm dia. Grade 460=1472mm2

Step 11 Design for moment flanged beam
Not required.
Step 12 Check maximum allowable shear
v
at faceof support
140
x iO
300
434
= 1.075 N/mm2 <0.8 \/f1, = 5 N/mm2

2d = 870mm
V = 96kN
at 2d from support face
96 x
300 x 434
= 0.74N/mm2 <0.8 \/fcu = 5N/mm2
100 A
bd
x 1472
300 x 434
100
= 1.13%
= 0.65 x 1.17 N/mm2 for Grade 40 concrete

= 0.76N/mm2 from Fig. 11.5
Design
Vnom
V<
(V + 0.4) bd
= l5lkN > l4OkN
at face of support
at
all
in
the
beam.
Vnom
points
Nominal links
Assume
= 0.4b
o.87f
S, = 300mm
= 0.4 x 300 x 300

0.87 x 460
= 90mm2
Use 8mm dia. single closed link
300mm centre to centre.
lOOmm

Vnom> V at face of support so Step 14 is superfluous
everywhere on the beam.
(f = 460N/mm2) at
use nominal links
Step 15 Minimum tensile reinforcement

Minimum tensile reinforcement = 0.OOl3bh
= 0.0013 x 300 x 500 mm2

= 195 mm2 < 1472mm2 provided
2 no. 12 diameter (= 226 mm2) provided at top of beam.

Step 16 Minimum compression reinforcement
Not required.
Step 17 Minimum transverse reinforcement inflange
Not required.
Step 18 Minimum reinforcement in sideface of beams
SK 2/46 Section through beam.
ALL REINFORCEMENT HIGH-YIELD
b = actual, or 500mm, whichever is the lesser.

Minimum dia. of bar in side face of beam =
(-)
(assume Sb = 200mm)
/7200 x 300\ = 11.4mm

= It
I
460
Use 12 dia. Grade 460 bars at approximately 200 centres on the side face
of beam.
Reinforcementon each side face of beam = 2 no. l2dia. +
= 716mm2
no. 25dia.
A, = 0.00125bh
= 0.00125 x 300 x 500

= 188 mm2 < 716 mm2
OK
Note: Strictly speakingthese barson the side face are not required for beams less
than 750mm overall depth but it is good practiceto use them in order to
avoid shrinkage cracks.
Step 19 Check deflection
= 6200 =
I
d
434
14.3
Basic span/depth ratio = 20
from Table 11.3
ib = 1,
M
bd2
((A
rcgd = 460
Y\g/ \A, prov/
\8/ \1472/
= 275 N/mm2
216x106
300
x 4342 =3.8
Modification factor for tension reinforcement= 0.90

Modified span/depth ratio = 20 X 0.90 =
Hence deflection is OK.

Step 20 Maximum areas of reinforcement
A, is less than 4%.
Step 21 Containment of compression reinforcement
Not required.
Step 22 Check bearing stress inside bend
Not required.
18
>
from Table 11.5

14.3
Design
0.081 = 0.08 x 6000
71
= 480mm
The central 25mm dia. bar will be stopped 250mm from the face of the
support.
______500
SK 2/48 Arrangementof bars at the bottom of
beam.
SK 2/47 Elevationof beam near support.
Clear spacing between bars in tension = 64.5 mm

Minimum required spacing = 20 + 5
Maximum spacing =
47000
= 47000
275
where
f=
= 25 mm
275N/mm2
= 170mm
(see Step 19)
Spacing of bars is OK.

Step 25 Check torsional shear stress
Not required.
Step 26 Crack width calculations
Service maximum moment
A=1472mm2
A=226mm2
E6 = 200
=
m=
= 144kNm
d'=54mm
d=439mm
10
20
assumed halfway between long and short-term.
0
0
LI
Ax is

rectangularbeam.
SK 2/50 Strain diagram.
SK 2/51 Crack width calculations.
=A =
bd
1472
300 x 43
d{[(mp
+ (m 1)p')2 + 2(mp + (m
(mp + (m
k2 =
= 0.0112
1)p'}
= 0.0017
- 1)()p')] -
= 160mm
I Ill
3d
\2d/\
(
160
2x439!
160
3x439
= 0.16
k3
= (m
- 1)(1 -
M
f= k2bd2 + k3A(d
= (10
54 \
- 1)(1 i:)
=
5.96
d')
x 106
0.16 x 300 x 4392 + 5.96 x 226 x (439 54)
144
14.74 N/mm2
f=
= 10 x 14.74 x
\160
= 257N/mm2
f
=
Emh
1O
i0
b(h x)2
______________
3EA(d x)
= 1.566
i0
= 1.425 x
= 1.414 x 60.5
300 x 3402
200 x i03 x 1472 x 279
= 73.0mm
12.5 = 62.9mm
12.5
= V(60.52 + 452)
a1 >
_____________
+
L
x\ = /34O = 1.566 x
257
________
= 1.285 x
200 x i03
Design
Cmin)
hx
x 73.0 x
1.425
i0
i+12(73_48)
L
340
= 0.27mm < 0.3mm

Example 2.2
OK
Three span continuous beam
SK2/52 Three-spancontinuous
PQQ
_PQ2
Three equal spans of lOm centre-to-centreof columns.

Width of column = 0.4m
clear span = 9.6m
slab depth = 150mm
beam spacing = 4.0m
beam overall depth = 550mm
beam width= 300mm
Redistributionof moments = 10%
Note: Steps 15 form part of the analysis and have been excluded.
analysis see Example 2.3.
For a typical
All reinforcementto be used will be high yield steel with = 460 N/mm2.
It is expected that the analysis will be carried out using a computer
program with the load combination shown in Section 2.2.
From moment and shear envelope,
MA=0
VAB=300kN
MAB = +600 kNm
M = 650 kNm
VBC=325kN
Mnc=+37OkNm
where
VAB=250kN
VAB= negligible
VBA= 370kN
VBA = 320kN
V=275kN
or
l5OkNm
VA'B = shear at a distance
of d from face of support.

maximum bar size =32mm
maximum size of link = 8 mm
exposurecondition= severe
fire resistance required = 2 hours
grade of concrete= C40
maximum cement content = 325 kg/m3
maximum free water cement ratio = 0.55
nominal cover=4Omm
from Tables 11.6 and 11.7
effective depth, d = 550408 16 = 486 mm
Step 7 Effective span
1 = lo = 10.0 m
Step 8 Effective width of compressionflange
Actual b 4.0m
(centre-to-centreof beams)
Calculated
b=
+b
7.14
= 10000 +300
7.14
= 1700mm
1700
SK 2/53 Effective width of

compressionflange.

Step 9 Slenderness check
May be ignored.
Step 10
Design for moment

MAR = 600kNm
Flanged beam
Md = MAR= 600 kNITI
K=
Md
fbd2
600
106
40 x 1700 x 486
= 0.0373
z = d[0.5 +
= d 0.5
/(o.2s
0.9
0.0373
0.9
= 0.95d = 462mm
= dz
0.45
462
486
0.45
=S3mm<hf=lSOmm
Neutral axis in the slab
Md
0.87fz
600 x 106
______________
= 3245 mm2
0.87
x 460 x 462
Use 3 no. 32dia. bars in bottom layer plus 2 no. 25dia. bars in top layer.
40 cover to
links
SK 2/54 Arrangementof
reinforcementat bottom of beam
at midspan.
Total area of steel provided= 3394mm2

Check effective depth.
Centre of gravity of group of 5 bars
3 x 804 x 64+2 x491 x 124.5
3394
= 81.5mm
d = 550 81.5 = 468.5 mm
Recheck reinforcementrequirement with revised effective depth:
K = 0.040
z = 0.95 x468.5=445mm
= 3369mm2 (required)
A provided = 3394 mm2 OK
MB = 650kNm
Rectangularbeam
= 650kNm
Md
Effective depth, d = 5504032 168 =454mm

(assumingtwo layers of 32dia. bars)
650x106
40 x 300 x 4542
= 0.263 > 0.156

Compression reinforcement required.
Redistributionis 10%
A'
(K 0.156)fbd2
(0.263
0.87f(d d')
0.156) x 40 x 300 x 4542

0.87 x 460 x (454 64)
= 1696mm2
Use 3 no. 32dia. bars (2412 mm2) bottom of beam.

z=
Ii
dLO.SV0.25
0.156
= 0.775d= 352 mm
x = 0.5d = 227mm
and =
= 0.156fbd2 + A
O.87fz
= 0.28 < 0.43

227
Design
x 300 x 4542
+ 1696 = 4435mm
0.87 x 460 x 352
= 0.156
40
Use 6 no. 32dia. bars (4824mm2) top of beam in two layers.
to (inks
Links
SK 2/55 Arrangement
of
reinforcementat top of beam over
Support.
3--32
MBC = +370 kNm
Flanged beam
b=
1700mm
d=55040816=486mm
Md
K=
= 0.023
fbd2
z = 0.95d = 426mm
AS
Md
0.87fz
370 x 106
=
0.87 x 460 x 462
= 2001mm2
Use 3 no. 32 dia. bar (2412 mm2) bottom of beam

MBC
= 150kNm
Rectangular beam
b=
300mm
d = 486mm
K=
x 106
=0.053
x
300 4862 x 40
150
140
coverto links
d[0.5
./(o.25
= 0.94d = 456mm
150 x 10
= 822mm2
0.87 x 460 x 456
Use 2 no. 32dia. bar (1608 mm2) top of beam.
2032
3-032
Step 11 Design for moment
SK 2/56
Section through
midspan
BC.
flanged beam
Not required.
Step 12 Maximum shear stress

= 2.716N/mm2 <5N/mm2
v =
Maximum shear = 370 kN = VBA
V
= V
bd
370x103
300 x 454
\/f
= 2.716N/mm2 <0.8
5N/mm2
OK
Check shear stress at d from face of column.
VAB = 250kN
d = 468.5mm
for span AB
x i03
300 x 468.5
250
= 1.78N/mm2
100A
bd
100
x 3394
300x468.5
= 2.41
v == 0.85 x 1.17
from Fig. 11.5
0.99N/mm2
= (v0.4)bd
= 195kN
v > v + 0.4 = 1.39N/mm2
Vnom
bS(v v)
0.87f
(assume
S = 150 mm)
300
150
x (1.78 0.99)
0.87 x 460
= 89mm2
Use 8mm dia. links = 100 mm2 (two legs) at 150 centre-to-centre up to
the point where shear falls to 195 kN. High yield reinforcement
(f = 460N/mm2).
0.4bS
=
Nominal
0.87f
0.4
x 300
=
x 300 = 90mm
0.87 x 460
Use 8mm dia. links = 100mm2 (two legs) at 300 centre-to-centre as

nominal links =460 N/mm2).
(f
VBA = 320kN
320 x i03
v= 300
x 454 (d=454mmatB)
= 2.35 N/mm2
100A
100 x 4435
=3.25
p=
300x454
bd
v = 0.91 x
A
1.17 = 1.065 N/mm2 from Fig. 11.5
bS(v v)
0.87f
300 x 150
x (2.35 1.063)
0.87 x 460
= 144.5 mm2
Use 8mm dia. links = 150 mm2 (3 legs) at 150 centre to centre up to the
point where shear falls to 195kN.
Omitted.
Flanged beam
b = 300
b
1700
= 0.176 < 0.4
For web in tension

A,
> O.0018bh = 297mm2
For flange in tension

A, > 0.0026bh = 429mm2
Both conditionssatisfied.

A. > 0.002bh = 330mm2
ProvidedA. = 2412mm2
Conditionsatisfied.
Step 17 Transverse reinforcement inflange
Minimum transverse reinforcement in flange= 1.5hfmm2/m
= 1.5 x 150 mm2/m
= 225 mm2/m
Reinforcement in the slab over the beam will be a lot more than this
quantity.
Step 18 Reinforcement in side face of beam
Fora 550mm overall depth of beam with 150mm slab, side reinforcement
will not be required.
10000
I.
=
=21.3
d
468.5
d = 468.5 mm
for span AB
= 0.176 < 0.3

Basic span/effectivedepth ratio from Table 11.3 = 20.8
Since the ultimate moment at midspan is greater after redistribution than
the ultimate elastic moment, the service elastic stress may be taken as
(5/8)f.
Service stress, f, =
(assumed)
460
= 288N/mm2
A rcgd
prov
M
bd2
3394
600x106
1700
x 468.52
=1.6
Modification factor = 1.19
from Chart 11.5
Modified span/effective depth ratio= 20.8 x 1.19
=24.75>21.3
OK
Step 20 Maximum areas ofreinforcement

A 0.04bh = 6600mm2
Maximum tensile reinforcement used = 4824 mm2
OK

Minimum dia. of links = 0.25 x max. dia. of bar
=0.25x32=8mm
OK
Maximum spacing of links = 12 x dia. of bar
=12x32mm=384mm
Note: At least one link at
containment.
OK
the centre of columns B and C will be required for

Not required.
0.15/= 1500mm
0.101=1000mm
0.25/ = 2500mm
Span AB
Continue3 no. 32dia. + 2 no. 32dia. up to 1000mm from A (end support).
Stop 1 no. 32dia. and 2 no. 32dia. at 1000mm from A.
(See Step 26: reinforcement in span AB increased.)
Oversupport B (top bars)
Continue 6 no. 32dia. bar top up to 1500mm on either side of B.
Stop 2 no. 32dia. bar at 1500 from B.
Stop 2 no. 32dia. bar at 2500 from B.
Continue 2 no. 32dia. through span.
Minimum clear spacing = MSA + 5 = 25mm
82
ReinforcedConcrete
Clear spacing of bars in tension= 54mm > 25mm
Maximum clear spacing
= 47000
= 47000
288
= 163mm
(See Step 19 for f)

At span BC top tension reinforcement
Clear spacing of bars (2 no. 32dia.) = 140mm
OK
Note: Under normal circumstancesthis step will deem to satisfy the 0.3 crack
width limitation criteria, but, as Step 26 will prove, when crack width
calculations are actuallycarried out this may not be the case. In span AB
the maximum clear spacing criterion is satisfied but the calculations show
that the crack widths may be exceeded.
Not required.
Span AR
Maximum service moment = 400kNm

Cmin = 48mm
d = 468.5mm
b=
1700mm
= 3394mm2
= 1608mm2
(ignored in the computation)
= 10
m=
[()2
=
<
=
118 mm
z=d
2mAsd]
hf(= 150mm)
= 429mm
f = 400xx 3
f
106
429
= 274N/mm2
274
200x103
=1.37x103
fhd\
7550118\Jxl.37x103
J=l
xl
\468.5
1181
= 1.69 x
io
Emh
b(hx)2
3EA(d x)
= 1.69 x
iO-3
i0
300 x 4322
_____________________
3 x 20(1 x i03 x 350.5 x 3394
= 1.61 x
a1 = V(642 + 642) 16 = 74.5 mm
a2 = \/(642 + 432) 16 = 61,1 mm
acr = 74.5 mm
at the corner of the beam
3a
3x74.5 x
+ 2(acr Cmin)
(h x)
1.61
+ 2(74.5
(550
x i03
48)
118)
= 0.32mm >0.3mm
The calculated crackwidthis greater than allowable. Increasereinforcement
to 5 no. 32dia. bar instead of 3 no. 32dia. plus 2 no. 25dia. No more
checks are necessary.
Over support B
SK 2/57 Arrangementof bars over

support.
At face of column,
maximum service moment= 390kNm
d = 454mm d' = 64mm

b = 300mm
= 4824mm2
= 2412 mm2
Cmin = 48mm
m=
10
See Step 26 of Example 2.1 for explanationof symbols and the equations.
x = 225 mm
= 0.2068
K3 = 6.44
M
f = K2bd2+ K3AL(d
f = 211.6N/mm2
= 20.69N/mm2
d')
= 1.058 x iO3
= 1.502 x iO3
ac1
= 74.5mm
at the top corner
Wcr = 0.297mm <0.3mm
Step 27 Design
OK
ofconnections to other elements
See Chapter 10.

5
Tension
Anchore
2-432
2-432
:IH
Tension
Anchorage
3-+32
2-+32(second tayer)
8 tinks(1800)
at 150c/c
SK 2/58A Detail of beam at A.
layer)
SK 2/58B Detailof beam at B.

Example 2.3 Design of beam with torsion
SK 2/59 Two-span edge beam with
r_L
nib.
Edge beam to carry precast floor slabs on nibs.

Clear gap between beams= 4.5 m
Effective span of beam= 9.0m
See Example 5.2 for details of precast floor slabs and nib geometry
computations.
Two-span beam is fully restrained at the rigid supports.
Step 1 Analysis of beam

Properties
of section
SK 2/60 Section of beam with

nibs.
Area of section= 500x 290 + 2 x 110 x 105
= 168100mm2
Self-weight of beam= 0.1681 x 24kN/m3 = 4kN/m
500
x 290 x 145 + 2 x 110 x 105 x (290 + 55)

168100
= 172.5mm
= 3.943 x 10mm4
(gross section)
86
Reinforced Concrete
Assume
Assume p
=0
= 1%
m=
Assume
= 10
From Fig. 11.1,
F= 6 x
10-2
Cracked moment of inertia = Fbd3
= ox 102 x (400 x 500 110 x 290)

=2.839x 109mm4
Average moment of inertia,
= 0.5(3.943+ 2.839) x i09mm4

= 3.391 x i09mm4
SK 2/61 Beam geometryto find

shear centre e.
Shear centre, e =
b2h2r
'*ixx
b=400145=255
h=500105=395
t = 105
x 3952 x 105 = 78.5 mm

e = 2552
4 x 3.391 x iO
Loading
Dead load from slab = 5 kN/m2 x 2.25 m = 11.25kN/m.

Self-weight of beam = 0.1681 x 24kN/m3= 4.OkN/m
Total dead load on beam including self-weight = 15.25 kN/m

Live load from slab @ 5kN/m2= 5 x 2.25 = 11.25 kN/m

Ultimate limit state,
LC1 = 1.4DL + 1.6LL = 1.4 x 15.25 + 1.6 x 11.25 = 22kN/m+ l8kN/m
LC2 = l.ODL = 15.25kN/m
Load both spans with LC1 to get maximum support moment at B.

Load span AB with LC1 and span BC with LC2 to get maximum support
moment A and maximum span moment at AB.
Steps 2 and 3 Draw moment and shear envelope
Non-linear analysis with 10% redistribution.
Boundary
condition
Loading
A and C fully LC1 on both

restrained
spans
l.4DL on AB
1.ODL on BC
LC1 on AB
LC2 on BC
1.OkN/m LL
on AB
Plastic hinge
at A, C fully
restrained
Force Support
A
BM
Shear
270
+135
180
BM
Shear
159.8
+79.9
102.8
BM 311.7
Shear 193.9
BM
Shear
1.OkN/m LL BM
Shear
on AB
Span
AB
8.44
5.06
0
3.86
+155.9
+4.22
+7.23
Support
Span
BC
Support
+135
270
180
125.9
95.2 72.6
+46.0
92.0
186.7
+28.0
70.6
+270
180
180
166.1
3.38
3.94
5.78
5.14
1.0
65.1
+ 1.19
1.45
kNm
kN
kNm
kN
kNm
kN
kNm
kN
+2.89 kNm
kN
Assume 10% redistribution.Support moment at A is fixed at 0.9 x 311.7 =

280 kNm. The support moment at A reaches 280kNm elastically with live
load on span AB equal to (280 159.8)/8.44 = 14.24 kNm. At that point a
plastic hinge forms at A and the boundary condition of the structure
changes. The remaining live load to go on the span with changed boundary
condition is (l8kN/m14.24kN/m) = 3.76 kN/m.
Design bending moment at support A = 280kNm
Designbending momentat midspan AB at centre of span = 79.9 + 14.24 x
4.22 + 3.76 x 7.23 = 167.2 kNm
A conservative design span moment= 175 kNm

allowing for the maximum span moment to occur away from the centre of
span.
from elastic analysis
Design bending moment at support B = 270 kNm
on
both
(LC1
spans)
Design shear at support A = 102.8 + 5.06 x 14.24 + 3.86 x 3.76
=189.5kN say l9OkN
Design shear at support B = 180 kN
(LC1 on both spans)
Step 4 Determine axial loads
Not required.
Step 5 Determine torsion
Ultimate load from slab = 1.4
11.25 + 1.6
= 34kN/m
x 11.25
Load assumed to act on edge of nib.

Eccentricity
of load from shear centre of beam =
110 15(chamfer)
290
+ 78.5
2
(e = 78.5 = shear
centre)
Torsion per unit length

Ultimate self-weight of beam
Eccentricity
of self-weight from shear centre
= 318.5 mm
= 34 x 0.3185
= 10.83 kNm/rn
= 5.6kN/m
=
+e
= 172.5 145 + 78.5
= 106mm
Torsion per unit length
Total ultimate torsion in beam
= 5.6 x
0.106
= 0.59kNm/m
= (10.83 + 0.59) X 4.5
= 51.4kNm at the
supports restraining
rotation

Maximum size of aggregate= 20mm
Maximum size of bar = 25 mm assumed
Maximum size of link = 10mm
Exposure condition= mild
Fire resistance required = 1 hour
Grade of concrete = C40

Minimum cement content = 325 kg/rn3
Maximum free water/cement ratio= 0.55
Nominal cover = 20mm
Effective depth, d= 500 20 10 12.5 = 457.5mm
Step 7 Effective span

Effective span = 9.0m
Step 8 Effective width offlange
Not required.
Design
Step 9 Slenderness ratio

/= 8.5m = clear span
b=400mm
1
d=l
60b=6Ox40O=24000mm>8500mm
1
280x106 \
=1
I =335mm
x x
\0.156
\0.156fb1
250b =
250
40
4001
x 4002 =
119402mm > 8500mm
Slendernesscheck is satisfied.
Step 10 Design forflexure
As'
SK 2/62 Calculationof tensile

at support.
steel
Support bending moments at A or C = 280kNm

M
K=
fbd2
280 x 106
x
40 400 x 45752
= 0.0836
0.156
No compressivereinforcementrequired.
d[0.5
(o.2s
457.5[0.5
410mm
dz
0.45
457.5 410
0.45
'(o.2s
0.0836)]
90
Reinforced Concrete
= 105mm = hf
Neutralaxisis in the flange.
M
0.87fz
280 x 106
0.87 x 460 x 410
= 1706mm2
Use 4 no. 25mm dia. bars (1964mm2).

Midspan bending moment= 175 kNm
K=
fbd2
175x106
40 x 400 x 45752
= 0.052
z = 0.94d
= 430mm
= dz
0.45
= 61mm <
105mm
= hf
0.87fz
175x106
0.87 x 460
x 430
= 1017mm2
Use 2 no. 25mm dia. bars (982 mm2) + 1 no. 12mm dia. bar (113 mm2).
Step 11 Flanged beam
Not required.
Step 12 Check maximum shear stress at support
V
v=
bd
x 1o3
x 457.5
190
290
= 1.43 N/mm2
0.8Vf = 0.8 x \/40 = 5N/mm2
Step 13 Check flexural shear stress
d = 457.5 mm
VA
= 190 40 x 0.457
= 172 kN at effective depth away from support

V
172
i03
290 x 457.5
= 1.30N/mm2
l00A
bd
x 1964
290 x 457.5
100
= 1.48
v, = 0.72 x 1.7 = 0.84N/mm2
= (v + 0.4)bd
Vaom
= (0.84 + 0.4) x
= 164.5kN
v > v + 0.4
A
290
From Fig. 11.5
x 457.5 x
i0
bS(v v)
0.87f
290x
200 x (1.30 0.84)
=
=
S.
0.87 x 460
66.7 mm2
at 200 mm c/c (2 legs)
66.7
200x2
Nominal
A.
= 0.17 for each leg

0.4b
0.87f
0.4 x 290
0.87 x 460
= 0.29 (2 legs)
= 0.145 (for each leg)
Area of tension reinforcementrequired to carry weight of slab on the nib
34 kN/m
0.87 x 460
= 85 mm2/m
A=
S
85
1000
= 0.085 for each leg

Not required since design shear is calculated at
Assume channel section as L-beam.
d from support.
92
Reinforced Concrete
A > 0.0020bh = 0.0020 x 290 x 500

= 290mm2 <
1964mm2 provided
Not required.
Step 17 Transverse reinforcement in flange
A = 1.5hfmm/2m
= 1.5 x 105 = 158 mm2/m minimum
(See Example 5.2.)

Reinforcementin nib = 201 mm2/m provided.
Step 18 Minimum reinforcement in sideface ofbeams
Not required.
= 0.725 > 0.3
400
From Table 11.3,

Basic span/effective depth ratio
for rectangular section= 26

for b/b = 1.0
=
for flanged beams 20.8
for b/b = 0.3
Interpolated basic ratio = 20.8 + (26
M
P4'
20.8)
x (0.725 0.3) = 24
167.2
155.9
Midspan service stress =
(5 '\
(Asrcgd
,jf 's
A
\Ib'
prov
(5\
/155.9\
= II x I
I x 460 x
\8!
\167.21
(1017
I
\1095
= 249 N/mm2
P4
bd2
175x 106
209
400 x 45752
Modification factor for tension reinforcement from Table 11.5 = 1.20

Modified
span/depth ratio=24x 1.20=28.8
9000
le_
457.5
19.67
< 28.80
OK
Step 20 Maximum areas ofreinforcement
A < 0.04bh = 5800mm2

Satisfied.

Not required.
Not required.
45 x bar dia. =45 x 25 = 1125mm
0.151=0.15x 9000= 1350mm

0.251 = 0.25 x 9000 = 2250mm
2 no. 25mm dia. top and bottom throughout.

2 no. 25m dia. extra top at A, B and C 5000 long at B, 2500mm into
span at A and C and properly anchored at A and C.
1 no. 12mm dia. bottom in spans AB and BC.
Follow simplified detailing rules for beams as in Fig. 2.2.
Step 24 Spacingof bars
Minimum clear spacing = MSA + 5 = 20 + 5 = 25 mm
Actual minimum clear spacing used = 43mm (support)
Actual maximum clear spacing used = 84mm (midspan)
Maximum clear spacing allowed =
where
f. = 249N/mm2
47000
= 47000 =
249
189 mm
(see Step 19.)

Ultimate torsion = 51.4 kNm
(see Step 5)
Divide section into 3 rectangles

First choice
of maximum total torsional stiffness.
[2'
FIRST CHOICE
SK 2/63Calculation of torsional
shear stress.
> 84mm
SECOND CHOICE
SK 2/64 Calculation of torsional
shear stress.
94
Reinforced Concrete
500 x 290 stiffness = hinhmax = 290 X 500 = 1.22 X iOw

2 X 110 x 105 stiffness = 2 x 105 x 110 = 0.025 x iO'
TOTAL = 1.245 x iO'
Second choice
2
290 x 290 stiffness = 290 x 290 = 0.707 x lO

x 400 x 105 stiffness = 2 x i053 x 400 = 0.0926 x iO'
TOTAL = 0.7996 x iO'
Hence the first choice is critical.

Proportion of torsional moment carried by the web =
T x 1.22 x iO'
1.245
51.4
x iO'
x 1.22
1.245
= 50.4kNm
Torsion carried by flanges = 0.5(51.4 50.4) = 0.5kNm
2T
Torsional shear stress v in web =
/
2 I,
!tmin 'tmax
ijfl
2x50.4x106
290
2902500
= 2.97N/mm2
Torsional shear stress v in flange =
2x0.5x 106
/
105
1052(\110
=
ttmin
1.21 N/mm2
0.067\/f
= 0.067\/40
= 0.4 N/mm2
= O.8Vf = 5N/mm2
VtuYl
550
5 X 450
550
= 4.1N/mm2
V > ''t. mm' torsional reinforcementrequired.
Torsionalshear stress + flexural shear stress = 2.97 + 1.30
= 4.27 N/mm2
(see Step 13)
<SN/mm2 OK
Torsional reinforcementin web (vertical)
Design
of ReinforcedConcrete Beams
95
S,,
0.8x1y10.87f
50.4
x 10
0.8 x 238 x 448 x 0.87 x 460

= 1.48 (for 2 legs)
= 0.74 (for each leg)
Longitudinal reinforcement for torsion
(4()(x + y)
= 1.48 x 1 x (238 + 448)

= 1012mm2
Use 10 no. bars at 101 mm2 each in the longitudinal direction evenly
= 460N/mm2).
placed on the perimeter of web cross-section
(f
5O'14S (FLEXURALSHEAR)
A/sv0OB5 (NIBDIRECT TENSION)
Z
U)
uJ
z
U)
Ui
I.-
zUi
C)
12 at110 I
12at130
=10
SK 2/65
- 660
A/S diagramfor
Example 2.3.
Torsional reinforcementin flange
T
0.8x1y10.87f
12at175
087
065
1300
1750
I
I
I
12at200
057
0.5x106
0.8
x (105
= 0.078
48)
x (400 48) x 0.87 x 460
Maximum spacing = x1, or
= 57mm
or 200mm
Use 8mm dia. links at 50mm centres (1006mm2/m) (f=460N/mm2)

Could also use 6mm dia. mild steel links at 50mm centres (566mm2/m)
(f, = 250N/mm2).
SeeExample 5.2, Step 4.
A reqd = 131 mm2/m
(for flexure) = 241 mm2/m
= 0.078
(460 grade steel)
(mild steel Grade 250)
for torsion (Grade 460)
= 0.078 x 1000 x
(Grade 250)
= 144 mm2/m (for 2 legs of mild steel)
= 72mm2/m (for each leg horizontal)
Total requirement= 241 + 72 = 313 mm2/m < 566 mm2/m
Longitudinalreinforcementfor torsion in flange
() (_)xi
= 0.078
= 59mm2
250
+ Yi)
x (57 + 352)
(4 no. 6mm dia. mild steel: f, = 250N/mm2)
See Step 10.
At support, A required = 1706mm2

Torsional A required at corners (2 bars) = 202 mm2
(Step 25)
Total top reinforcementrequired = 1706+ 202 = 1908mm2

Provided=4 no. 25mm dia. = 1964mm2 OK
Step 26 Flexural crack width calculations
By elastic analysis: no redistribution.
Maximum support moment at
A or C = 201 kNm
state)
(serviceability limit
d = 500 20 12 12.5 = 455.5

b = 400mm
= 1964mm2 p = 0.0108
Design
4-025
dE(M5)
P5Ommc/c
012LINK
408
____
SK 2/66 Typical section at
08 (MS)T
2025
5Ommc/c
support.
A. = 982mm2
rn = 10
hf = 105mm
h = 500mm
= 290mm
d' = 42.5mm
x=
dff(mp + (m
+ (m
1)p')2 +
(mp
+ (rn 1)
l)p') }
= 156.3 mm > hf = 105 mm
(mp
Using Reference 10, Table 117,
+
x= mdA -f0.5bh?
mA, bhf
10 x 455.5 x 1964 + 0.5 x 400 x
it) x 1964 + 400 x 105
= 181 mm
8-012
d hf(3x 2hf)
3(2x
= 410mm
h1)
105(3 x 181 2 x 105)

3(2 x 181 105)
1052
= 1)0054
()')]'
M
x 106
1964 x 410
201
= 250N/mm2
250
200x103
==
1.25
x i03
500 181 \
(\455.5
x 1.25 x iO
181)
i0
= 1.45 x
Smh
b(h x)2
3EA(d x)
290 x (500 181)2

= 1.45 x iO ____________________________
3 x 200 x i03 x 1964 x (455.5 181)
= 1.36 x
acr = V(4452 + 4452) 12.5 = 50.4mm
W'cr
3a
=
1+
Emh
2(ac.
(h
Cmin)
x)
3 x 50.4 x 1.36 x i03
1+ 2(50.4
(500
32)
181)
= 0.18mm < 0.3 mm
Step 27 Design ofconnections to other components

Follow Chapter 10.

2.5
FIGURES FOR CHAPTER 2
-c
Fig. 2.1 Values of I3-
100
Reinforced Concrete
010
201.1
0151
_0-15L
65
6OI.7
_010
r1001 60/.7
r20fr
T,f
0151
7ffecti
Span
0151
0101 for
endsupport
Effective Span
CONTINUOUS BEAM: CURTAILMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
LI
'.
50/. '
\-100.,.
0.c
Effective Span
SIMPLYSUPPORTED BEAM: CURTAILMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
CANTILEVER BEAM: CURTAILMENT OF REINFORCEMENT
Fig. 2.2 Simplified detailingrules for beams.
Chapter 3
Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs
NOTATION
3.0
a'
ab
acr
ASbX
ASb.
b
Cmin
d'
d!
E
E
F
G
h
Compressionface to point on surface of concrete where crack width is

calculated
Centre-to-centre distance between bars or groups of bars
Gross area of concrete in a section
Area of steel in compression
Minimum area of reinforcementat bottom of slab
Minimum area of reinforcementat top of slab
Reinforcementin y-direction to resist M about x-axis
Reinforcementin x-directionto resist M about Y-axis

Area of inclined shear reinforcementto resist V,
Area of inclined shear reinforcement to resist V
Area of vertical shear reinforcement
Area of vertical shear reinforcementto resist V,
Area of vertical shear reinforcement to resist V,
Width of reinforced concrete section
Width of section at centroid of tensile steel

Distance from tension face of concrete section to centre of tensile
reinforcement
Revised compressive stress in steel taking into account depth of neutral
axis
Characteristiccube strength of concrete at 28 days
Characteristic yield strength of reinforcementused as links
Shear modulus
Overall depth of slab
Shorter dimension of a rectangularpanel of slab for use of yield-line
charts
Moment of inertia using b as unit width for slab
Clear span or span face-to-face of support
101
Reinforced Concrete
102
I.
Effective span
Centre-to-centredistance between supports

Longer dimensionof a rectangular panel of slab for yield line
calculations
m
Md
M
Mh
Mb
MUN
MHP
MVN
Modular ratio=
Design bending moment per unit width of slab modified to account for
axial load
Moment per unit width about x-axis
Moment per unit width about y-axis
Torsional moment per unit width
WoodArmer design moment for top reinforcementin y-direction
WoodArmer design moment for bottom reinforcement in y-direction
WoodArmer design moment for top reinforcementin x-direction
WoodArmer design moment for bottom reinforcementin x-direction
Ultimate negative moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to H
Ultimate positive moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to H
Ultimate negative moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel
Mp
N
p
p
r
rR
R
S
Sb,
ShV
S,
S.
T1
U1
U0
v
v
v,
v,
vc,,
to L
Ultimate positive moment capacity of slab per unit width about an axis
parallel to L
Axial load per unit width of slab in x-direction to be combined with M
Axial load per unit width of slab in y-direction to be combined with M
Percentageof tensile reinforcement
Percentage of tensile steel to resist M, about x-axis
Percentage of tensile steel to resist M about y-axis
Loading per unit area used in yield-line analysis (kN/m2)
Ultimate loading per unit area
Restraint factor for computation of early thermal cracking
Ultimate total load on panel of slab
Spacing of vertical links
Spacing of inclined shear reinforcementto resist V per unit width
Spacing of inclined shear reinforcementto resist V per unit width
Spacing of vertical shear reinforcementto resist V per unit width
Spacing of vertical shear reinforcement to resist V per unit width
Differentialtemperature in a concretepourfor calculation of early thermal
cracking
Perimeterof concentratedload on slab at prescribedmultiplesof effective
depth
Perimeter of concentrated load footprint on slab

Design concrete shear strength
Calculatedpunchingshear stress at perimeter U1
Calculated shear stress in concrete due to V,
Calculated shear stress in concrete due to V
Design concrete shear stress to compare with V for bending about x-axis
Design concrete shear stress to compare with V for bending about y-axis
Design
v1
V
Wmax
x
x
y
103
Calculatedpunchingshear stress at perimeter U1

Shear force per unit width for bending about x-axis
Shear force per unit width for bending about y-axis
Depth of neutral axis from compression face
Distance from edge in L-direction to start of a yield line
Distance
from edge in H direction to start of a yield line
Depth of lever arm
z
c
13
Eh
Em
Er
Cmii
Ci
Pent
3.1
of Reinforced Concrete Slabs

CoeffIcient of thermal expansion of concrete
Material factor
Calculatedstrain in concrete at depth h
Strain with stiffening effect corrected
Tensile strain in concrete due to temperature differential causing early
thermal cracking
Strain at centre of compressive reinforcement
Strain at depth h corrected for stiffening effect
Calculated strain in concrete ignoring stiffening effect
Critical percentageof steel required to distribute early thermal cracking
ANALYSIS
OF SLABS
3.1.1 Slabs: properties

3.1.1.1 Effective spans
Simply supported or encastr
Continuous
Cantilever
where
1C
I = smaller of (1+ d) or
I=
distance between supports

l = centre-to-centre
effective
1.
span
= clear spanor span to face of support

d = effective depth of tension reinforcement.
3.1.1.2 Moment of inertia

Method I Gross concrete section only
See Section 2.1.3 use Table 11.2 with b equal to unity.
Method 2 Uncracked transformed concrete
See Section 2.1.3 use Table 11.2 with b equal to unity and
A and A
104
Reinforced Concrete
are for unit width. Convert A and A into equivalent concrete areas
by multiplying by m = E/E. Moment of inertia increment due to
steel = mA(x')2 wherex' is the distance of the steel from the centroidal
axis of the section. The shift of the centroidal axis due to the presence of
reinforcing steel may be neglected.
Method 3 Average of gross concrete section and cracked section
(I bh3 + Fbh3)
=
where
I = moment of inertia of rectangularconcrete section

b = unit width of slab
h = overall depth of slab
F = factor see Fig. 11.1 for values of F
1OOA
bd
A = area of tensile reinforcementper unit width of slab
where
1OOA.
bd
A = area of compressive reinforcementper unit width of slab

m = modular ratio = E
E
where
Note:
For slabs, b is taken equal to unity.

The preferred methodisMethod3 for rectangularsections. Where reinforcement quantitiesare not known,an assumption maybe made ofthe percentage of reinforcement.
3.1.1.3 Modulus of ekisticily

See Section 2.1.4.
3.1.1.4 Shear modulus

Shear modulus G = 0.42E for concrete.
3.1.1.5 Poisson's
ratio
Poisson's ratio for concrete is 0.2
3.1.1.6 Thermalstrain
See Section 2.1.9.
3.1.2 Analysis of slabs
The objective is to find the following internal forces by analysis:
(1) Moments
M, M
and
Design
of ReinforcedConcrete Slabs
V, and V,
(2) Shears
Mh,
(3) WoodArmer moments
N, and N
(4) In-plane loads
and
105
Mh
Method I
BS811O: Part 1: 1985, clauses 3.5.2 and 3.5.3, Table 3.15.1']
Method 2
Yield-line method: non-linear use Figs 3.18
Method 3
Finite difference: linear elastic
to 3.33.
Moody's table.191
Method 4
Finite element analysis: linear elastic use general purpose computer

program or Figs 3.1 to 3.17.
Commentary
Method 1 is a non-conservative approach. If crackinghas to be avoided,
an elastic method of analysis, i.e. finiteelement or finite difference,will be
more appropriate. For complicatedloadings and complex layout of slab
panels and supporting arrangements, it is always recommended to use
finite element analysis. Finite element analysis will give Wood-Armer
design moments for top and bottom reinforcement in a panel of slab.
Method 2 (yield-lines) may be successfully used for uniformly loaded slab
panels with different boundary conditions. Method 2 gives a better rep-
resentation of internal forces in a slab panel than Method 1.
Recommendations
Use Method 2 or Method 3 generally. Use Method 4 (finite element
analysis)only where complicated loadings and geometry render the other
methods unusable. Use elastic analysis charts if boundary conditions and
loadings are appropriate.
3.1.3 Distribution of loads on beams
SK 3/1 Distribution of load on

beams (Method 2).
106
Reinforced Concrete
Method 1
BS811O: Part 1: 1985, clause 3537['1
Method 2
Triangular and trapezoidal distributionof uniform load.

Method 3
Finite difference Moody's Table.191 Use the coefficients

calculatedistributionof loads on the edge beams.
R and R to
Method 4
Finite element analysis. Use the support reactionsas loadingon the beam.
Recommendations
Method 2 may be used for all applications. Method 3 and Method 4 may
be used when similar methods are used for the analysis of the slab panels.
3.1.4 Concentrated load on slab
SECTION THROUGH SLAB
PLAN OF SLAB
SK 3/2 Effective width of slab to

be consideredfor spread of a
concentratedload on a simply
supported one-way slab.
Simply supported slabsspanningin one direction only the width B on each

side of load over which the load may be assumedto spread is given by:
Design of ReinforcedConcrete Slabs 107
B=
where
1.2x(1
x = distance of load from support closest to load

effective span.
For slabsspanningin both directions published tables and charts should

be used to find bending moment and shear per unit width of slab. A
finite element model may be created to analyse a complicated loading
arrangement.
3.2
LOAD COMBINATIONS
3.2.1 General rules
See Section 2.2.1.
3.2.2 Rules of load combination for continuous one-way spanning slab

See Section 2.2.2.
panels
3.2.3 Redistribution of moments
3.2.3.1
Two-way
See Section 2.2.3.
spanningslabpanels
No redistribution is allowed when Method 1 or Method 2 of analysis in

Section 3.1.2 is followed. Redistribution of 10% may be allowed when
Method 3 or Method4 is adopted. Note that reductionof support moments
means a correspondingincrease in span moment.
3.3
See Section 2.2.4.
STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR SLABS

Step 1 Analysis
Carry out analysis (follow Section 3.1.2).
Note: One-way spanning slabs should be treated as beams of unit width and
Chapter 2 should be followedexcept for minimum shear reinforcement.
Step 2 Design forces
Draw panel of slab and indicatemaximum design moments, shears and inplane loads, if any, per unit width of slab.
Determine cover required to reinforcement as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.

Find effective depth d, assuming reinforcement diameter. Use actual effective depth in each direction.
108
Reinforced Concrete
Step 4 Design of slabforflexure
I WIDTH
O67jcu/m
__ 0 9x
SK 3/3 Section through slab

showing stress due to moment.
Find the following parameters for design moments in Step 2 per unitwidth
of slab.
Md
Note:
=M+
for N
N(
d1)
0.1fbd
For N>0.1fbd, design as wall (see Chapter 8). Md may also be taken
equal to M where N0.1fbd and N may be ignored. (Sign convention:
N is +ve for compression.)
K=
Md
fbd2
+
=
0.45
AS
Md
0.87f
0.87fz
K' = 0.156
K' = O.4O2(13b
when redistribution does not exceed 10%

when redistribution exceeds
0.4) O.l8(3b 0.4)2
10%
=
where
Note:
<0.9
M = moment after redistribution
M' = moment before redistribution.
If K is greater than K', increase depth of slab and start from Step 1 unless
links are provided in the zone where steel in compression is used. The
links are required to provide lateral restraint to bars in compression. Links
in slab should normally be avoided.
When K> K',
z=
d[0.5
(o.2s
Design of Reinforced Concrete Slabs 109
SK 3/4 Section through doubly

reinforcedslab.
x = d z s 0.5d
A' = (K
K')fbd2
f(d d')
N
AS=Kf+A,_
0.87fz
O.87fy
If d'/x>0.43x,
A' = (K
K')fbd2
f.(d d')
____
0.87fz
0.87J
f = Ix
=
d'\
becausesteel strain
e=
(x
d'\
(L)
where
e correspondsto steel stress
as in Section 1.4.2.
Note: Follow detailing rules in clause 3.5.3.5 of BS 8110: Part 1: 19851 if

analysis has been carried out usingTable 3.15 of BS 8110. Design charts in
BS 8110: Part 3: 1985 may be used.
Step 5 Detailing
Convert areas of steel per unit width found in Step 4 to diameter and
spacing of bars.
Step 6 Checkshear
Y
SK 3/5 Plan of a panel of slab

showing direction of
reinforcement.
Mx
i)
(for
Mx,V
110
Reinforced Concrete
Find the following parameters at critical sections for shear.
v=
0.8
\/f
5 N/mm2
vy =
0.8
\/f
5N/mm2
100A
bd
Py=
100A
bd
v, fromFigs11.2 to 11.5, dependingon strength of concrete.

If v< v and v < v,, no shear reinforcementis required.
If v < v (v + 0.4) or v,,< v, (v + 0.4), nominal links are required
in the zone where v. or v, is greaterthan or v, respectively.
Find
and
Find nominal links:
rAsvy(Totat area)
::
If)
(Total area)
UNIT WIDTH
0.4bS
0.87f
>
or ASVY
Plan of unit area of slab

showing shear reinforcementby
SK 3/6
links.
0.4bS0.87f
Note: Single vertical bars may be used instead of closed links provided proper
anchorage bond length is available.
If
and
v, < v < (v + 0.4)
vc < v, < (v + 0.4)
nominal links
Assume
A
in both directions are required.
S=
0.8bS
0.87f
= S,
Design

.&sv (Toa area)
1
f_
L_ L_. L_
L........
111
(I)
(
In
In
UNIT WIDTH
=b
of unit area and

section showing shear
reinforcementby single vertical
bars.
SK 3/7 Plan
tJ'Jj'J']
Provide single vertical bars with proper anchorageover the whole zone at
a grid spacing of S.
If
+ 0.4) <
0.8
5 N/mm2
or
(v +
(v
0.4) <
0.8
\/f
\/f
5 N/mm2
use links or bent-up bars.

Asbx (totalarea)
unit width
__j
I =i1--I-=1
==i
:'t::
1i
-:1with
unit
Plan of slab showing

bent-up bars as shear
SK 3/8
SK 3/9 Section through slab showing bent-up

shear reinforcement.
reinforcement.
bS1(v v1)
O.87f
bS(v v)
0.87f
when using links for V, or
when using links for l/, or
112
Reinforced Concrete
Asbx
bdSbx(v1
v)
0.87f(cos + sinccotl3)(d d')

when using bent-up bars for V, or
bdSbV(v
A.sby
v)
0.87f(cosc + sinccot)(d d')

whenusingbent-upbars for V
+ 0.4) < v
(v
<
and
+
If
(v
0.4)
0.8\/f
v 0.8\/f
5 N/mm2
5 N/mm2
use bent-up bars in two orthogonal directions.

A
bdSbX(v1
v)
0.87f (cosx + sincot3) (d d')
bdSby(vV
and
Note:
v)
0.87f (cosc+ sincot) (d d')
Ab and Ab are the areas of bent-up bar required per unit width of slab
equal to b.
Recommendation
Avoid using links
or bent-up bars in slabs to resist shear. No shear

reinforcementshould be used in slabs up to 200mm thick.
SK 3/10 Lacing systemof shear

reinforcementin slab.
A lacing system of shear reinforcement in slabs provided by bent-up

barsat 45tothetensilereinforcementworkswell whereshear reinforcement
and general increase of ductility are required. In this system, angles and
I may both be taken equal to 45. In the formula for calculatingthe area
of the bent-up bars, SbX and SbY may be limited to 1.5d.
Step 7 Check punchingshear
Check punchingshear stress.

Vmax
where
V1
0.8
\/f
5N/mm2
U = 2(a + b) for rectangular load, or

= perimeter of loaded area.
Design
113
SK 3/11 Plan of slab around a

concentratedload showing
successive perimeters for punching
shear check.
= 2(a + b + 6d) for rectangular loaded area, or

= perimeter at 1.5d from face of loaded area.
v = design concrete shear stress from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
V = concentrated load on slab
where
U1

showing effective depths.
Calculate
Note:
Take
p = 100 A/bd under concentrated load to find v.
as the average of Px and Py where Px = 100A/hd. and
l0OA/bd.
p=
Shear reinforcement in firstfailure zone

If v1 v, no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are
necessary.
If v1
1.6
A.S sincr
v,
(v1
sin
v) U1d
0.87f
If 1.6v < v1
A55
0.4U1d
0.87f
2 v,
5(0.7v1
v) U1d
0.87f
0.4U1d
0.87f
114
Reinforced Concrete
FACE OF LOAD
FAILURE ZONE 1=1.5d FAILURE
ZO 3=1.5d
PERIMETER U3
d,2
LU
O-Thd
O.75d
>t0.75d
rI
I
_________ _________ ________ ________

________ ________
- SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT
__________ __________________ _________

PERIMETER Ui- _________
O.75d
REIPORCEMENT
COMMON TO
BOTh FAILURE
ZONES 2 AND 3.
COMMON TO
90TH FAILURE
ZONES AND 2.
O.75d
1.5d
FAILURE ZONE2
LPERIMET U2
SK 3/13 Typical shear reinforcementfor concentratedload on slab.
is summation of areas of all shear reinforcement in a failure

is the angle betweenthe shear reinforcementand the plane of
the slab. If v is greater than 2v then redesign slab with increased thickness
or increased tensile steelor a combinationofthese parameters. It has been
observedin teststhat shearreinforcementin slabs does not work effectively
where
zone and
if v>2v.
Shear reinforcement in secondfailure zone

V
U2d
where
U2 =
2 (a + b + 9d) for rectangularloaded area, or

= perimeter at 2.25d from face of loaded area.
If v2 v, no shear reinforcement is required and no further checks are

necessary.
If V2
1.6 v,
Asin
(v2 v)U2d
O.4U2d
OX7f,
O.87f
If 1.6 v, < v2
A sinc
2 v,
5(O.7v2
v)U2d
O.87f,
O.4U2d
O.87f
Similarly check successive failure zones O.75d apart till v v,, is satisfied.
Reinforcementto resist shear will be provided on at least two perimeters
within a failure zone. Spacingof shear reinforcement on the perimeter
should not exceed 1.5d.
Steps to befollowedfor the determination ofpunchingshear reinforcement in
slabs
Design
115
(1) The first failure zone is from the face of the loaded area to the
perimeter 1.5d away.
The
first perimeter of shear reinforcement should be placed at d12
(2)
from the face of the loaded area.
(3) The second perimeter of shear reinforcement should be placed at
O.75d from the first perimeter of shear reinforcement.
is the sum of areas of all the legs of shear reinforcement in a
(4)
failure zone in the first and second perimeter.
(5) The second failure zone is 1.5d wide and starts at O.75d from the face
of the loaded area.
(6) The successive failure zones are 1.5d wide and are O.75d apart.
(7) The first perimeter reinforcement in the second failure zone is the
same as the second perimeter reinforcement in the first failure zone.
Step 8 Modification due to holes
OPENING
IN SLAB
SHEAR PERIMETER
of shear
perimeterdue to presenceof holes.
SK 3/14 Modification
REDUCTION OF
PERIMETER
WITHIN THE
RADIATING LINE
III
-
CHEcXING
OF PUNCHING
SHE AR
Carry out modification of U in Step 7 to allow for holes and proximity to

edge.
The perimeter under consideration,U, in Step 7 willbe reduced.
-Third perimeter of
shear reinforcement
-Second perimeter of
shear reinforcement
First perimeter of
shear reinforcement
SK 3/15 Planof slab near a concentratedload showing distribution of shear

reinforcement.
116
Reinforced Concrete
O.OOl3bh
in both directions
At end support of slabs where simple support has been assumed, provide
in the top of slab half the area of bottom steel at midspan or 0.OOl3bh,
whicheveris greater.
Step 10 Torsionalreinforcement
Special torsional reinforcement will be required at the corners of slab

panels when the method of analysis follows clause 3.5.3.4 of BS811O:
Part 1: 1985. Follow clause 3.5.3.5 to determine the amount of torsional
reinforcement.
Step 11
Check span/effective depth

Find leld, where is the effective span in the shorter direction. Find basic
span/effectivedepth ratio from Table 11.3.
Find service stress, f. =

where
rc4d)f
(_)(hls
b
s prov
= MIM'
M = moment after redistribution
M' = moment before redistribution.
13b
Find M/bd2.
Find modification factor for tension reinforcement from Chart 11.5 and
modification factor for compressionreinforcement from Chart 11.4.
Find modified span/depth ratio by multiplying the basic span/depth ratio
with the modification factor for tensile reinforcement and compression
reinforcement, if used.
Check
1Id <modified span/depth ratio.
Step 12 Curtailment of bars in tension

Follow simplified detailing rules for slabs as in Fig. 3.34.
Step 13 Spacing of bars in tension
Clear spacing of bars should not exceed 3d or 750 mm.
Percentage of reinforcement,
100 A/bd
(%)
1 or over
0.75
0.5
0.3
less than 0.3
Maximum clear spacing of

bars in slabs (mm)
160
210
320
530
3d or 750, whichever is less
A is the area required at the ultimate limit state. The clear spacings as
be multiplied by (b to account for redistribution of

moments. is the ratio of moment after redistributionto moment before
redistribution.These clear spacingsdeem to satisfy 0.3mm crack width at
serviceability limit state.
given above may
Step 14 Check early thermal cracking

Early thermal cracking should
configurations:
be checked for the following pour
(1) Thinwall cast on massive base: R = 0.6 to 0.8 at base, R = 0.1 to 0.2 at
top.
(2) Massive pour cast on blinding: R = 0.1 to 0.2.
(3) Massive pour cast on existingmass concrete: R = 0.3 to 0.4 at base,
R=0.1 to 0.2 at top.
(4) Suspended slabs: R = 0.2 to 0.4.
(5) Infillpanels i.e. rigid restraint: R = 0.8 to 1.0.
R = restraint factor
Typical valuesof T1 for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete are:
where
Section thickness (mm) Steel formwork Plywood formwork Cast on ground

13C
22C
32C
42C
3(X)
500
700
10(X)
25C
35C
42C
47C
17C
28C
28C
28C
These figures are based on average cement content of 350 kg/m3.

Calculate:
r = 0.8
T1
obtain
2.1.9.
(coefficient
cR
of thermal expansion) from Table 2.3 in Section
SK 3/16 Section of slab for crack

width calculation.
Wmax
2(acr
Assume x = h12
Er
Cmin)
h x
118
Reinforced Concrete
Note:
If Wmax is greater than design crack width, which is normallytaken equal
to 0.3 mm, then suggest means for reducing T1.
Step 15 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute early thermal cracking

Pent=0.0035
for Grade 460 steel reinforcement
A= Acpcrit
For suspended slabs and walls,
A=
bh
or 250b
= 0.0035 A
whichever is smaller
near each face in each direction of slab and wall
For ground slabs and foundation bases,

up to 300 mm thickness:
= 0.00175bh near top surface in each direction
from 300mm to 500mm thickness:
A1 = 0.00175bh
Ab =0.35b
near top surface in each direction

near bottom surface in each direction
over 500mm thickness:
= 0.875b
Ab =0.35b
near top surface in each direction

near bottom surface in each direction
Step 16 Checkflexural crack width

LC7 = 1.ODL+ 1.OLL + 1.OEP+ 1.OWP+1.OWL
Note: Omit loadings from LC7 which produce beneficial rather than adverse
effect.
SK 3/17 Section through slab for
the calculation of flexural crack

width.

3acr
Wmax
Em
2(acr
Cmin)
h x
b(hx)2
_______________
Emh Eh
3EA(d x)
Note:
Eh is the strain due
to load combination LC7 at depth h from compression

face, b is the unit widthof slab, and A, is the area of tensile steel per unit
width of slab.
For slab, b is taken equal to unit width.
..
Unit width
zone
1.A(stelinercompression
unit width)
1d'
L
h d
..
.- ft.
SK 3/18 Section of slab with steel
in compression zone.
E,
m=
x=
in tension
per unit width)
+ (m
(mp + (m
- 1)p')2 + 2(mp + (m - 1)()p')]
1)p')}
()(1 )
k3 = (m - 1) (1 =
Es
M
k2bd2 + k3A(d d')
mfc(
= fs
_x
\d xi
zor'i
A.
k2=
f=
axis
. )D .___
(steel
A,
p=
bd
d{[(mp
iutral
120
Reinforced Concrete
Emh
Note:
b(h x)2
3EA(d x)

3.4 WORKED EXAMPLE

Example3.1 Design of a two-wayslab panel
//
//
//
//
//
//
//
///
/ _________________ ///
7
o
o
-
//
//
//
____________________________________
I
I
SK 3/19 Planof a panel of slab

continuous on all sides.
Clear panel size is 6m x 4m

Thickness of slab= 150 mm
Imposed loading= 20kN/m2
Finishes= 2 kN/m2
Panel of slab continuouson all four sides
Width of beam = 300mm
Step 1 Analysis of slabpanel
Effective span, IC 1
l, = 4.3m
= 6.3m
1II = 0.68
Elastic analysis
Read coefficients from Fig. 3.12:
m11
= 0.035
= 0.021
m2 = 0.075
m,2 = 0.060
Characteristicdead load = 0.15m x 25 kN/m3x 1.4 + 2 x 1.4
= 8.0 kN/m2
Design
of Reinforced ConcreteSlabs
121
Characteristicimposed load = 1.6 x 20 = 32 kN/m2
n = ultimate load on slab = 8 + 32 = 4OkN/m2

M11
= mn1
= 0.035 x 40 x 432
= 25.9kNm/m
M1 = 0.021 x 40 x 432
= 15.5 kNmlm
M3 = 0.075 x 40 x 432
= 55.5 kNm/m
M,2 = 0.060 x 40 x 432
= 44.4 kNm/m
Allowing for 10% redistributionof moments,
Design moments:
M1 = 31.4kNm/m
M1 = 19.9 kNm/m
M3 = 50.0kNm/m
M,2
= 40.0 kNm/m
SK 3/20 Plan of panel of slab
showing bending moments and
shears.
Note: These moments do not take into account the WoodArmer effect due to
the presence of
and may be unconservative locally. In ultimate load
design local plastic hinge formation may be tolerated when there is a
possibility of redistribution of loads.
Analysisfollowing BS8110: Part 1: 1985'
Coefficients from Table 3.15.
Interior panel tv/tx = 1.46
m1 = 0.039
m1 = 0.024
m3 = 0.052
= 0.032
M1 = 28.8kNm/m
M1 = 17.8 kNm/m
M3 = 38.5kNm/m
M2 = 23.7kNm/m
122
Reinforced Concrete
Note: These momentsare considerably less than the redistributeddesignmoments
found from elastic analysis. Elasticanalysis gives peak values, whereasthe
BS 8110 coefficients tend to smear them across a long stretch of slab.
It is desirable and practical to use the elastic analysis results and allow
10% redistributionwith a view to minimising the appearance of unsightly
cracks in the slab. This is conservative approach.
Check by yield-lines analysis

Assume that the elastic analysis moments are ultimate capacity moments
in the panel of slab.
= 5OkNm/m
(Vertical Negative)
(Vertical Positive)
(HorizontalNegative)
(Horizontal Positive)
Assume that the elastic analysis results will be the maximum plastic
moments in the panel of slab.
MVN
Mp = 31.4kNm/m
MJJN = 4OkNm/m
MHP = 19.9 kNm/m
L (MVN + Mvp'\
H MHN + MHP)
6.3
4.3
(50 + 31.4'\
\40 + 19.9)
= 1.70
Assume symmetrical yield-lines see Table 3.2.

Refer to appropriate diagram from Figs 3.18 to 3.33.
Refer to Fig. 3.22 and find x/L
= 0.35
x = 0.35 x 6.3 = 2.20m
Unit resistance, r =
5(M + MHP)
x2
from Table 3.2
= 5 x 59.9 = 61.9kN/m2 > 4OkN/m2

2.22
Alternatively,
r=
8(MVN
+ Mp)(3L x)
H2(3L 4x)
= 8(50 + 31.4)(3 x
6.3
from Table 3.2
2.2)
4.32(3 x 6.3 4 x 2.2)
= 5&23kN/m2 > 4OkN/m2
Note: The valuesof MVN,

MHN and
as close to 4OkN/m2 as possible.
could be readjustedto arrive at r
Designed by the resultsof elastic analysis the slab panel has a large reserve
ofstrengthbecausethefailureloadingis58.23 kN/m2 againstdesign ultimate
loading of 4OkN/m2. Similarly, designed by the results of the BS 8110

method of analysis, the panel of slab has a small reserve of
strength
becausethe calculated collapse loading is 46.3 kN/m2.
To check crack widths and deflection due to service load the BS8I1O
coefficients may not be used. Always use the elastic analysis results.
Determination ofshear at supports
Use BS811O: Part 1: 1985, Table
Shear coefficients 0.44 and 0.33
= 0.44 x 40 x 4.3
= 75.7kN/m
= 0.33 x 40 x 4.3
= 56.8 kN/m
Refer to Table 3.4.
By yield-line principle: assuming
3 r H (1 x/L)
2(3x/L)
3 x 40 x 4.3 x (1
2(3
63.3 kN/m
Vy =
r= 40kN/m2,
0.35)
0.35)
3rx = 3x40><2.2 =
52.8kN/m
5
Step 2 Draw diagram ofpanel of slab

See diagram with moments and shears marked on
the panel (in Step 1).
Assume diameter of main reinforcement = 12mm

Condition of exposure= mild
Minimum cement content = 325kg/m3
Maximum free water/cement ratio = 0.55
Nominal cover, as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7=20mm
Effective depth, = 150 20 6 = 124mm
Effective depth,
lSO20126=ll2mm
d=

showing effective depths.
124
ReinforcedConcrete
Step 4 Design of slab
Over continuous long edge, M = 50kNm/m
K=
=
x=
A. =
fbd
d[o.s
0.45
50x106
40
=0.081
x 1000 x 1242
= 0.9d =
/(o.25
111.6mm
= 27.5mm
0.87fz
50x106
0.87
x 460 x
111.6
= 1120mm2/m
Overcontinuous short edge, M = 40 kNm/m
K=
fbd
40x106
40 x 1000 x 1122
=0.08
z = 0.9d = 100.8 mm
x = 24.9mm
A = 992 mm2/m
Positive midspan moment in short direction
M = 31.4 kNm/m
K = 0.051
z = 116.5 mm
A = 673 mm2/m
Positive midspan moment in long direction
M = 19.9 kNm/m
K = 0.04
z = 0.95d =
106.4 mm
= 467mm2/m
Step5 Diameterand spacingof bars
Use:
Over long edge l2dia. at 100 centre-to-centre (top) (1131mm2/m)

Over short edge 12dia. at 100 centre-to-centre (top) (1131 mm2/m)
Short direction at midspan
(754 mm2/m)
l2dia. at 150 centre-to-centre (bottom)

E
012
100(1)
iiTii
LLL
SK 3/22 Plan of panel of slab

showing design steel requirement.
Long direction
(565 mm2/m)
at
midspan
It
V
75.7 x io
=
= 0.61 N/mm2
v = ibd 1000 x 124
V = 56.8 x io = 0.51 N/mm2

v = Px=
1000 x 112
bOA,.
100A.
From Fig.
1000
bd
bd
100
1131
x 124
=0.91%
100 x 1131
=1.0%
1000 x 112
11.5,
v = 0.97N/mm2 > v = 0.61N/mm2

No shear reinforcementrequired.
Step 7 Checkpunchingshear stress
Not required.
Step 8 Modficafion due to holes
Not required.
= 0.OOl3bh
= 0.0013 x 1000 x
= 195mm2/m
150
satisfied
Step 10 Torsional reinforcement

Not required.
_{
Beam
l2dia. at 200 centre-to-centre (bottom)
Step 6 Check shear stress
bd
Beam
1!
126
Reinforced Concrete
Step 11 Check span/effective depth
1
d
4.3
x i03
124
= 34.7
Basic span/effectivedepth ratio = 26

M' = 31.4 =
Ib =
M
25.9
from Table 11.3
1.21
whereM' = momentafterredistribution;M = momentbefore redistribution

S
(As_rcqd\(1
A
'11
prov' \Ib
= 5 x 460 x
8
673
754
1.21
= 212N/mm2
M
bd2
31.4 x 106
1000
x 1242
20
From Chart 11.5,

modification factor = 1.33
Modified span/effective depth ratio= 26 x 1.33 = 34.58<34.7
Code deflectionlimits have been exceeded slightly.

May
be ignored.

BEAM
12
200(T)
(1600]
NEL
j
I
Gl2@ 400(T)
(3000]
It)I2 @ 400(T)
I
I
I
BEAM
BEAM
12 300(B)
I2@300(B)
124001
_(BEAM
l2@400(T)
G12@400(B) [3600)
l2@400(T)k2o0J
012@200(T) (2200)
SK 3/23 Planof panel of slab showingarrangementof reinforcement.
Design
127
45xdja. ofbars=45x12=540mm
0.15 1=0.15x4.3=645mm
0.30 4,. = 0.30 x 4.3 = 1290mm
0.20
0.20 x 4.3 = 860mm
4=
0.15 1=0.15x6.3=945mm
0.30 1ev = 0.30 x 6.3 = 1890mm
0.20 = 0.20 x 6.3 = 1260mm
Direction
l. top reinforcement
l2dia. @ 100 c/c to 800 mm from centre of beam (top)

l2dia. @ 200 c/c to 1500mm from centre of beam (top)
Direction
top reinforcement
l2dia. @ 100 c/c to 1100mm from centre of beam (top)

l2dia. @ 200 c/c to 2100mmfrom centre of beam (top)
Elsewhere use l2dia. @ 400 c/c (top) both directions (282mm2)
Direction 4. bottom reinforcement
l2dia. @ 150 c/c up to 800 mm from centre of beam (bottom)

l2dia. @ 300 c/c over beam (bottom)
Direction 4.
bottom reinforcement
l2dia. @ 200 c/c up to 1200mm from centre of beam (bottom)

l2dia. @ 400 c/c over beam (bottom)
Percentage of reinforcementin slab= 1%
Maximum clear spacing allowed= 160mm
Actual spacing used = 100mm
OK
Maximum spacing of bars in tension
3d 3 x 112 = 336mm
Maximum spacing used for designedbars in tension= 200 mm
OK
Maximum spacing of nominal reinforcement to control early thermal
cracking= 400mm
Step 14 Check thermal cracking

For suspended slab, R = 0.3 assumed
=
=
12C assumed for 150 mm thick

12
x 106 per degree C
= 0.8 T1 R
= 0.8 x 12 x
= 34.56 x
12
10
x 106 x 0.3
slab
128
ReinforcedConcrete
Cmin = 20mm
+ 12mm (dia. of bar)

= 32mm (direction lb,)
x = d/2 assumed= 112/2 = 56mm (direction 1,)
acr = \/(2002 + 382) 6 = 197.6 mm
3a. Er
+2(cr Cmin)
(h x)
3 x 197.6
x 34.56 x 106
1+ 2(197.6
(150
32)
56)
=0.0045mm<0.3mm
OK
Step 15 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute cracking

bh
A=-2-=
1000x150
2
=75000mm2
= 0.0035 A = 262.5 mm2/m

A provided = l2dia. @ 400 c/c (282 mm2/m)
Step16 Assessment
ofcrack width inflexure
SK 3/24 Sectionthrough slab over

beam for crack width calculations.
Service load on slab = 25.75kN/m2
By elastic analysis,
maximum bending moment over long support
= 0.075 x 25.75 x 432

= 35.7kNm/m
i0
= 1131mm2/m A/bd = 9.12 x

b = 1000mm d = 124mm
in = 10 = EIE
A = neglected
x = d[((mp)2 + 2 mp) mp] = 43mm
Design
=d
= 124
f= M =
35.7
=
=
Emh
i06
x 109.7
1131
)
=
288
200x103
b(h
3E.,A.,(d
12
x)2
x)
= 288 N/mm2
43\
) x 1.44 x i(r3 = 1.90 x iO
1.90
x
1000(150
x 200 x
= 1.69 x iO
3
43)2
x 1131 x (124 43)
Cmin = 20mm
acr = \/(262
+ 502)
3acr
Wcr=
(h
6 = 50mm
1 +
Cmin)
x)
129
109.7mm
1.44
/150
=0.l6mm<0.3mm
OK
130
Reinforced Concrete
3.5 FIGURES AND TABLES FOR CHAPTER 3
Edge conditions and loading diagrams
1T1
'p
L,2
L12
Elasto-plastic
resistance,
V
4k.
Elastic
resistance,
1MN
L'
L,'
3L
wwvw1
Li
Li
mThcYj
MN
8MN
L
'P
L
,,PI2
L/3
,P/2
L/34L/34
Fig. 3.1 Elasticand elasto-plastic unit resistances for one-wayelements.
cT
Edge conditions and loading diagrams
Support reactions,
r, L
L,i
1/2
L. reaction
'P
W
L,'
L/2
L. reaction
5rL
R. reaction
3rL
8
llR,
R. reaction
16
5R,
16
r,L
R
L,i
L/2
.,
r,L
Rr,
L
,P/2
,,P/2
L13L13jLj3
R
2
Fig. 3.2 Support shears for one-way elements (to be read in conjunction
Fig. 3.1).
with
HIL
Fig. 3.3 Momentand deflection

coefficients for uniformly loaded
two-way element with two adjacent
edges fixed and two edges free.1
>
002
003
.005
.007
01
02
03
05
07
0I
02
03
05
0.7
l0
HIL
Fig. 3.4 Moment and deflection

two-way element with one edge
fixed, an adjacent edge simply
supported and two edges free.t81
H/L

edges simply supported and two
edges free.181
H/L

two-way element with three edges
fixed and one edge free.
HIL

two-way element with two opposite
edges fixed, one edge simply
supported and one edge free)51
H/L
Fig. 3.8 Momentand deflection

edges simply supported, one edge
fixed and one edge free)51
000I
0002
0003
0005
00t
0007
002
003
= IJrH2
iiiiii
----7-
0 0.7 0-5
0-3
02
01
11111111
5'O
30 20
H/L
---J-----
iii
IIIEii 1111
XV =
IU 7.0
'007
005
01
.02
03
05
.07
0I
02
03
07
01
10
free.t81

simply supported and one edge
HIL

two-way element with two edges
fixed, one edge simply supported
and one edge free.N
HIL

edges simply supported, one edge
fixed and one edge free.t8'
H/L

two-way element with all edges
fixed.Pl
>
supported)1
H/L

edges fixed and two edges simply
H/L
supported)

fixed and one edge simply
a
-l
a
a
C.
simply supported.tSl
NIL

two-way element with all edges
NIL

edges fixed and two edges simply
supported.
HIL
fixed.151

simply supported and one edge
08
07
06
'
04
08
.0
11/2
L I Mvp
I
[MHN MHDJ
Fig. 3.18 Location of yield lines for two-way element with two adjacent edges
supported and two edges free (values of x).lMJ
J0
09
08
07
06
ylH
0-s
04
0-3
02
0I
L [MvN+Mvp1''2
HL Mm
of yield lines for two-way element with two adjacent edges

supported and two edges free (values of y).151
Fig. 3.19 Location
xIL
138
Reinforced Concrete
Mvp
.LI
H
1/2
-
LMHN 4MHPJ
Fig. 3.20 Locationof unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with three
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 = 1.0)181
y!H
.L
I_MVN+MVP1V2
H LMHN+MNPJ
Fig. 3.21 Locationof symmetrical yieldlinesfor two-way element withthreeedges

supported and one edge free (value of v))1
Design
139
05
0-5
0-4
0-4
0-3
0-3
02
0-2
0I
0-I
k(MVN+_Myp\'/2
H kqH.N)
Fig. 3.22 Locationof symmetrical yield lines for two-way element with four edges
supported.t81
L[
Mvp
N LMHNI+MHPJ
Fig. 3.23 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with three
edgessupported and one edge free (X2/X1 = O.1)JsI
140
Reinforced Concrete
'''
1"
H [MHNI+MHPJ
edgessupported and one edge free (X2/X1 =
Myp 1/2
H LMHNI MHPJ
Fig. 3.25 Locationof unsymmetrical yield linesfor two-way element with three
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 =O.5).I1
Design
U.,
141
ii 4:u27sq/1
---
Mvp
Mvw2
\'\
E"HH!
--
Nooo
01
Q5
05 10
Myp
10
50
8000
]112
H LMHNI+MHPJ
edges supported and one edge free (X,1X1 = ().75).1
L[
H
Mvp
11/2
[MHNItMHPJ
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 =
142
Reinforced Concrete
.Li
Mvp
H LMHNI+MHP]
Fig. 3.28 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-wayelement with three
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 = 1.5).151
LI
H
Mp
1/2
LMHNI+MHPj
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 = 1.75))81
LI
1112
Mvp
H [MHNI+MHPJ
edges supported and one edge free (X2/X1 =20)181
05
kH [
kM
oe
(Mv+Mvp)&2
+M)V24 (MHHI4MHP)h/2J
edges supported and one edge free (values of y))81
144
Reinforced Concrete
XI
-I:
L [IMvNI Mvp+ MvII2Mvp
J5(MI*I4MHP)
Fig. 3.32 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with four
edges supported (values of X1).151
07
04
05
04
03
02
03
04
05 06
L--
0.7
5JMviMvp
jMHNI+MHP+ J4N2+MHP
Fig. 3.33 Location of unsymmetrical yield lines for two-way element with four
edges supported (values of V1).151
Design
Continuous Slab Approximate equal spans
Simply Supported Slab
1/2
TOOI0
Cantilever Slab
Fig. 3.34 Simplifieddetailingrules for slabs.
r5
145
146
Reinforced Concrete
Table 3.1 Graphical summary of two-way elements to be used in conjunction
with Figures 3.3 to 3.17
Fig. 3.3
LL
Fig. 3.4
Fig. 3.5
ii
L
Fig. 3.6
Fig. 3.7
Fig. 3.8
___H
L
Fig. 3.9
Fig.
Fig. 3.12
Fig. 3.14
.ij
LL
III
=1111
Fig. 3.15
Fig. 3.16
Fig. 3.17
Legend: Edge conditions
Free
3.11
r
Simple
''
Fixed
Four edges
supported
Three edges
supported and
one edge free
Two adjacent
edges supported
and two edges
free
Edge
conditions
"
Y2
y-i
..4
"
t1 t1
I- I
Hf3
h1
i,,,,,J
Yield line locations
x-
y <H
yH
Limits
y2
+ Mvp)
5(MVN
H2(3L
2y)
H2(3L
4x)
8(MVN + Mvp)(3L
L2(3H
L2(3H 4y)
M) or 8(MHN + MHP)(3H
or
or
Y)
x)
y)
x Mvp
AIHN)Y
MVN)x
4x)
10
+ MHP)(6H
x) +
H2(3L
L2(3H 2y)
2MVN(3L
4(MHN
2x)
M + (5Mv
H MHN + (5MHP
6L
+ Mvp)
5(MHN + M11)
S(MVN
or
or
or
x2
5(MHN + MHP)
S(MVN
+ MHP)
x2
5(MHN
Ultimate unit resistance
Table 3.2 Ultimate unit resistance for two-way elements (symmetricalyield-lines) (to be used in
conjunction with Figs 3.18 to 3.23).
-t
Four edges
supported
Three edges
supported and
one edge free
Two adjacent
edges supported
and two edges
free
Edge conditions
l--1
1/2 \3
t
HIj
LL
NIL:::::1
xL2
X L2
Limits
y2
H2 (3L
2X2)
X2)
2Y1
2}'2)
Y2)
or
or
or
or
+ Mvp)
Yi
5(MVNI
5(MHNI + MHP)
2X1
+ MHp)(6H
(3L
X1
Mp)
X)2(3H
Y)2
(L
X)2 (3H
(MHN2 + MHp)(6H
+ Mp)
Y
5(MVN2
MHp)
(3L
2Y1
X1
X2)
Y2)
2Y2)
2X2)
Y)
2Y)
2X1
+ Mp)(6L
5(MHN2 +
(H
(MVN2
(L
MHP)
MVN2L
2X2)
+ MHp)(6H
(MHN2
+ X2) +
5(MHN3
2X1
MVN2)(XI
+ Mvp)(6L
or
5(MVN3
x2 (3H
(MUNI
Y2
(MVNI
(5Mp
or
(MHNI + Mp)(oH Y)
or
x2 (3H 2Y)
or
5(MHNI + MHPI)
Same as in Table 3.2
Ultimate unit resistance
Table 3.3 Ultimate unit resistance for two-way elements (unsymmetricalyield-lines) (to be used in conjunction with Figs 3.18 to 3.33).
Design
149
Table 3.4 Ultimate support shears for two-way elements (symmetricalyield-lines) (to be used in
conjunction with Table 3.2).
Edge conditions
L1
Two adjacent
edges supported
and two edges
free
Limits Horizontal shear,
xL
Three edges
supported and
one edge free
,.2c.1
"
HILJJI
nt,, T1
X L2
y< H
Vertical shear, Vv
3rH(2)
Li
3rx
5
(o-f)
3rL (2
y
HI
(_)
3rH( 1-)
Li
3rx
5
(3f)
-)
2(6)
3rL (2
3ry
5
x-2
L
3rH(
3rx
1I
LI
2(3-f)
Four edges
supported
3ruL(1
2(3_
HI
edges
supported
Four edges
supported and
one edge free
Three
Two adjacent
edges supported
and two edges
free
H36
_<'
Ix"i"
j1 ,,,
HI[iJ
L
h1
fiti
Y2
22
xI-2
x2
xL
limits
y)
Yi
6H
Yi
Y2
3r(L x)(2H Yi
y)
Y2)
Y2)
6H-yl-y2
3rx (2H
3rx2
3rx1
x)(2H
6H y
3rx (L
3rx(2H
3x2r
3x1r
Horizontal shear, VH
V,
x1
3ry
5
x2
x1
3ruY2
3ry1
6Lx1x2
3r(H y)(2L
x2)
3ry(2L x2)
6Lx1x2
3rH(2Lxix2)
Vertical shear,
Ultimate support shears for two-way elements (unsymmetrical yield-lines) (to be used in conjunction with Table 3.3).
Edge
conditions
Table 3.5
CD
CD
-t
CD
CD
CD
-t
CD
Chapter 4
Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns
4.0 NOTATION
ay
A
b
b'
c
E
E
f
f,
G
h
h'
h
hmax
hmin
10
'ex
1ev
m
M
Deflection in column due

about x-axis
Deflection in column due
about y-axis
to slendernessproducing additional moment

to slendernessproducing additional moment
Net area of concrete in a column cross-section

Total area of steel in a column cross-section
Area of steel in tension to resist bending about x-axis
Area of steel in tension to resist bending about y-axis
Width of rectangular column section dimension perpendicularto
y-axis
Effective depth of tensile steel reinforcement resisting moment about
y-axis
Coefficient of torsional stiffness
Torsional stiffness

Shear modulus
Overall depth of rectangularcolumn section dimension
perpendicular to x-axis
Effective depth to tensile steel reinforcement resisting moment about
x-axis
Diameter to centreline of reinforcementin a circular column

Maximum overall dimension of a rectangular concrete section
Minimum overall dimensionof a rectangularconcrete section
Moment of inertia
Factor governing deflection of column due to slenderness
Effective height
of column
Clear height of column

Effective height for consideration of slendernessabout x-axis
Effective height for considerationof slendernessabout y-axis
Modular ratio E/E
Applied bending moment on a section
151
Reinforced Concrete
152
M
M
M
M
Applied bending moment about x-axis

Applied bending moment about y-axis
Modified bending moment about x-axis to account for biaxial bending
Modified bending moment about y-axis to account for biaxial bending
Additionalmomentaboutx-axis due to slenderness
Additional moment about the y-axis due to slenderness
Axial load on column
Design ultimate capacity of a section subjected to axial load only
Design axial load capacity of a balanced section (= 0.25fbd)
Percentage of tensile reinforcement
Percentage of tensile reinforcementto resist moment about x-axis
Percentage of tensile reinforcementto resist moment about y-axis
Applied torsion
Shear stress in concrete due to bending about x-axis
Shear stress in concrete due to bending about y-axis
Design concrete shear stress in concrete due to bending about x-axis
Madd
Madd
N
Nbaj
p'
Px
Py
T
v.
(N/mm2)
Design concrete shear stress in concrete due to bending about y-axis
(N/mm2)
Shear force in concrete column due to bending about x-axis
Shear force in concrete column due to bending about y-axis
Coefficient to determine effective height of a column
Coefficient to determine modifiedbending moments in biaxial bending
Diameter of reinforcing bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
13
4)
4.1 ANALYSIS OF COLUMNS

4.1.1 Moment of inertia
4.1.2 Modulus of elasticity
4.1.3 Shear modulus
Note:
See Section 2.1.3.

See Section 2.1.4.
See Section 2.1.6.
In normal framed construction Torsional Rigidity of RC columns may

be ignored in the analysis and the torsional stiffness may be given a
very small value in the computer analysis. Torsional rigidity becomes
important only where torsion is relied on to carry the load as in curved
beams.
4.1.4 Poisson's ratio

4.1.5 Shear area
4.1.6 Thermal strain
See Section 2.1.7.
See Section 2.1.8.

See Section 2.1.9.
Design
of Reinforced Concrete Columns
153
4.1.7 Effective heights
SK 4/1 Effective heightofcolumn.
All horizontal loads carried by shear walls or bracing system.

Unbraced: Horizontalloads carried by columns as parts of frame structure.
Braced:
IC
where
3I()
I = effective height
1 = clear height
= values given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.

QColumn
Cantilever
a
BeamSimpl1
Supported
ip
Monolithic
D1<H2
Connection
D2 H2
D2
Monolithic
Connection
H3
//
______
_______
SK 4/2 Column end conditions.
Q
______________
to Foundation
Moment Connecton
154
Reinforced Concrete
Table 4.1 Values of 13 for braced columns.
End condition
at top
1
2
3
End condition at bottom

1
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.95
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.90
1.00
Table 4.2 Values of 3 for unbraced columns.
End condition
at top
1
2
3
4

1
1.2
1.3
1.6
2.2
1.3
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.8
Note: Foundations of columns designedto carry moments may be considered as

end condition 1 for the column.
4.1.8 Analysis of columns

Find the following internal forces by analysis:
(1) Bending moments about principal axes: M and M
(2) Shear forces about principalaxes: V and V
(3) Deflectionsat critical points:
(4) Rotations at joints (if required): 0
(5) Torsions (if relevant): T
(6) Direct axial loads: N
Use a general-purpose2-D or 3-D skeletal member suite of a computer

software for the analysis, if required.
4.2.1 General rules
The following load combinationsand partial load factors should be used in
carrying out the analysis of columns:
1.4DL+ 1.6LL + 1.4EP+ 1.4WP
LC1:
LC2:
LC3:
LC4:
LC5:
1.ODL+ 1.4EP+ 1.4WP
1.4DL + l.4WL + 1.4EP+ 1.4WP

l.ODL + 1.4WL + 1.4EP+ 1.4WP
1.2DL+ 1.2LL + 1.2WL+ 1.2EP+ 1.2WP
Design
of ReinforcedConcrete Columns
155
Note: Load combinations LC2 and LC4 should be considered only when the
effect of dead and live load are considered to be beneficial.
= dead load
LL = live loador imposed load
where DL
WL
= wind load
WP = water pressure
The general principle of load combination is to leave out the loads which
have beneficial effect. If the load is of a permanent nature, like dead load,
earth load or water load, use the partial load factor of 1 for that load
which producesa beneficial rather than adverse effect. This rule of combination will be used for design as well as for the check of stability of
structure.
Note:
No reduction or redistributionof loads is allowed from the columns.

4.3
See Section 2.2.4.
STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR COLUMNS
4.3.1 Rectangular columns

Step 1 Analysis
Moments, shear forces and axial forces should be determined manually or

using computer software. Additional moments induced by deflection of
slender columns are found in Step 5. For braced columns which are
assumed to carry vertical loads only, a nominal eccentricity of vertical
loads equal to 0.05 times the overall dimension in the plane of bending not
exceeding 20mm should be considered. For biaxial bending, minimum
eccentricity should be considered about one axis at a time.
Step 2 Check slenderness of column
SK 4/3 Section through a column.
Find lexlh and 1Ib.

See
Section 4.1.7 for the determinationof effective heights 1, and
I.
156
Reinforced Concrete
Note:
For short columns both ratios should be less than 15 for braced and 10 for
unbraced.
For columns generally, 10

For cantilever columns, 10
60b
lOOb2Ih
60b

Determine cover required to reinforcement,as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Step 4 Design of short columns
SK 4/4 Symmetrically reinforced

column.
(1) No momentfrom analysis

Select reinforcementsize and number.
Find
N = 0.4fA + 0.75Af
where
A = net area of concrete = bh
Check
N> applied direct load
(2) Column supporting continuous beams where analysis does not allow for
framing into columns (no moment in column)
Find
Check
N = 0.35fA + 0.67Af
N> applied direct load
(3) Column subjected to uniaxial moment and direct load
Determine d/h correspondingto cover found in step 3.

Find e = MIN and then c/h.
f,
Select appropriate Table from Tables 11.8 to 11.17 correspondingto

and d/h.
Calculate NIbh.
Find from appropriate Table the value of p which satisfies the calculated
N/bh against the e/h due to applied moment. From p calculate
Find
Note:
For symmetrically reinforcedcolumns as designedabove, the total area of

steel should be divided by 2 and placed at the two opposite faces of the
column in relation to the axis about which the moment is applied. More
reinforcementmay be necessary at the other two faces from other considerations. The total percentage of reinforcementshould be below 6%.
Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns 157

Step 5 Design of slender columns
Table 4.3 Summary of column additional moments.
Column type
Bending about
major axis only
= Pa171
Braced
Quy
15<2O
h
Icy
Majy = Na
M = + *M
15 <
20
<3
K=
= 0.45
20
<
/lev\2
Maddy =
2000 h
<
M=
+ *Maddv
ay
= ftKb
A. + 0.87fA,
20(X)
Nhal = 0.25fcabd
20
/Ie \2
= Na.
= Myj + *M
Nu
f2
b)
M1(J = Na
<3
h
b
M = M, + *M
= (3Kh
Braced and
unbraced
= [3Kh
=_('i
\/
20<-and/or
h
2000
and/or
M=
auy
h
b
Madth
I ay
2000
Naat
//\2
F
b/
ay
3ayKb
,''2
2000 \ b /
Maddy = Na
M = + *Maddy
Mayldy =
M = Maddy
h/
2000
= Na
M1dCl1
= Madd
+ *Madth
1
(/\2
h/
=
2000
Maddx = Naur
20 <
' =i_-\
ft
Mdd(JX
NhaI
10 < -
= 13Kh
13
N-N
both axes
= ftKb
a=l---I
2000 \ b /
(lex\j2
Unbraced
10
minor axis only
= M1 + *Macldy
a=
13ayKb
1
ay
13
II\2
2000 b
M,dV = Na
M = + *M
* The addition of MacId will be done following sketches SK4/5 and SK4/6 as appropriate. M, is
the initial moment and M is the final moment about x-axis. Madth is the additional moment due
to slenderness.
For unbraced columns at any storey find

find
auav
given by
a
n
where n
a for all columns in any orthogonal direction and then
= number of columns.
Find additional moment for all columns using aua. as deflection.

If any value of for any individual column at a level is twice auy, thendiscard that column from
the calculation of auav.
158
ReinforcedConcrete
MdI2.(anger initial
Madd/2Mi
,MaddMu
BRACED COLUMN FREE TO ROTATE
AT EACH END
momentMj
.Madd.Mi
BRNED COLUMN FREE TO ROTATE

AT ONE END
BRACED COLUMN RESTRAINED AT

BOTH ENDS
Initialmoment from analysis
M1
SK 4/5 Braced column additional moments.
Madd,Mj
Madd ,M
Madd.Mi
Column restrained
Initial moment from analysis
M1
Column free to rotate at one end
SK 4/6 Unbraced column
additional moments.
Braced column restrained at both ends:
the initial momentat mid height M = 0.4 M1 + 0.6 M2 0.4 M2

where M1 smaller end moment
M2 = larger end moment
Unbraced column restrained at both ends:
the full additionalmoment may be combined with the initial end moment
of stifferjoint. Madd for the other end may be reduced proportionalto the
joint stiffness.
Determine d/h correspondingto cover found in Step 3.
Find e = MIN and then c/h.
Select appropriate Table from Tables 11.8 to 11.17 correspondingto
and d/h.
f,
Calculate N/bh.
Find from the appropriateTable the value ofp which satisfies the calculated
N/bh against the e/h due to applied moment. From p calculateA.
See note in Step 4.
Step 6 Design ofcolumn
to biaxial bending and directload

Select diameter of reinforcement:
Find h' and b'.
Find Mi/h' and MIb'.
If Mr/h'> My/b',
SK 4/7 Column subject
to biaxial
bending.
M = M + (i)M
If M/b'>M/h,
M = M + (i')M
Find N/fbh.
Values of (3 are given in the table below.
N/fbh
0
1.00
13
0.1
0.88
0.2
0.77
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.65
0.53
0.42
Note: Biaxial bending is reduced to uniaxial bending by
>0.6
0.30
the multiplier (3.
Design as uniaxial bending, dependingon which directional bending is

predominant.
Find
following the method in Step 5.
See note in Step 4.

Find design shear forces V. and V from analysis.
Find MIN and Mr/N.
(1)
and
IfMy/N
O.60h
and Mr/N
VIbh' 0.8\/f 5N/mm2

V/b'h 0.8Vf 5N/mm2
No shear check is necessary.
O.60b
160
Reinforced Concrete
(2)
If Ms/N> O.60h
Find
and/or Mr/N >O.60b
v == V/bh'
v,
V/b'h
1OOA
Px
bh'
1OOA
hb'
SK 4/8 Areas of steel for shear

check of column.
From Figs 11.2 to 11.6, find

and v%, i.e. the design concrete shear
stresses correspondingto Px and ps,.
Modify v. and v, to take into account axial loading.
v,
V
Note:
+ O.6NVh
O.6NVb
AM
AM
N is +ve for compressionand ye for tension. Vh/M and VbIM should
not be greater than 1. Check: (v/v') + (v/v') 1.

If this condition is not satisfied, then shear reinforcementin the form of
links is required.
Design ofshear reinforcement for columns
,,
Vcx
vxvx
Vx
+ Vv
= vvvv
Vx+Vv
v'' = available concrete shear strength for calculation of shear
Vcv
where
reinforcementfor
about x-axis
bending
concrete shear strength for calculation of shear
v = available
reinforcementfor bending about y-axis.

Note:
To avoid shear cracking prior to ultimate limit state, modification of the

design concrete shear stress to account for direct load should he according
to the following formula: v = v(41 + NI(Av)1.
V
fl sb
SK 4/9 Shear reinforcementin

column section.
Ash
V, =
=
fAh'
0.87
sx
where
characteristic
f.. =
=
of all
Ah
yield strength of link reinforcement

legs of link reinforcement in one set resisting
shear due to bending about x-axis
area of all legs of link reinforcement in one set resisting
shear due to bending about v-axis
spacing of a set of link in the column.
area
=
S=
Check
t1.87fyv4sib'
S
VA
and
V.,.
4.3.2 Circular columns
SK 4/10 Circularcolumn typical

section with minimum of six bars.
162
ReinforcedConcrete
Step 1 Analysis
Carry out analysis.
Step 2 Check slenderness of column
Find 1/h, when h = diameter.

See Section 4.1.7 for the determinationof effective height 1.
Note:
For short columns, the ratio 1/h should be less than 15 for braced and 10
for unbraced.
Step 3 Determination ofcover
Determine cover required to reinforcement, as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.

(1) No significant momentfrom analysis
Select reinforcementsize and at least six bars.
Find
Find
A=0.257th2A
N = 0.4fA+ 0.75A.f
Check
applied direct load
(2) Column supporting continuous beams orflat slab where analysis does not
allow for distribution of moment to the column
0.35fA+ 0.67Af
Find N
N applied direct load
Check
(3) Column subjected to moment and direct load

Determine hIh correspondingto cover found in Step 3.
Find e = MIN and then e/R, where R = radius of column.
Select appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27 correspondingto
and ha/h.
Calculate NIR2.
Find, from the appropriate table, the value of p which satisfies the calculated N/R2 against the dR due to applied moment M.
Find
from p and use at least six bars.
f,
Step S Design of slender columns
a=
12
2000h
Madd = NaK
Combine
this additional moment, Madd, with the moments obtained from

the figures of Step 5 (Section4.3.1), assuming K= 1 for
analysis following
conservatism.
Otherwise Nbal =0.15fh2
= 0.45fA + 0.87
Design of ReinforcedConcrete Columns 163
-N
K=-N1
and
N2
Nbal
which may he found by iteration using successive assumptions of

Design the column for the combined momentM and directload N following
Step 4.
Step 6 Biaxial moment and direct load
If biaxial moments are present by analysis on the column, combine these
two orthogonal moments by taking the square root of the sum of the
squares and then adding Madd to the combined moment.
Design the column for the combined moment M and the direct load N
+ Mt,)
following Step 4. M =
Find design shear forces V and V. from analysis.
Find MIN, where M=V(M+M).
V=V(V+V)
Find
If M/NO.6Oh
(1)
V/0.75A 0.8 \/f1, SN/mm2

If M/N> O.60h, check shear stress
(2)
v=
0.75A
;0.8Vf5N/mm2
= 50A = 66.7A
0.75A
of the total reinforcementis effective in tension.

Find v correspondingto p and
from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
Assumingonly 50%
0.ONVh
AM
v, no shear reinforcementis necessary.

When v> v, find V = 0.75vA.
If v
V. = 0.87fA(z/S) from truss analogy (see Section 1.6.1).

Find z/R from appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27 corresponding
to
h/h, p. N/R2 and e/R.
f,
2A,
=A
where
= characteristic yield strength of link reinforcement

= area of the link reinforcementin the form of hoop
S = spacing of link.
V.VV
See note in Step 7 of Section 4.3.1
Check
164
ReinforcedConcrete
4.3.3 Rectangular and circular columns

Step 8 Minimum reinforcement
For rectangular and circular columns,
10OA :r:.. 0.4
Step 9 Maximum reinforcement
For rectangular and circular columns,

vertically cast columns
horizontally cast columns
at laps of columns
100A
100A
100A
10
Step 10 Containment ofreinforcement
Unrestraine bar within
150mm of a restrained bar
SK 4/11 Typical arrangementof

bars in a column section.
Minimum diameter of links = 0.25 times largest bar diameter 6mm

Maximum spacing of links
12 times smallest diameter of bar
Typical arrangement of bars is shown in SK4/11.

Step 11
4.4
Check crack width (optional)

No checks are necessary if applied ultimate load
0.2fA
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example4.1 Design of a biaxially loaded slender column

The column is braced in the XX direction, i.e. for bending about YY
axis, and unbraced in the YY direction, i.e. for bending about XX
axis.
Size of column: 400 x 600

Clear height of column= 8m.
Design
165
00
x
0
SK 4/12 Biaxially loaded column
section.
Beam size in the major direction= 400 x 500 at eachfloor.

Beam size in the minor direction= 300x 350 at each floor.
Direct load on column = 2500kN = N
V, = 150kN
Bending moment, M = 150kNm
=
V =80 kN
Bending moment, M 80 kNm
All columns are of same size at each floor level.
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Step 2 Check slenderness ofcolumn (see Tables 4.1 and 4.2)
= 1.80 X 10
Effective height,
= 1.80 x 8
= 14.4m for unhraced column
Assume end condition 2 at bottom and 3 at top for bending about x axis.
Effective height, 'ev = 1.0 X
= 8m for bracedcolumn
Assume end condition 3 at both top and bottom for bendingabout y axis.
1
b
14.4 =
=
24 >
10 for unbraced
0.6
= 20 > 15 for braced
= 8.0
0.4
Hence the column should be designedas slender about both axes.

Grade of concrete = 40N/mm2
Exposure= moderate
Fire resistance = 2 hours
MSA=20mm
Minimum nominal cover=3Omm, from Tables 11.6 and 11.7
Diameter of link = 10mm assumed
Diameter of main bars =40mm assumed
166
ReinforcedConcrete
h' = h cover dia. of link dia. of bar

600 30 10 20
= 540mm
b' = 400 30 10 20
340mm

Not required.
Assume l00A/bh = 5
= net concrete area = (1 0.05)bh = 0.95bh

N1 = 0.45fA + 0.87fA
= (0.95 x 0.45 x 40 + 0.87 x 460 x 0.05) x 400 x 600 x
= 8906kN
NbaI = 0.25fbh
=0.25x40x400x601Jx 1tF3
iO
= 2400kN
NUL
Nbal
8906
2500
8906
2400
= 0.98 for assumed 5% reinforcement
a=
(/\2hK
=x(144002x60oxo.98
2000
\600/
= 169.3mm
//\2
' =i----,bK
2000\hJ
1
/8000\2
=xI-I
x400xO.98
2000
\4001
1
= 78.4 mm
Maddx =
NaK
= 2500 x
0.1693
= 423 kNm
Mady = NaK
= 2500 x 0.0784
= 196 kNm
Step 6 Biaxial moment and direct load

M = 150 + 423 = 573 kNm (see SK 4/6 column free to rotateone end.)
M = 80 + 196 = 276kNm (see SK 4/5 column freeto rotateboth ends.)
Design
167
A5/2
SK 4/13 Equivalent uniaxial

bendingof columns.
M=
573
= 1061 kN
h'
0.54
276
= 812kN
b'
0.34
2500 x iO
400 x 600 x 40
bhf
=0.26
from table in Step 6 of Section 4.3.1.
(3=0.70
Biaxial bending: Mr/h' > Mv/b'
M = M. +
= 573 + 0.70 x
= 880kNm
()
h' 540
k ==---=0.90
h
601)
e = 0.352
h
N
bh
0.600
= 250() x
276
M
880
e==--=0.352m
2500
0.59
i03
400 x 600
10.4 N/mm2
Select Table 11.12 forf=40N/mm2 and k=0.90.

From Table 11.12: for elh = 0.6 and p = 2.0, N/b/i = 9.05, and for p = 3.0,
NIbh = 10.95.
By linear interpolation,p = 2.69 for e/h = 0.59, and NIbh = 10.4.
A= 2.69 x 400 x 600

= 6456mm2
Use 4 no. 32dia. bars on each face 400 wide (6434 mm2).
= 6705 kN and corresponding K = 0.98; no change.
See Step 5: revised
168
Reinforced Concrete
-4-+32
-46 Linksat 240c1c
at 350 c/c
Step 7
32
SK 4/14 Designedcolumn section.
Shear check
M 150
N 2500
= 0.06m < 0.60h
M
80
2500
= 0.032m < 0.60b

bh'
V,
150
400
i03
x 540
= 0.69N/mm2 <0.8\/f < 5 N/mm2
= 80x103 = 0.39N/mm
bh 600 x 340

Minimum reinforcement= 0.4%
Maximum reinforcement= 6%
satisfied
satisfied
Step 10 Containment of reinforcement

Minimum diameter of link = 0.25 x 32
= 8mm
Maximum spacing of links = 12 x smallest bar diameter
= 12x32=384mm
Step 11
Check crack width
N =2500 kN >0.2fA= 1920kN

So no check necessary.
Design of Reinforced Concrete Colunins 169

Example4.2 Design ofa column with predominant moment about the major axis
SK 4/15 Column with moment

about XX axis.
Rectangularsection.
h=600mm b=400mrn
= 640 kNm
Ultimate bending moment,

Ultimate direct load,
N = 1280kN
Ultimate shear force,
V = 320 kN
Service bending moment,
= 400kNm
Servicedirect load, N. = 800kN
Clear height of column = 4m between floors

End condition (1) at both ends of column in both directions of bending.
Unbraced column in both directions of bending.
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Note: Minimum eccentricity = 20mm
= 20 x 1280 kNmm
= 25.6kNm
By inspection this moment in isolation will not cause

design than the predominant moment
Step 2 Check slenderness of column (see Table 4.2)
Effective height, lex = 1.2 x 4 = 4.8m
= 1.2 x 4 = 4.8m
4.8
0.6
= 8<
10
l. = 4.8
= 12> 10
b
0.4
The column is slender about minor axis.
a more onerous
170
Reinforced Concrete
Step 3 Determination ofcover
Grade of concrete=40N/mm2
Exposure= severe
Fire resistance= 2 hours
Maximum size of aggregates= 20mm
Minimum nominal cover= 30mm
Diameter of main bars = 25 mm assumed
d = h' = h cover dia. of link dia. of bar

= 600 40 10 12.5
= 537.5 mm
b'=400401012.5
= 337.5mm

Not required.
= 1.5 <3
= 8 <20
Additional moment about minor axis can be ignored (see Table 4.3).
12hK
(-)
()
x 600 x 1
(assume K
= 1 for conservatism)
= 43.2mm
Maddx= Na1
= 1280 x 0.0432
= 55.3kNm
M = 640 + 55.3 (see SK 4/6 column restrained at both ends)
= 695.3kNm
Design as a beam following Step 10 of Section 2.3.

Md =
M+N
= 695.3 + 1280
= 999.3 kNm
Md
fbd2
(
d1)
0.0625)
999.3 x 106
40 x 400 x 53752
= 0.216 > 0.156

reinforcementis required.
Compression
z = 0.775d
= 444mm
A' = (K O.156)fbd2
0.87f(d d')
(0.216
0.87
0.156)
x 460
= 1459mm2
x 40 x 400 x 53752
x (537.5
+ A,
62.5)
(O.156fcubd2
0.87fz I
O.87f
(0.156 x 40 x 400 x 53752\
0.87 x 460 x
) + 1459
/1280 x i03
O.87 x 460
= 2319 mm2
Use 3 no. 32mm dia. bars each face (2412 mm2)
Design by using Table 11.12.
e = MIN = 0.543
k=
e/h = 0.905
--
h' = 537.5 =
0.90
N = 1280 x
bh
400
i03
x 600
5.33 N/mm2
From Table 11.12 by linear interpolation,p = 2%.

=
2 x 400 x
100
600
= 4800mm2
Use 3 no. 32dia. bars on each face (2412 mm2).

Note: The two different design methods produce exactly
the same result.
00
(0
SK 4/16 Designedcolumn section.
172
Reinforced Concrete
Step 6 Bkixial moment and direct load
Not required.
Step
Check shear stress

M
640
= 0.5 > 0.60h
-=
= 0.36m
Shear check is required.

V
320 x i03
400 x 536
= V
h'b
= 1.49N/mm2<5 N/mm2
h'=60040816=536mm
bOA.
bh'
x 2412
400 x 536
100
= 1.125
From Fig. 11.5,
v, = 0.77N/mm2
I)' =
V+
0.6NVh
AM
V/i
320x103x600
=
640x106
=0.30<1
= 0.77 + 0.60 x 1280 x iO x 0.3

400 x 600
= 1.73N/mm2> 1.49N/mm2
No shear reinforcementis necessary.
To avoid shear cracks at ultimate load, use the following modification
formula:
V
C
= v /Ii
C\
N\
Av
= 0.771/1 +
\
400x600x0.77
1280 x i03
\
= 2.167N/mm2 > 1.73N/mm2
This modified higher value of design concrete shear strength may not be
used.
Minimum reinforcement= 0.4% satisfied

Maximum reinforcement= 6% satisfied

Minimum diameter of link = 0.25
x 32
= 8mm
Maximum spacingof links = 12 x dia. of bar
= 12 x 32
=384mm>350mm OK
Centre-to-centrespacing of bars= 136mm < 150mm
Central 32mm diameter bar need not be restrained.
Use 2-legged links 8mm diameter at 350 mm centres.
I1 3-32
$
3-32
j2.+20(anticrack)
8 at 350c/c
SK 4/17 Final column section.
Step 11 Check crack width (optional)
A = A. = 2412 mm2
d = 536mm
m=
-=
10
d' = 64mm
Servicebending moment,
= 400kNm
Service direct load, N = 800kN
The formulae used below are for a triangular concrete stress block (see
Section 1.13.2).
Assume value of x= d/2 = 260mm, say.
Firsttrial
q1
= bx = 400 x 260 = 104000mm2
(See Section 1. 13.2 for explanation of symbols.)
SK 4/18 Calculation
width.
of crack
+ mAd + (m 1)Ad'
qi+mA+(m1)A
0.5x 104000x260+(10x2412x536)+(9x2412x64)
104000 + (10 x 2412) + (9 x 2412)
0.Sq1x
185.8mm
400
e==
N 800
k1
O.5m = 500mm
= fe _g\
)+
185.8\
(500
1.586
k2 =
(i
_(
260
'2 x 536)
= 0.203
k3
= (m
260
3 x 536
11
=9(1_)
= 6.785
f=
Nk1
/ d'
k3A1 -800 x i03 x 1.586
/ 64
x 400 x 536 + 6.785 x 2412 xli
k2bd +
0.203
536
= 21,90N/mm2
= f(0.5cn + k3A.)
x (0.5 x 104000 + 6.785 x 2412)
21.90
800
il)3
2412
= 289.1N/mm2
Check:
x=
1
\mf
536
1+i/
289.1
\10 X 21.9
= 231 mm < 260mm
assumed
Second trial
Assume x= (260+ 231)/2 = 240mm say
= 96000mm2
g = 182.2 mm
k1 = 1.593
k2 = 0.190
k3 = 6.60
q1
f ==
f.,
23.27 N/mm2
285.0 N/mm2
x = 240.8mm
= f. = 285
200x103
i0
xi
240\
Ixl.425x103
240/
= 1.733 x
=
= 1.425 x
/600
\536
Emh
assumedx = 240 mm, hence OK
i0
b(h
x)2
3EA(d x)
= 1.733 X iO
i0
= 1.612 x
= \/(642 + 642)
= 74.5 mm
a2 = \/(642 + 682)
= 77.4mm
16
16
400
200
x (600 240)2
x 2412 x (536 240)
acr = 77.4mm
3arn.
cr
m
Cmin
\ hx
3 x 77.4 x 1.612 x
/77.4 48
1 + 21
\600 240
i03
= 0.32mm > 0.3mm

Crack width slightly exceeded and may be allowed.
Example 4.3 Design of a member with uniaxialmoment and tension
Rectangular section.
Size: 600mm x 400mm
Ultimate direct load in tension = 250kN

Ultimate bending moment, M = 250kNm
Ultimate shear force, V = 250kN
N=250kN
ELEY TION
V
400
SECTION
Step 1
Analysis
Not required.
SK 4/19 Member subject to

uniaxial bending and tension.
Design
177
Step 2 Check slenderness ofmember

Not required.
Grade of concrete= 40N/mm2
Exposure= moderate
Maximum size of aggregates = 20mm

Minimum nominal cover=3Omm from Tables 11.6 and 11.7
Diameter of main bar = 40mm assumed
h=h
cover dia. of fink
= 600 30 10 20
= 540mm
= 400 30 10 20
=
dia. of bar
340mm
Step 4 Design ofshort columns

Method 1 Design as RC beam (see Step 10 of Section 2.3)
4d'60
60
SK4/20 Designof column section.
M = 25OkNm
N = 250kN
M = M N( d1)
= 250 250 x (0.3 0.06)

= l9OkNm
x
K= M, = 190 10
fbd2 40 x 400 x 5402
= 0.04 < 0.156
no compressive reinforcement
z = h'[0.5 +
/(o.2s
178
ReinforcedConcrete
540[O.5 /(o.25
= 0.95 x 540 = 513mm
M
S
O.87fz
O9]
N
O.87f,
x 10
250 x i03
+
0.87 x 513 x 460 0.87 x 460
190
= 1550mm2
Use 2 no. 32dia. (1608mm2) bars on each short face.
Method 2 Simple steel beam theory
400
___60
_________-
SK 4/21 Designby steelbeam

theory.
(1) Assume compression and tension steel

couple to resist the moment.
in equal amount to form a
(2) Assume axial tension carried equally by steel on compression and

tension side.
Lever arm of steel (centre-to-centredistance)= a = h' 60=480mm
Steel required for bending moment =
O.8'a
250 x 106
= 1301mm2
0.87 x 460 X 480
Steel required for axial tension on each face =
x 250 x
0.87x460
0.5
= 312mm2
Total steel required on each face = 1301 + 312 = 1613mm2
Again, 2 no. 32dia. (1608 mm2) on each face will be adequate.
2-
32
22O(anticracl)
SK 4/22 Designed concrete
2-$32
section.
Note:
Both methods produce the same result but Method 2 is very conservative
usually.
Step 5 Design ofslender columns

Not required.
Step 6 Biaxial bending and direct load
Not required.
V
V,,
250 x i03
h'b
540
400
= 1.16N/mm2 < 5N/mm
bOA.
100 x 1608
540x400
bh'
= 0.74%
From Fig. 11.5,
v, = 0.67N/mm2
V = v. +
0.6NVh
AM
Vh
250x103x600
250x106
V=O.67
0.6
x 0.6 x 250 x
i03
400x600
= 0.295N/mm2 <
Note:
=0.60<1
1.16N/mm2
N is ye in tension.
Shear reinforcementis required.
V = 0.295 x 540 x 400 x
i0 =
63.7kN
180
Reinforced Concrete
Assume 8mm diameter links (f=460N/mm2) at 100mm centres.
= 0.87fyVAh'
S
i0 x (0.87 x 460 x
100
x 540)
100
=216kN
V> V V = 250 63.7 = 186.3kN
okay

Minimum reinforcement = 0.4%
Reinforcementprovide = 3216mm2
x 100
400 x 600
3216
= 1.34%
okay

Maximum reinforcement= 6% satisfied
Step10 Containmentof reinforcement
Minimum diameter of link = 0.25
x 32 = 8mm
satisfied
= 12 x dia. of bar
= 12 x 32 = 384mm
satisfied
Step 11 Check crack width
STRAIN
DLRAM
STRESS
DIAGRAM
Service bending moment = 160kNm

Service tension= 160kN
Assume depth of neutral axis x = h/2 = 300mm

The formulae used below assume a triangular concrete stress block (see
Section 1.13.2).
Assume eccentricity
compressive fibre.
e from centre of stressedarea, i.e. at g from extreme
Firsttrial
M 160 x iO
e==
=1000mm
160
d' = 30 + 8 + 16 = 54mm
d60030816=546mm
x = 300 =
0.55
=A=
q1
1608mm2
= bx = 400 x 300 = 12 x i04mm2
E=
E
m=
11)
+
+
g = 0.Sqix mAd (m
1)Ad'
qi+mA+(m1)A
= 183mm
k1
(e
= 1.167
k2 =
= 0.224
k3
= (m
1)(1
= 7.38
f=
k2bd+
Nk1
7
k3A{1
= 3.13N/mm2
f(0.5q1
d'
+ k3A3 + N
= 239.4 N/mm2
Check
x=
\mf
= 62.8 mm < 300mm
assumed
182
ReinforcedConcrete
Second trial
Assume x = 130mm
= 52000mm2
g = 157mm
k1 = 1.119
k2
k3
= 0.11
= 5.26
N/mm2
ff == 5.66
221N/mm2
x=
near enough to 130mm
111mm
No more trials are required.

Tension
in steel = 221 N/mm2
x = 115mm
say
221
==
1.105
x io
x\
dx
=1/600 115\J
\546
io
b(h
x)2
3EA(d x)
= 1.016 x
acr = V(542
= 140mm
cr
xl.105x103
1151
= 1.243 x
Emh
200x103
i0
1462) 16
3ac. Em
1 + 2(cr
Cmin
hx
= 0.29mm < 0.3mm
OK
Step12 Spacingof bars (required for members in tension)
See Step 24 of Section 2.3.

MSA +5 = 25mm
Dia. of bar = 32mm

Clear distance between bars=260mm >32mm OK
Maximum clear spacing of bars in tension
s 47000/f
300mm
f=
221N/mm2
from Step 10.
Maximum spacing
47000/221
213mm
Note: Actual clear spacingis 260mm which does not satisfy this condition. Since
crackwidthcalculationsshowthat the crackof0.3mm may not be exceeded,
this spacing of bars need not be changed.
Example 4.4 Design of a member with biaxial moment and tension
SK 4/24 Section subject to biaxial

bending and tension.
Rectangularsection.
Size: 600mm x 400mm
Ultimate direct load in tension = 250 kN
Ultimate bending moment, MA = 250 kNm
Ultimate bending moment, M = 150kNm
Ultimate shear force, V. = 250kN
Ultimate shear force, V = 150kN
Step 1 Analysis
Not required.
Step 2 Check slenderness of member
Not required because the member is in tension.
Grade of concrete=40N/mm2
Exposure= moderate
Maximum size
of aggregates = 20mm
Minimumnominal cover=3Omm
from Tables 11.6 and 11.7
Diameter of main bar = 40mm assumed
h' = h cover dia. of link dia. of bar
= 600 30 10 20
= 540mm
b' = 400 30 10 20
= 340mm
Not required.
Step S Design ofslendercolumns

Not required.
SK 4/25 Designas steel beam with

transferred tension.
Step 6 Biaxial bending and direct load

Method 1 Design as steel beam with transferred tension
M = 250kNm
N = 250kN (tension)
M= M
= 250 250(0.3
= l9OkNm
d'
0.06)
M = M N( d')
=
=
150
250(0.2 0.6)
115 kNm
the tension (250kN) has been transferred to

one corner of the rectangular section.
Note: This operation means that

Taking the steel beam approach, assume that the lever arm to resist
bending moment about each axis is the distance between the centre of
steel reinforcementon each face.
fMf=115kNm
..I
N=Z5OkN
M19OkNm
-l--j 35330
i f
=3421
k43x33O
I
A5t
625rr1
L334
(C)
I
IT)
tlstx
I II
_____
3342J
NIOB7iy
1342
A5
SK 4/26 Design as steel beam with transferred tension.
a = 600
2 x 60 = 480 mm
a = 400
2 x 60 = 280 mm
0.87fa,
190x106
0.87
x 460 x 480
= 989 mm2
Assume
A1 =
3 no. bars of 330 mm2 each on each short face.
0.87fa
115x106
0.87 x 460 x 280
= 1026mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 342mm2 each on each long face.
Area of bar required at a corner of the member due to the transferred
tension
0.87f
= 250 x
0.87 x 460
= 625mm2
Total area of bar required in one corner = 330 + 342 + 625
= 1297mm2
186
Reinforced Concrete
One no. 40 diameter bar at each corner (1257 mm2) with 1 no. 25 diameter
bar at the centre of eachface (491 mm2 each bar) will be adequate because
491 mm2 is greater than 330mm2 or 342mm2 found before.
Method2 Design as steel beam without transferredtension
My15OkNm
ttI
4464
4446
As
SK 4/27 Design as steel beam without transferred tension.
a=
a=
480mm
as before
280mm
as before
=
0.87fa
250x106
0.87
x 460 x 480
= 1301mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 434 mm2 each on each short face.
M
O.87fa
150x106
0.87 x 460
x 280
= 1338.5 mm2
Assume 3 no. bars of 446mm2 each on each long face.
Area of steel required for tension= 625 mm2 as before
This area can be divided over the total number of 4 no. corner bars in the
member. Hence, use 4 no. bars of 156mm2 each.
Area of corner bars = 434 + 446 + 156
= 1036mm2 (use 40mm dia. bars = 1257mm2)
The arrangementof reinforcementis exactly the same as before. Use 4 no.
40mm dia. bars in the corners and 1 no. 25 mm dia. bar at the centre of
each face because 1 no. 25mm bar equal to 491 mm2 is bigger than
434 mm2 or 446mm2 found before.

400
0-40
$-25
SK 4/28 Section designed by

MethodsI and 2.
Method 3 Interaction curve method
(See Reference 13.)
Reinforcement requiredfor
M only.
M = 250 kNm
d=
540mm
= 40N/mm2
M
fbd2
=
d[0.5
250x106
40 x 400 x 5402
(o.2s
=0.05
= dIO.5 + 1(0.25
L
0.9
= 0.94d = 508 mm
=
0.87fz
250x106
x 460 x 508
0.87
= 1230mm2
Reinforcement requiredfor M only
M = l5OkNm
d = 340mm
K=
150
106
40 x 600 x 3402
=0.05
z = 0.94d = 320mm
150 x 106
=
0.87
x 460 x
320
= 1171mm2
Area of steel required for tension only =
= 625mm2
188
Reinforced Concrete
Total reinforcementrequirement= 2 x (1230 + 1171) + 625 = 5427 mm2

1 no. 32 mm dia. bar at each corner and 1 no. 25mm dia. bar at centre
of each side.
Total A=5180mm2.
PN = applied ultimate tension = 250kN
Try
P0 = capacityof section in tension alone
= A(0.87f)
= 5180 x 0.87 x 460 x
= 2073kN
i0
= ultimate moment in x direction = 250kNm

= ultimate moment capacity in x direction when tension and M
are zero
A=2no.4)32+ 1no.25
= 2099mm2
Compressionin concrete = tension in steel

or 0.402fbx = 0.87fA
or x =
(see Section 1.5.1)
0.87fA.
0.402fb
0.87 x 460 x 2099

0.402 x 40 x 400
= 130 mm < 0.5d = 270mm
OK
= 481.5 mm
M = 0.87fAz = 0.87 x 460 x 2099 x 481.5
z = d 0.45x = 540 0.45 X
130
= 404kNm
= ultimate moment in y direction =
10
150kNm
ultimate moment capacity in y direction when tension and
are zero
= 2099mm2
= 0.87fA. =
0.402fh
0.87 x 460 x 2099

0.402 x 40 x 600
= 87mm < d/2 = 170mm
x 87 = 301mm
x 460 x 2099 x 301 x 106 = 252.6 kNm
z = d 0.45x = 3400.45
= 0.87fAz = 0.87
Unity equation
r
1)
/ Al \ 1.5
P0
\M/
/ Al \ 1.5
( ivi \ +l-J
1VIj,,,
+1-I
or
250
/250\
OK
/150 \1.5 = 1.065 >

252.6)
unacceptable
Design
189
reinforcementto 8 no. 32dia. bars instead of 4 no. 32dia. and

4 no. 25dia. No more checking is necessary.
Area provided by this method is 6432mm2 compared with 6992mm2 by
the other two methods.This gives an 8% saving in reinforcementwhenthe
interaction formula is used. The interaction formula is not yet codified.
The exponential changes from 1.5 for rectangular sections to 1.75 for
Increase
square sections.
400
3- $32
2-$32
________
SK 4/29 Section designed by

interactioncurve.
Step
3 $32
Check shear stress

members subject to
Following ACI 318 M83, Clause
significant axial tension have a concrete shear resistance given by:
0.17(1
= 0.17 x
0.3
)vfbd
x
x x
0.3x250x10 Vo.8 40) 400 x 540 x
io
= 142.8kN
Similarly,
= 0.17
0.3x250x
103)
V(32)
x 600 x 340 x
i0
= 134.9kN
p v. = 0.85 x
p
142.8 = 121.4kN < V, = 250kN

= 0.85 x 134.9 = 114.7kN <
= l5OkN
Shear reinforcementrequired for both orthogonal directions of shear.

It is assumed that concrete shear resistance will be effective in the x
direction only. In the y direction the total shear force will be carried by
Assume
V.
A SVX
S = S, =
p
0.85fd
100 mm
v, = 250
121.4
= 128.6kN
x i03 x 100
x 400 x 540
128.6
0.85
= 70mm2
V, V, = l5OkN
vsysvy
0.85fd
x i03 x ioo
0.85 x 400 x 340
150
= 130mm2
is the larger of
i.e. 130mm2 at 100mm spacing or
and
(AIS) = 1.3
Use 10mm dia. links at 120mm centres (AIS = 1.30).

Note:
AC! 318' restricts stress in shear reinforcement to

400N/mm2.
Design
v
= V = 250 x i0 =
400
x 540
1.14N/mm2
A1 = 3 no. 32dia. bar = 2412mm2

100A = 100 x 2412 1.12
Px
bh'
400
540
= 0.76N/mm2 from Fig. 11.5

= 3 no. 32dia. bar = 2412 mm2
100A = 100 x 2412
340x600
b'h
=1.18
v, = 0.82 N/mm2
x i03
= 0.74 N/mm2
bd 600x340
to take into account axial tension.
Modify v. and
VCX
= V, =
=v
150
+1f0.6NVh\I
\ AM1
Vh
=0.6<1
M
/0.6 x 250 x i03 x

=0.76k
400x600
= 0.385 N/mm2
v'CY
maximum
of Shear reinforcementusing BS 8110: Part 1: 1985J'
bh'
=v
/0.6NVb\
\ AM II
+1
0.6
Vb
=0.4<1
of
x 250 x i03 x
400 x 600 0.4)
= 0.82 (0.6
= 0.57 N/mm2
vv
0.385
x 1.14
1.14+0.74
= 0.23N/mm2
vv
0.57
x 0.74
v + v 1.14 + 0.74
= 0.22 N/mm2
= v''bh' = 0.23 x 400 x 540 x
= 0.22 x 340 x 600 x
V=
vcy
=
i0
iO =
49.7kN
44.9kN
Assume 10mm dia. bar (f = 460N/mm2) used as links at a spacing of

150 mm. Area of two legs is 157 mm2.
sx
0.87fASh'
0.87
x 460 x
157
150
x 540 x
i0 = 226.2kN
O.87fyvAbb'
vsy
0.87
x 460 x 157 x 340 X i03 = 142.4kN

150
Check:
V. V
= 25049.7 = 200.3 kN <226.2 kN
VVV=15044.9=105.1kN<142.4kN
OK
OK
Note: Slightly less shear reinforcement required when designed to BS 8110:

Part 1: 1985J'
Reinforcementprovided= 6432mm2 = 2.68% >0.4%

Maximum reinforcement= 6% not exceeded.

All reinforcementin tension. Containmentrules do not apply.
Rules for minimum shear reinforcementin beams, as in Section 2.3 Step
13, should apply.
Minimum
A.
0.4b
0.87f
x
157
= 0.4 600 =0.6<= 1.04 OK
0.87 x 460
150
Step 11 Check spacing ofbarsfor crack width

See Section 2.3, Step 24.
MSA = 20mm
Dia. of bar = 32mm

Minimum clear distance between bars = 112mm >32mm
Maximum clear distancebetween bars = 212mm
with 3 no. 32 dia. on the
long side
Service stress,
f f
=
= x
assumed
460
= 287.5 N/mm2
Maximum allowable clear spacing =
47000 =
287 5
163 mm
<212mm provided
This means that to reduce the probability of the crack width exceeding
0.3mm, 4 barsshould be used on the long face, i.e. 2 no. 32dia. and 2 no.
25dia. (total 6 no. 32dia. and 4 no. 25dia. in the member).
3-
+10 at 150 c/c

32
SK 4/30 Final designedsection.
Chapter 5
Design of Corbels and Nibs
NOTATION
5.0
A
ASh
Distance from centre of load to nearest face of column for a corbel

Distance from free edge of nib to nearest link in beam
Area of steel reinforcementin tension to resist bending
Area of horizontal steel reinforcementto resist shear in corbel
Width of corbel
Effective depth from bottom of corbel to centre of tensile
reinforcement
db
fs
ff
F
F1
Fbt
h
M
p
r
T
v
V
x
Depth of corbel at edge of loaded area

Tensile stress in steel
Concrete strut force in compression
Steel tensile force
Tensile force in reinforcementat start of a bend
Overall depth of corbel
Applied moment on a section
Percentageof tensile reinforcement
Spacing of horizontal links in a corbel
Tension force applied to corbel along with vertical load
Design shear stress in concrete (N/mm2)
Modified designshear stress to account for a5
Vertical load on corbel
Distance of neutral axis from bottom of corbel
Depth of lever arm
Angle of inclinationto horizontal of concrete strut in a corbel
Strain in steel reinforcement
Diameter of reinforcing bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
5.1
LOAD COMBINATIONS
5.1.1 General rules
See Section 2.2.1.
193
194
Reinforced Concrete

5.2
See Section 2.2.4.
STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR CORBELS

Step 1 Determine ultimate loads on the corbel
Follow load combination rules of Section 2.2.
Step 2 Determination of corbelgeometry
0
Outside edge of bearing
to be kept cteorof bend in
main reinforcement(minimum
clearance 1 bar diameter)
SK 5/1 Corbel geometry.
SK 5/2 Alternative corbel

geometry.
Check the following:

(1) Bearingstress on concrete under bearing plate
(2) Distance from end of loaded area to face of corbel should be as
shown.
(3) Depth at root of corbel should be such that shear stress V/bd is less
than O.8\/f or 5N/mm2, whichever is the lesser.
Design
of Corbels and Nibs
195
(4) Depthat outer edge of loaded areashould be at least half the depth at
(5)
the root.
If is greater than d, the corbel should be designed as a cantilever
beam.
Step 3 Evaluation of internalforces
Cos
SK 5/3 Strut and tie diagramof a

reinforcedconcretecorbel.
FORCE DIAGRAM
STRAIN DIAGRAM
brWIDTH
STRESS DIAGRAM
OF CORBEL
Draw strut and tie diagram as shown and find the following parameters.
V
v=
bd
Find vIf and a/d.

Find zid from Fig. 5.1.
Find z and x = (d z)/O.45
Find F=T+ Va/z
F== tension in steel reinforcement

T
z
applied horizontal load
with
along
= depth of lever arm x = depth
of neutral axis
O.5V
O.87f
O.87f
T
O.87f
Alternatively,
F = Fcos + T =
Va
+T
\
=
F = (\I'O.67f
15')b O.9xcosl3 O.4O2fbxcos(3
V = Fsin
z = d O.45x
By iteration, findx after assuming x in first trial. With final value of x, find
z and F. From F, find A.
196
Reinforced Concrete
Step 4 Check shear
bOA.
bd
Find
v from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 and multiply by 2dIa to getv for corbel.
if v < v, provide nominalshear reinforcement

Nominal reinforcement area = O.5A6
A is obtained in Step 3. Provide nominal
links in upper two-thirds of
effective depth d.
if v> v., design shear reinforcement

(Area of alt Iegsof links)
SK 5/4 Typical reinforcement

arrangementin a corbel.
v)
A> bSh(v
O.87f
ProvideAh in upper two-thirds of d at a spacing of Sh.

Note:
Total area of all legs of links in a vertical plane should be more than or
equal to O.5A.

O.OO4bh
Step 6 Maximum tension reinforcement
AO.O4Obh
Step 7 Check bearingstress inside bend
The following must be satisfied:
bearing stress = Fbr4
See
CU
1+2
ab
step 22 of Section 2.3 for notation
Design of Corbels and Nibs 197

Res,dual tensionin steel
ab2 b3
ab,
SK 5/5
Bearing
stress inside bend.
CHOOSE SMALLESTQb
at bend.
________
SECTION 11

Minimum clear spacing horizontally = MSA+ 5 > dia. of bar
where MSA= maximum size of aggregate.
2MSA
Minimum clear spacing vertically =
3
f=
5.3
service stress in
of bars in tension 47000
300
bar
STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR NIBS
IJ'
SK 5/6 Typical arrangementof
nibs.
NIB FROM WALL
NIB FROM BEAM
Step 1 Determine cover to reinforcement

Determine cover required to reinforcement as per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Step 2 Determine ultimate loads on nib
Follow load combination rules of Section 2.2.
198
Reinforced Concrete
Step 3 Determine nib geometry
(1) Bearing stress under load
0.4f
s0.6f.
for dry bearing

for bedded bearing.
(2) Find effective bearing length which is the least of:

(a) bearing length
(b) one-half of bearing length plus 100mm
(c) 600mm.
design ultimate support reaction
.
.
(3) Find net bearing width =
(effective bearing length) x 0.4f
(4) Find allowance for spalling, as per Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
40mm
(5) Find allowancefor inaccuracies,as per Table 5.3.

(6) Nominal bearing width= (net bearing width)+ (allowances for
spalling)
+ (allowances for inaccuracies)
(7) Nib projection= (nominal bearing width)+ 25 mm

Allow chamfer minimum 15 mm.
(8) Overall depth of nib should be less than 300mm.
(9) Select diameter of reinforcementand find a,, and d.
Spatting allowance
for stab
Constructional
inaccuracy
of stab
iiII
I
..i
Net bearing width
Spatting allowance
for nib
Slab
of nib
Theoretical bearin
width
_________
Theoreale
Nib
Step 4
Constructional
inaccuracy of wall
Design of nib
M = Va,,
V = ultimate load per metre
K= M
bd2f
=
b 1 metre
SK 5/7 Typical calculation for net

bearing width of nib.
Design
d[0.5
O.87fz
\/(o.25
)]
of Corbels and Nibs
199
0.95d
per metre
Step 5 Determine minimum reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement= 0.OOl3bh
Step 6 Maximum spacing ofbars
Maximum allowable spacing= 3 x (effective depth) + (diameter of bar)
750 mm
Clear spacing
47000
300 mm
wheref. = service stress.

Step 7 Check shear
V = ultimate load per metre
V
b = 1 metre
100A
bd
v from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.

/2d\
Find v =
\a, /
Find
Check that
If not, increase depth of nib.

Note:
If tensile reinforcementfound in Step 3 is kept straight and exposed
at
end, shear stress v should be less than v/2.

Step 8 Extra vertical reinforcement in beam
0.87f
per metre length of beam
Step 9 isolatedloads on continuous nib

To find effective width of load dispersal, assume a 450 angle of line of
failure crack as shown.
l=
effective width for isolated load on continuousnibs
200
Reinforced Concrete
la
Wall
SK 5/8 Plan of wall and nib

showing effectivelength of nib for
a line load of width b.
Le
26+ 2b+s
SK 5/9 Plan of wall and nib

showing effectivelength with
multiple line loads.
5.4
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 5.1 Design of corbel
SK 5/10 Elevation of corbel.
Step 1 Determine ul1imate loads on the corbel

Ultimate vertical load = V= 800 kN
Ultimate horizontal load = T=80kN
Design
of Corbels and Nibs
201
(Ignore small eccentricity of horizontal load from tension steel.)

Line of action of load at 400mm from face of column.
Size of column =600mm x 400mm
Corbel about the major axis of column.
Width
ff
of corbel = 400mm
Step 2 Determination ofcorbelgeometry

= 40N/mm2
= 460N/mm
to reinforcement = 30mm
Assumed diameter of main reinforcement = 32mm
Assumeddiameter of horizontal links = 10 mm
Minimum cover
Bearing plate used.

Maximum bearing stress = 0.8f = 32N/mm2
Length of bearing plate = 300mm
Minimum bearing width =
V
32
<
300
= 800 x
32
><
i0 = 83mm
300
Actual width of bearing plate = 100mm= 1 > 83mm OK
I = length of corbel = a +
dia.
I+
length of bend of bar + mm. cover +
of link + mm. cover
=400+50+5x32+30+10+30
= 680mm say 700 mm
Use h = 750mm at column face.
d=75030 16=704mm
Maximum allowable shear stress at column face = 5 N/mm2
V
d>=
Sb
800x103
5x400 =400mm
= 2.84N/mm2 < 0.8Vf = 5.05 N/mm2
Step 3 Evaluation offorces
Firsttrial
From strut and tie diagram (Step 3 in Section 5.2),
Va + T
F = FcosI3 + T =
z
F = (7")b 0.9xcos13 = 0.402fbxcos13

V=
Fsin13
z = d 0.45x
Assume x=0.4d=282mm, say.
z = d 0.45x
= 704 (0.45 x 282)

= 577 mm
=
cotl3 =
= 0.8218
sin
F = sin
x
= 0.6932
cosI3 = 0.5697
= 973.5kN
13
0.402fbcosI3
x i03
0.402 x 40 x 400 x 0.5697
973.5
= 265.7 mm
Secondtrial
x = 265 mm
z = 584.7 mm
cot13 = 0.6841
sin13
0.8254
cos(3 = 0.5646
F = 969.2kN
x=
266.9 mm
OK
Final z=585mm
Va
F=+T
z
= /800
><
i03 x 400\
585
+ 80 x iO = 627 x
= 0.0035 x I(704 265

\ 265
= 5.798 x iO > 0.002
103N

So the steel will be at the yield stress level
f =460
N/mm2
/0.5V\ /
1+1
\0.87f/
O.87f,
1=1200mm2
\O.S7fI
627 x i03
0.87 x 460
= 1567mm2> 1200mm2 OK
Use 2 no. 32dia. bars as main tension reinforcement(1608mm2).

Alternativelyby use of the chart in Fig. 5.1,
v
= 0.071
= 2.84
40
704
(1.568
From Fig. 5.1,
= 0.83
z = 704 x 0.83 = 584mm

the same z as is obtained by iteration. Having found z
from the chart, find F and A
Note: The chart gives
Step 4 Check shear

100A
bd
100 x 1608
400 x 704
= 0.57
From Fig. 11.5,
v = 0.608N/mm2
=
()vc
a
= 2 x 704 x 0.608 = 2.14N/mm2 <2.84N/mm2

400
Shear reinforcementis required.

Horizontal links are provided. Assume Sh = 200 mm.
bSh(v
v) = 400 x
O.8'7f,
x (2.84 2.14) =
140mm2
0.87 x 460
200
Required: 2-legged 10mm diameter links at 200 centres for the upper twothirds of d.
2
3
= 2 x 704 = 470mm
3
204
Reinforced Concrete
Required: 3 sets of links of 10mm diameter at 200mm centres.

Total area of legs= 471 mm2 <0.5 x 1567= 783.5 mm2
Main tension steel required = 1567mm2
Use 5 sets of links 10mm diameter at 100mm centres (785 mm2).
100
100
100
100
100
250
SK 5/11 Elevation
corbel.
of designed

A > 0.OO4bh = 1200mm2 satisfied
Step 6 Maximum tension reinforcement
A<0.040bh = 12000 mm2

Not exceeded.
32
L 400
SIDE ELEVATION
FRONT ELEVATION
SK 5/12 Bearing stress inside

bend.

Fb,
Ft
\(Asreq
no. of bars )
prov
627
1567
2
1608
= 305.5kN
Ultimate anchorage bond stress
\/f
fbu = 0.5
(for Type 2 deformed bar as obtained from Table 3.28
of BS811O: Part 1)
= 0.5\/40 = 3.16N/mm2
Anchoragebond length required =
2tfb
x iO
x 32 x 3.16
305.5
= 962 mm
In the column, the straight length of bar before start of bend is taken as
approximately equal to 350mm which is say one-third of the required
anchorage length. Hence
Tension in bar at start of bend =
x 305.5 = 203.7kN
r = internal radius of bend

= 4 x 32 (minimum)
= 128mm standard
= 32mm
= cover + bar diameter for corner bar
= 72 + 32 = 104mm
Centre-to-centredistance of bars= 224mm>104mm

a1,,
= 104mm
FbI = 203.7 x io =
2
49.73 N/mm
128x32
2f
1+1I
2 x 40
/ 32
1+21
\104
= 49.52N/mm2 <49.73N/mm2
radius bend will be adequate.

Calculationof anchorage bond length:
Anchorage value standard bend = 12 x 32 = 384mm
Standard
straight)
Straight before bend = 350mm
(includes 4 diameter
Barshouldproject vertically into column afterstandard bend by minimum of

962
384 350 + (4 x 32) = 356mm
Step 8 Spacing ofbars

Minimum horizontal spacing= 20+ 5 = 25 mm
Maximum clear spacing of bars in tension <
f ==
service stress
226.4 N/mm2
47000
47000
226.4
47000
< 300
fs
(from crack width calculationsin Step 9)
= 208mm
Actual clear spacing = 224 32 = 192mm< 208mm OK

Clear distance between the corner of corbel and the nearest tension bar
should not be greater than 80mm as per clause 3.12.11.2.5 of BS811O:
Part 1: 1985. Actual clear distance is 72 mm.
Note:
No crack width calculation is required if maximum spacing of bars in

tension does not exceed the recommendations of clause 3.12.11.2 of
BS811O: Part 1.

Note: This step is optional and is included to show the method of calculation of
crack width for a corbel.
END ELEVATION
OF CORBEL
STRAIN DIAI3RAM

Service horizontal load = 50 kN
Servicevertical load = 500kN
Momentat face of column = 500 X a, = 200 kNm

See Section 1.13 and assume A. = 0
2bd\ 1
mAji' +l
x=Ill
b L\
AmJ
10
x 1608 1/
[1+
400
= 201 mm
2 x 400 x 704\
1608x10
z=d
= 704 201
3
= 637mm
fsb =
M
Az
200 x 106
1608
x 637
= 195.3 N/mm2
= 50
due to flexure
= 31.1N/mm2 due to horizontal
><
1608
load
fs = fsb + fsh
= 195.3 + 31.1
= 226.4 N/mm2
=
226.4
200x103
E.
= 1.132 x iO
(h x'\
\d X/
201\
Ix 1.132x i03
\704 201/
= 1.235 x iO
= /750
b(h
3ESAS
1.235
x 10
= 0.9866 x
x)2
(d x)
3
i0
201)2
400(750
________________________________
3 x 200
x 1608 x (704 201)
= V(882 + 462) 16
x io
83.3 mm
a2 = \/(1122 + 462) 16 = 105mm

acr = 105mm
3a Em
cr
+ 2(Ocr Cmin
\ hx
3
x
105 x 0.9866 x
(10530
1 + 21
201
1
i0
\750
= 0.244mm <0.3mm
Crack width criterion is satisfied.
Example 5.2 Design of concrete nib
Precastconcrete slab
SK 5/14 General arrangementof

nib.
Reinforced concrete in-situ floor beams with nibs
units.
Clear gap between beams= 4.5m
Width of floor units = 400mm
Depth of floor units = 100mm
False floor + finish on units = 2.5kN/m2
Imposed load on floor = 5.0kN/m2
Grade of concrete for beam = C40
Assume dry bearing.
Exposure= mild
Fire resistance = 1 hour
Grade of concrete= C40
of aggregate= 20 mm
Minimum thickness of floor =95 mm
Nominal cover =20mm
Maximum size
to carry precast floor
Design
of Corbels and Nibs
209
Step 2 Determine loading

Self-weight of precast unit = 2.5kN/m2
False floor+ finish = 2.5 kN/m2
Total dead load = 5 kN/m2

Imposed load = 5 kNIm2
Ultimate load = 1.4 x 5 + 1.6 x 5 = 15 kN/m2
Reaction at eitherend of precast floor unit (400mm)= 4.5 x 15 X 0.5 X 0.4
= 13.5kN
Step3 Determine nib geometry

Allowable bearing stress = 0.4f
= 0.4 x 40 = 16N/mm2
Effective bearing length is the least of:

(a) bearing length = 400mm
(b) one-half bearing length + 100 = 300mm

(c) 600mm.
Effective bearing length = 300mm
ultimate support reaction
Net bearing width =
.
(effective bearing length) x 0.4f
= 13.5 x
300
i03
x 16
40
= 2.8 mm
Net bearing width = 40 mm

Allowance for spalling (from Tables 5.1 and 5.2) = 20 + 0 = 20mm
Allowance for inaccuracies (from Table 5.3) = 25 mm
Nominal bearing width=40 + 20+ 25 = 85mm

Nib projection = 85mm + 15mm (chamfer)+ 10 mm(clearance) = 110mm
Nominal length of precast units =4.5 m 2 x 10mm (clearance)
= 4.48m
Minimum depth of nib = 2 x (minimumcover) + 8 x (diameter of bar)
=2x20+8x8= lO4mm<300mm
Minimum depth
of nib 105 mm, say.
Note: The depth of the nib can be reduced if 6mm diameter mild steel bars are
used or welded anchor bars are used at straight ends of flexural bars.
Step 4 Design of nib
15 (chamfer) + 20 (cover) + 5 (half dia. of link)

a == 110
120mm
d = 105 204 = 81mm
210
Reinforced Concrete
M = bending moment per metre

= (load per metre run) x a
= 43.5 x 0.5 x
= 4.05kNm/m
K=
15
x 0.12
fbd2
4.05 x 106
40 x 1000 x 812
= 0.0154
z=
d[0.5
= 0.95d =
A=
0.87fz
.V/(o.25
77mm
0.9/i
4.05 x 106
0.87 x 460 x 77
0.95d
= 131mm2/m
Step 5 Determine minimum reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement = 0.OOl3bh
= 0.0013 x 1000 x
= 137mm2/m
105
Step 6 Maximum spacing of bars

Maximum spacing = 3 x effective depth + bar dia.
= 3 x 81 + 8
= 251 mm centres
Use 8mm dia. bars at 250 centres (201 mm2/m).
(See Example 2.3, Step 25 for refinement.)
1O Link in beam
08 Hairpins at 250 C/c
SK 5/15 Typical reinforcementin

nib.

Step 7 Check shear
V = ultimate load per metre length
= 4.5 x 0.5 x 15
= 33.75 kNim
V
V
= =
33.75
x iO
1000x81
bd
= 0.42N/mm2
bOA,
bd
x 201
1000 x 81
100
= 0.25
From Fig. 11.5,
v = 0.62N/mm2
Vc
= v2d
0.62
x 2x
81
120
= 0.84N/mm2 > 0.42N/mm2

Step8 Extra vertical reinforcement in beam
In addition to links, an area of reinforcementis required in the beam to

carry the load from the nib.
V
0.87fy
33.75
x i03
0.87 x 460
= 84mm2/m
5.5
FIGURES AND TABLES FOR CHAPTER 5
VALUES OF zid
Fig. 5.1 Chart for determiningzid.
Design
of Corbels and Nibs
Effective bearing
xJ
213
Effective bearing
V
Member
t4frspoiling
Lin metres
Support spatling
Table 5.1 Allowance for effects of spalling at supports.
Material of support
Steel
Concrete Grade 30 or over
Brickwork or masonry
Concrete below Grade 30
Reinforced concrete nib less than
300mm deep
Reinforced concrete nib less than
300mm deep with vertical loop
reinforcement exceeding 12mm in
diameter
Distance y (mm)
0
15
25
25
Nominal cover to reinforcement

Nominal cover plus inner radius of
bend
Table 5.2 Allowance for effects of spalling at supported members.

Distance x (mm)
Reinforcement at bearing of
supported member
Straight bars, horizontal loop or
vertical loop reinforcement not
exceeding 12mm diameter
Tendons or straight bars exposed at
end of member
Vertical loop reinforcement of bar
diameter exceeding 12mm
10 or end cover, whichever is
greater
0
End cover plus inner radius of bend

of bar
Table 5.3 Allowance for construction inaccuracies.

Material of support
Construction inaccuracy (mm)
Steel or precast concrete support

Masonry supports
In-situ concrete supports
15 or 3L, whichever is greater

Page blank
in original
Chapter 6
Design of Pad Foundations
NOTATION
6.0
acr
A
b
B
c
Cmin
C
C,
Cka
d
dD
exg
eyg
f
F
h
H
Ha
H
FI

Length of a side of a rectangular pad foundation
Area of tensile reinforcement
Area of tensile reinforcementto resist bending about x-axis

Area of tensile reinforcementto resist bending about y-axis
Width of a side of a rectangular pad foundation (least dimension)
Soil cohesion (kN/m2)
Size of column in x-direction
Size of column in y-direction
Cone resistanceby static cone penetration tests (kg/cm2)
Effective depth to tensile reinforcement of a concrete section
Effective depth to tensile reinforcement resisting moment about x-axis
Effective depth to tensile reinforcement resisting moment about y-axis
Depth of foundation below ground level
Resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in x-direction
Resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in y-direction
Eccentricity of vertical end reaction from ground beams in the
i-direction
Eccentricity of vertical end reaction from ground beams in the
y-direction
Modulusof elasticity of concrete
Modulusof elasticity of steel
Tensile stress in steel reinforcement
Characteristic yield strength of steel
Frictional resistance to horizontal movementunder pad foundation
Overall depth of concrete section/thickness of pad
Effective depth of soil under foundation for computation of settlement
Active pressure on side of a foundation (kN)
Passive resistance on side of a foundation (kN)
Ultimate factored horizontal load at undersideof a foundation
Unfactored horizontal shear from column on foundation in the
x-direction
215
Reinforced Concrete
216
Unfactored horizontal shear from column on foundation in the

y-direction
H1
Ka
Kh
llK
m
M
M
M
M
Factored horizontal shear from column on foundation in x-direction

Factored horizontal shear from column on foundation in y-direction
Active pressure coefficient of soil
Modulusof subgrade reaction for horizontal movement in soil
Rankine passive pressure coefficient of soil
Dimensionof a rectangular pad footing in x-direction
Dimensionof a rectangular pad footing in y-direction
Modular ratio E/E
Coefficient of volume compressibility of soil (m2/MN)
Unfactored moment from column on foundation about x-axis
Unfactored moment from column on foundation about y-axis
Unfactored moment on foundation about x-axis due to eccentric
surcharge
Unfactored moment on foundation about y-axis due to eccentric

surcharge
Mxg
Myg
Unfactored fixed end moment from ground beams on foundation

about x-axis
Factored moment from column on foundation about x-axis
Combined unfactored total moment on foundation about x-axis
Unfactored fixed end moment from ground beams on foundation
about y-axis
Factored moment from column on foundation about y-axis
Combinedunfactored total moment on foundation about y-axis
Factored moment on foundation about x-axis due to eccentric
surcharge
Factored moment on foundation about y-axis due to eccentric

surcharge
Mxgu
Factored fixed-endmoment from ground beams on foundation about

x-axis
Mygu
Combinedfactored total moment on foundation about x-axis

Factored fixed-endmoment from ground beams on foundation about
y-axis
Combined factored total moment on foundation about y-axis

Coefficient to determine horizontal modulusof subgrade reaction
Unfactored vertical load from column on foundation
Soil bearing capacity coefficient as per Terzaghi
Factored vertical load from column on foundation
Total overburden pressure at foundation level
Effective overburden pressure at foundation level/centre of layer
Percentage of tensile reinforcementto resist moment about x-axis
Percentage of tensile reinforcementto resist moment about y-axis
Unfactored combined total vertical load on soil under a pad
foundation
Sliding resistance
N
Nq
N
N
p0
Px
Py
of concrete pad foundationon soil
Design of Pad Foundations 217
P.
"Hv
qn
q,,
quit
r or R
R
s
s
T1
U,,
U0
v,
V
V,,
V,,
)Vmax
x
z
Lmax
Cm
Er
Cmii
Pcrit
Factored combined total vertical load on soil under a pad foundation

Allowable vertical load on soil under a pad foundation
Sliding resistance of base in x-direction
Sliding resistance of base in y-direction
Net pressure on soil for settlement computation (MN/rn2)
Unconfined compressive strength (kN/m2)
Ultimate bearing capacity of soil under a pad foundation
Radius of circular footing
Restraint factor for computation of early thermal cracking
Shear strength of soil
Shear strength from unconfinedtests (= q,/2)
Differentialtemperature in a concrete pour for calculation of early
thermal cracking
Perimeter of column at prescribed multiples of effective depth of pad
Perimeter of column footprint on pad foundation
Design concrete shear stress
Shear stress in concrete at perimeter defined by U,,
Shear force across critical section in a pad foundation
Shear force in a critical perimeter defined by U,,
Factored end shear of ground beam
Depth of neutral axis in a concrete section from compression face
Depth of lever arm
Depth of top of pad foundation below ground level
Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete/C
Unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
Unit weight of water (kN/m3)
Angle of friction between soil and concrete
Horizontal movementof foundation
Maximum allowable horizontal movementof foundation
Calculated strain in concrete at a depth h from compression face
Strain corrected for stiffeningeffect
Tensile strain in concrete due to temperature gradient causing early
thermal cracking
Strain at depth h corrected for stiffeningeffect
Critical percentage of steel required to distribute early thermal
cracking
Vertical stress at centre of a layer of soil due to net foundation
pressure
Angle of internal friction
6.1 ANALYSIS FOR BEARING PRESSURE ON SOIL

6.1.1 Isolated single column pad (bearing pressure calculations)
COLUMN
A'
/c:
(
SK 6/1 Typical columnfoundation in reinforced
mm
45
SK 6/2 Typical mass concrete

foundation.
concrete.
Loads from column
N = combined vertical load unfactored

M = combined moment about xx unfactored
M = combined moment about yy unfactored
H == combined horizontal shear in x direction unfactored

combined horizontal shear in y direction unfactored
= eccentricity in x direction of vertical load N from CG of base

= eccentricity in y direction of vertical load N from CG of base
SK 6/3 Typical loads from

column on foundationshown on
ly
plan.
Design
of Pad Foundations 219
Loads at underside ofpad on soil
P = vertical load = N + weight of foundation + weight of backfill +

surchargeon backfill
= moment about xx = M +
= moment about yy = M +
Ne + Hh + M
Ne + Hh + M
where M and M are moments with respect to CG of base due to

eccentricsurchargeon backfill.
Note:
In finding the load on the soil at the underside of the pad footing the
directions of the loads, eccentricitiesand moments must be taken into
account. With reversible horizontal loads and moments, all possible combinations should be examined. Eccentric heavy surcharge on part of the
backfill on foundation mayin certain casesproduce higherbearing pressure
and should be investigated.
6.1.2 Single column pads connected by ground beams (bearing pressure calculations)
,- Ground bam
/pad
SK 6/5 Plan of foundationsconnected by

ground beams.
foundation
SK 6/4 Typicalarrangement
of ground beams
to column foundation.
Assumptions
(1) The pad foundation is assumedrigid and its rotation is very small.
(2) The ground beam may be designed as fixed to the foundation with
zero rotation at the ends.
(3) The horizontalloads in any orthogonaldirection from all columns with
connected foundations will be algebraically added and then divided by
the number of columns.The total horizontal load in any directionwill
be shared equally between connected foundations.
(4) Because of the very high rotational stiffness of the pad foundations
relative to the ground beam, it is assumed that the horizontal loads,
momentsand load eccentricitiesat the top of the foundation will cause
cantilevermomenton the soilpad foundationinterfaceand the ground

beam will be unaffected.
(5) The pad foundation will be designed to resist the fixed-end moments
from the connected ground beams. The ground beams may also be
designedand detailed as pin-jointedto the foundation when there will
be no fixed-end moments on the foundation.
(6) The pad foundationshould be designedto resist the fixed-end moments
from groundbeams due to differentialsettlements, if any, ofconnected
foundations.The ground beams may also be designedand detailed as
pin-jointed to the foundation when the fixed-end moments due to
differential settlementswill be negligible.
Note:
To avoid excessive stresses and serious damage, ground beams should

preferablybe cast on a compressibleor rapidlydegradablelayer of material
such that some free vertical movement is allowed to cater for vertical
ground movementsand differentialsettlements.
Loads from columns
SK 6/6 Horizontalshear causing

additionalmoment.
N = combined
M,
vertical load
unfactored
combined moment about xx unfactored
H = combined horizontalshear in x direction unfactored

e1 = eccentricity in x direction of vertical load N from CG of base
= eccentricity in y direction of vertical load N from CG of base
Loads from ground beams
V = combined end shear (vertical) unfactored of all beams
Mxg = combinedfixed-endmomentabout xxunfactored(beamsrunning

yy direction)
SK 6/8 Fixed-end moments due to differential
SK 6/7 Fixed-end moments from ground
settlement.
beams.
SK 6/9 Bendingmomentand
eccentricityof load from ground
beams.
Myg = combinedfixed-endmomentabout yyunfactored(beams running

xx direction)
exg
eyg
= eccentricity of vertical shear V from CG of foundation

= eccentricity of vertical shear V from CG of foundation
Note: Mxg and Mvr should include the effects of dead load, live load and differential settlements on the ground beam unfactored.
Loads at underside
P=
ofpad on soil
vertical load = N + V + weight

backfill + surchargeon backfill
of foundation + weight of
= moment on xx = M1 + Mxg + Ne +
(Vevg) + Hh + M*
= moment on yy = M + Myg + Ne1 + Ve) + H1h + M
H = horizontal shears = H1 and H
where M and M are moments with respect to CG of base due to

eccentricsurchargeon backfill.
Note:
In finding the load on the soil at the underside of the pad footing the
directions of the loads, eccentricities and moments must be taken into
account. With reversible horizontal loads and moments,all possible combinations should be examined. Eccentric heavy surcharge on part of the
222
Reinforced Concrete
-ex(
__
- eyg
SK 6/10 Eccentricity of
surchargeon plan of pad
foundation.
of load from simply

supported end of ground beam.
SK 6/11 Eccentricity
backfill on the foundation may in certain cases produce higher bearing

pressure on the soil and should be investigated.
6.1.3 Isolated multiple column pad (bearingpressurecalculation)

Loadsfrom columns
= summationof all column vertical loads unfactored

= algebraic summation of all column moments about
xx
all column moments about yy
unfactored
= algebraic summation of
unfactored
= algebraic summationofall column horizontalshears in x-direction

unfactored
= algebraic summation ofall column horizontalshears iny-direction

unfactored
= distance in the x-directionof CG of all column vertical loads from

CG of base
= distance in they-direction of CG of all column vertical loads from
CG of base
Loads at underside ofpad on soil
P = vertical load = N + weight of foundation + weight of backfill

on backfill
= moment about xx =
surcharge
= moment about yy =
+ Ne + Hh + M
+ Ne + H1h + M
Design
H = horizontal shears =
and
where M and M are due to eccentricsurcharge.

6.1.4 Multiple column padsconnected by ground beams (bearing pressurecalculations)
Assumptions
See Section 6.1.2.
Loads from columns
See Section 6.1.3.
Loadsfrom ground beams
See Section 6.1.2.
Loads at underside ofpadfoundation
N + XV + weight of foundation + weight of

+ surcharge on backfill
M, = moment on xx = IM + XNe + XMxg + X( Veyg) + XHh + M
= momenton yy =
+ XNe + XMvg + X(Vexg) + XHh + M*
H = horizontal shear = XH and XH.
P = vertical load =
backfill
where M and M are due to eccentric surcharge on backfill.

6.2
ANALYSIS FOR ULTIMATE LOAD
6.2.1 Isolated single column pad

Note: Use load factors and combinations as stated in Section 6.3.
Loadfrom column
N = combinedvertical load factored
= combinedmoment about xx
factored
= combinedmoment about xx factored

H1 = combinedhorizontal shear x-direction factored
= combinedhorizontal shear y-direction factored
= eccentricityof N in x-direction
e = eccentricity of N in y-direction
Loads at underside ofpadfoundation
N+
1.4 (weight of foundation

(surchargeon backfill)
= M111 + Ne + Hh +
weight
of backfill) + 1.6
+ Ne + H1h
H = H1
and
and
where
are ultimate moments on base due to eccentric
surchargeon backfill.
6.2.2 Single column pads connected by ground beams
Note: Use load factorsand combinations
see Section 6.1.2.
Loadfrom columns
as statedin Section6.3. Forassumptions,
See Section 6.2.1.
Loadfrom ground beams

V = combined factored end shear of all beams
Mxgu = combined factoredend momentabout xx (beamsrunning yy)
Mygu = combinedfactored end moment about yy (beams runningxx)
exg
= eccentricity of V, from CG of base in x-direction (beams xx)
e5 = eccentricity of V from CG of base in y-direction (beams yy)

Note:
and Mygu should include the effects of dead load, live load and
Mxgu
differential settlements on the ground beam.

Loads at underside ofpads foundation on soil
= N + YV + 1.4 (weight of foundation + weight of backfill) + 1.6

(surcharge on backfill)
= M1 + Mxgu + Ne +
=
+ Mxgu + Ne +
=
where
(
(
Hh +
Vuexg) + Hh +
Ve5) +
and
and
are ultimate moments on base due to eccentric
surchargeon backfill.
6.2.3 Multiple column pads
Note:
For multiple column pad foundationswith or without ground beams, use

the same philosophy as in Sections 6.2.1 and 6.2.2 but with the following
loads from all columns on the base summed up, algebraically.
= summationof all ultimate vertical loads from columns

= summationof all ultimate moments about xx axis
= summationof all ultimate moments about yy axis

= summationof all horizontal shears in x-direction
= summationof all horizontal shears in y-direction
= resultant eccentricity of all column vertical loads in x-direction

e = resultant eccentricityof all column vertical loads in v-direction
6.3
LOAD COMBINATIONS
Loads from the columns will be combined using the following principles.
6.3.1 Bearing pressure calculations

LC1:
1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OEP + 1.OCLV + 1.OCLH
No increase in allowable bearing capacity.
1.ODL + 1.OEP + 1.OCLV + 1.OCLH + l.OWL (or 1.OEL)

LC2:
25% increase in allowable bearing capacity.
1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OEP + 1.OWL (or 1.OEL)
LC3:
1.ODL + i.OWL (or 1.OEL)
LC4:
where
DL = dead load
IL =
imposed load
EP = earth pressure and water pressure

CLV = crane vertical loads
CLH = crane horizontal loads
WL = wind load
EL = earthquake load
6.3.2 Bending moment and shear calculations
LC:
LC6:
LC7:
LC5:
LC9:
LC1:
LC11:
LC12:
1.4DL + 1.oIL + 1.4EP

1.2DL + 1.21L + 1.2EP + 1.2WL (or I.2EL)
1.4DL + i.4WL (or 1.4EL) + 1.4EP
1.ODL + 1.4WL (or 1.4EL) + 1.4EP (if adverse)
1.4DL + 1.4CLV + 1.4CLJI + 1.4EP
1.4DL + 1.6CLV+ 1.4EP
1.4DL + i.6CLH + 1.4EP
1.2DL + i.2CLV + 1.2CLH + 1.2EP + 1.2 WL (or 1.2EL)
6.3.3 Settlement computation
226
Reinforced Concrete
LC13:
6.4
1.ODL + O.51L
(vertical direct loads only)
SIGN CONVENTION
SK 6/12 Sign conventionshowing

positive loads and eccentricity.
To avoid mistakes the followingsign convention should be followed:

Vertical loads: downwardspositive
Moments on base: clockwise positive
Horizontalshears: left to right positive: +ve x-direction
bottom to top positive: +ve y-direction
Eccentricities: +ve for +ve x and +ve for +ve y
6.5
ESSENTIALSOF SOIL MECHANICS
6.5.1 Ultimate bearing capacity
Bor r
B
r Least plan dimension of pad foundation

Radius
of circular
foundation
SK 6/13 Typical parameters for

the calculation of bearingcapacity.
Design
of Pad Foundations
227
From soil investigation and laboratorytests the following parametersshould
be available:
c = soil cohesion (kPa)

4) = angle of internal friction (degrees or radians)
y = unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
p = total overburdenpressureat foundationlevel
p0 = p
h = height of water above foundation
= unit weight of water (kN/m3)
level
= ultimate bearing capacityas per Terzaghi (conservative approach)

Bearingcapacity calculations for cohesionless and (c-p) soils.
For continuousfoundation
quit = cN, + po(Nq 1) + 0.5yBN7 + p
For squarefoundation
quit = 1.3cN( + po(Nq
1)
+ O.4yBN. + p
For circularfoundation
quit = l.3cN + po(Nq
1)
+ 0.3'1BN, + [3
a = e075
P/2)tanP
N=
q
2
cos2(45 +
= (Nq
4)12)
1)cot4)
K 1
= O.5tan4) 7l
\cos 4)
Table 6.1 Values of

4)
10.8 12.2
10
14.7
(as per Reference 6).

20
25
30
18.6 25.0 35.0 52.0
15
may be obtained from Fig. 6.1.

Nq, N( and
Allowable bearing capacity= qui1I3
Bearing capacity calculations for cohesive soils
quit
cN + p
N may be obtained from Table 6.2.

Allowable bearing capacity = q1I3
35
82.()
40
141.0
45
50
298.() 800.()
228
Reinforced Concrete
Table 6.2 Values of Ne for cohesive soils (as per Reference 6).
Types of footing
DIB or D/2r
Values of N
0
0.5
1.0
6.2
1.5
9.1
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.3
9.3
0
0.5
5.2
6.2
7.1
7.7
8.1
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
Circular or
square footing
Strip footing
7.3
8.2
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
D = depth below ground to underside of pad foundation

B = least plan dimension of pad foundation
r = radius of circular pad foundation
are many different ways of calculating ultimate bearing capacity

take into account depth, water tables, load inclinations, various
shapes of foundations, soil layers, etc. It is normal practice to have the
allowable bearing capacities for varioussizes of foundationsdetermined by
specialists carrying out the site investigation.
In the absence of laboratory tests for finding c, y and 4, values from
Tables 6.3 and 6.4 may be used to determine allowablebearing capacity if
the description of the soil is known.
Note: There
which
Table 6.3 Typical values of angle of internal friction, 4.

Soil type
Angle of internal friction,
4
Medium gravel
Sandy gravel
Loose dry sand
Loose saturated sand
Dense dry sand
Dense saturated sand
Loose silty sand
Dense silty sand
Saturated clay
(degrees)
4055
4550
2834
2834
3546
3344
2022
2530
Design
Table 6.4 Typical valuesof cohesive strength, c.

Soil type
Cohesivestrength, c (kN/m2)
Hard boulder clays

Hard fissured clays
Deep London and gault clays
Hard weathered shales
Hard weathered mudstones
Very stiff boulder clay
Very stiff blue London clay
Very stiff weathered Keuper Marl
Stiff boulder clay

Stiff blue London clay
Stiff weathered Keuper Marl
Firm normally consolidated clay
Upper weathered 'brown' London clay
Soft normally consolidated clay
>300
>300
>300
>300
>300
1503(X)
l5030()
150300
75ISo
75150
75150
4075
4075
2040
Note: Presumed allowable bearingcapacities for various types of soil and grades
of chalk and Keuper Marl may be obtained from Tables 2 and 3 of
BS8004: 1986.121
6.5.2 Settlement of foundation

Method 1
Quick approximate method
of volume compressibility (in m/MN) =

Valuesofm should be available aftersoil investigation tests. Approximate
values of m for clays may be obtained from Table 6.5.
Soil parameter: Coefficient
Table 6.5 Typical values of coefficientof volume compressibility,rn.

Soil type
Coefficientof volume
compressibility.m
(m2/MN)
Heavily overconsolidated boulderclays

Stiff weathered rocks
Hard London clays
Boulder clays
Very stiff London clays
Upper blue London clays
Weathered boulder clay
Weathered Keuper Marl
Normally consolidated alluvial clays
Estuarine clays
Organic alluvial clays and peats
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.050.1
0.050.1
0.100.3
0.100.3
0.100.3
0.301.5
0.301.5
>1.5
1.5B
,/"Average pressure
SK 6/14 Pressure
distributionfor
settlement computation.
0. 10 qn
Consolidationsettlement= m
where
oH
m = average m of all layers up to a depth of 1.5B

B = width of foundation (least dimension)
= O.55q,, (average pressure in centre of layers)
qn = net pressure on the soil (MN/rn2)
H = 1.5B (metres)
Note: Immediate settlement is ignored in these calculations.

Method 2 Settlementfrom static conepenetrationtests
Soil parameter: Cone resistance (in kg/cm2)

Constant of compressibility
where
Po =
= Ckd
=C=
Po
effective pressure
(in kN/m2)
at the centre of layer = p
p = total overburdenpressureat the centre of layer (kN/m2)

h = height of water to the centre of layer (metres)
= unit weight of water (kN/m3)
Settlement of layer = S =
where
/p+o\ metres
-log
p0 Z)
o = vertical stress at centre of layer (kN/m2) as a result of net

foundation pressure (q)
H = thickness of the layer of soil (metres)
o may be obtained from Fig. 6.2 (see Reference 5).
Total estimated settlement= summationof settlement of each layer

Note: The cone penetrometer curve should be broken down into separate layers,
each having approximately the same value of cone resistance within the
layer. Even if the cone penetrometer curve does not indicate any layering
of soil, the settlement should be computed in layers because the value of

falls off rapidly with depth.
6.5.3 Sliding resistance

6.5.3.1
Sliding ofconcrete on soil
SK 6/15 Sliding resistance

foundation.
of pad
Sliding resistance
where
of concrete foundation on soil. P. = F+ H Ha
F = frictional resistanceunder base

resistance due to horizontal movementof foundation
H == passive
active
Ha
pressure due to horizontal movementof foundation
F= Ptan
= horizontal movement of foundation into soil (metres)
Amax = maximumallowable horizontal movementon the basis of soil
shear strength (metres)
For cohesionless soil
Lmax =
7K
K/,
+ 2c
For cohesive soil max = '/D
K,,
K11
= n,1/B
= k1/1.5B
for cohesionless soil
for cohesive soil

(See Table 6.7 for typical values of n1, and
h = thickness of concrete pad foundation
= friction angle between concrete and soil (see Table 6.6).
= angle of internal friction of backfill material (see Table 6.3)
= tan2 (45 + 412)
232
Reinforced Concrete
= unit weight of backfill material (kN/m3)

B = width of foundation over which horizontal soil pressure is active
(metres)
+ D) for cohesionless soil

H = O.5ABhK,, (Z
for cohesive soil
K14Bh
Ka
= active pressure coefficient of the backfill material
= tan2 (45 4)12) for cohesionless soil

= negligible for cohesive soils
for cohesionless soil
Ha = O.5Ka (Z + D) Bhy
P = total verticalloadon the soil including the weight of foundationand
backfill
D = depth of soil to underside of pad foundation

Z
Note:
depth of soil to top of pad foundation
In practice it is very difficult to decide how much horizontal movement

may be allowed without causing excessive stresses in other parts of the
structure. It is good practice to provide total sliding resistanceby frictional
resistance only. The Rankine passive pressure coefficient,
K, should not
be used in these computationsbecause a large movement is necessary to

generate the full passive resistance. A factor of safety of 1.5 should be
allowedagainst sliding.
Check: P1.5H
6.5.3.2 Horizontal bearing capacity of soil
Allowable horizontal bearing capacity
of soil, PH = qA tan 74)\ + cA

2
= cohesion of foundation soil (kNIm2)

A = area of foundation
q = average unit pressure under foundation (kNIm2)
4) = angle of internal friction of foundation soil
where c
Check:
PF
6.6 BEARINGPRESSURE CALCULATIONS

6.6.1 Rectangular pad uniaxial bending no loss of contact
eO
Pi =
l)
/ P \ + /6M'
P2 =
/ P \ /6M

Table 6.6 Typical values of friction angle between concrete and soil,
Concrete on the following
soil types
Friction angle,
(degrees)
Clean sound rock

Clean gravel, gravelsand mixtures
Coarse sand
Clean fine-to-mediumsand
Silty medium-to-coarse sand
Clayey gravel
Clean fine sand
Silty-to-clayeyfine-to-mediumsand
Fine sandy silt
Very stiff and hard residual clay
Medium stiffand stiffclay
Bituminous or water-proofingmembrane
____________
233
35
2931
2931
2429
2429
2429
1924
1924
1719
2226
1719
05
_____________
P2i1ii11ii1
PRESSURE DIAGRAM FOR NO LOSS OF CONTACT
P1
SK 6/16 Pressurediagrams for

uniaxial bendingand direct load on
base.
PRESSURE DIAGRAM FOR LOSS OF CONTACT
234
Reinforced Concrete
Table 6.7 Typical coefficients of horizontal modulus of subgrade reaction.
Values of
h (cohesionless)
(MN/rn3)
Loose
Dry or moist sand

Submerged sand
Medium
Dense
2.2
6.6
17.6
1.26
4.4
10.7
Values of k, (cohesive)
(MN/rn3)
Types of clay
6.6.2 Rectangular pad
Pi
uniaxial bending
Stiff
Very stiff
7.2
14.4
Hard
28.8
loss of contact
2P
(1.5A
3e)B
x = 1.5A 3e
6.6.3 Rectangular pad biaxial bending no loss of contact
SK 6/17 Typical pressure diagram

for biaxial bendingand no loss of
contact.
Pi =
/ P \ + /6M + 7I
6Mg,
'\AB)
\AB2
/ P ' /6Mb,,, (Mrx
P2)+
/P\
P3
\AB)
/6M
l\AB2
(6MXX
\AB2
/6M\
P
p4= (
AB)
6.6.4 Rectangular pad
(6Mxx\)
\A2B)
biaxial bending loss of contact
Partial contact of soil/foundation(see Fig. 6.3).

The resultant of soil pressure diagram under base has co-ordinates and
e.
6.6.4.1
Resultantin Zone 1 of base (see Fig. 6.3)

Factor of safety for overturning is less than 1.5. Redesignsize of base.
6.6.4.2 Resultantin Zone 2 of base (see Fig. 6.3)

No loss of contact of base. Calculate pressures as in Section 6.6.3.
6.6.4.3 Resultantin Zone 3 of base (see Fig. 6.3)
P1
SK 6/18 Biaxial bending loss of

contact. Zero pressure on line
p3p4.
e = -P
BIB + /B2
=
12
(
e
!v1xx
\
12)
tanc = 3(A + 2e)

2(S e)
12P \ / B + 2S
Pi = Btan) B2 + 12S2
236
Reinforced Concrete
B
s+B'
P2=
P3
= P4 = 0
(s + )tanc
6.6.4.4 Resultantin Zone
x2
(s
B\
-)tan
4 ofbase (see Fig. 6.3)
SK 6/19 Biaxial bending loss of

contact. Zeropressure on line
P2P3
AlA
t=I-+
(A2
l2Lex
tanI3=
/
Pt =
)]
12
3(B 2ev)
2(t + e)
12P
A + 2t
\/
Atan) A2 + 12t2
It - Al
21
P4=
AIPt
P2 = P3 = 0
Yi
)tan
Y2 =
A\
( jtan13
Designof Pad Foundations

6.6.4.5 Resultant
237
in Zone 5 ofbase (see Fig. 6.3)
SK 6/20 Biaxial bending loss

of contact. Zero pressure on line
O3Ji3.
e e
k=+--A
B
Pi =
()k[12
3.9(6k 1)(1
2k)(2.3
2k)J
S and t are as in Sections 6.6.4.3 and 6.6.4.4.

2
P2
V3
s+BP1
=0
A
API
B1
x=S
Note:
To find maximum pressureat a corner the design chart in Fig. 6.4 may be
used. At the initial design stage when the size of the foundation is being
determined, this design chart becomes very useful.
Find eIA and eIB.
Read from Fig. 6.4 the value of K.
Maximum pressure =
PK
6.6.5 Multiple column biaxial bending no loss of contact
SK 6/21 Typical unsymmetrical

pad foundationand co-ordinates of
corners to find bearing pressure.
(1) Find area of foundation, A.
(2) Find centre of gravity of plan area of foundation.
(3) Find second moments ofarea about two orthogonal axes going through
CG of area of foundation (J. and J,).

(4) Find maximum ordinates X and Y of corner points of foundation with
respect to CO of area of foundation.
(5) Find eccentricitiesof all vertical loads from CG of area of foundation.
(6) Find total vertical load through CG of foundation and total moments
about orthogonal axes passing through CG of area of foundation (P,
and
(7) Find maximum and minimum pressuresat various pointson foundation

using the equation below.
P frI1y A4x
+
Pfl=+
A
Jx
Note:
This method is valid only when there is no loss of contact between the
foundation and the soil. Use a consistentsign conventionas in Section 6.4.
6.6.6 Circular pad
biaxial bending no lossof contact
A = = O.7854D2
x
SK 6/22 Circularpad foundation.
Design
Z=
tD3
= O.0982D3
M = (M1 +
MD
P
Pmax
PM
+
Design forces in padfoundation
Maximum shear force across diameter D = V= 1.285pR2+ 1.571qR2

Maximum bending moment acrossdiameter D = M1 = O.595pR3+ O.667qR3
R = radius of circular pad = D/2

q = minimum pressure = (P/A) (M/Z)
p + q = maximum pressure = (P/A) + (M/Z)
where
p = 2M/Z.
6.7
Step-by-step design procedure for pads

Step 1 Select type and depth offoundation
The types of foundationsare as follows:
(A) Reinforcedconcrete pad with single column.
(B) Reinforced concrete pad with multiple column.
(C) Reinforcedconcrete pad with single column and ground beams.
(D) Reinforced concrete pad with multiple column and ground beams.
(E) Mass concrete pad with single column.
Note: Type E may be used for light single-storey structures only.
The depth of the foundation is governedby the following:
Shrinking and swelling of clay.

Frost attacks.
Holding-down bolt arrangement of columns.
Suitable bearing stratum.
Water table and soluble sulphates.
Width of foundation which is normally kept more than depths for
shallow foundations.
Step 2 Select approximate size
From the ground investigation report and from Tables 13 of BS 8004:
1986,121 find the presumed allowable bearing capacity.
Find total maximum unfactored vertical load from column.
Find maximum unfactored moments M and
from column.
ey
SK 6/23 Equivalent eccentricityof

direct load on pad foundation.
Find eccentricities
Assume
e=
--
6e and B
and e
= Mi,,
j
6e
Forbiaxial bending,
find eIA and er/B, and from Fig. 6.4 find the value of K.
PK
Maximum approximatepressure =
Check whether the maximum pressure is lower than presumed allowable
bearing capacity.
Note:
At this stage some of the loads from the self-weight of the foundation,
ground beams, backfill, eccentricitiesof surcharges, etc. have not been
included and hence a margin has to be left in the bearing pressure to
account for these. Moreover, the actual bearing pressure computations
and settlementcomputationsmayfurtherenhancethe sizeofthe foundation.
LIJcy
SK 6/24 Dimensionsof column or pedestal on
pad foundation.
d[
SK 6/25 Effective depth of pad.
Determine minimum thicknessof pad:
Find Vmax = O.8Vf0 or 5N/mm2 whichever is lesser

Find column perimeter = U0 = 2(C1 + Cu).
Find total ultimate vertical load from column= N

Find d Nu/(Vmax U0)
also d O.5I(C + 4C2)5 C1]
whichever gives larger d.
Design
= UO/6
=
C2 N/12v
of Pad Foundations
241
Cl
(assume
reinforcement)
v, which is dependent on percentageof tensile
Choose overall depth of pad allowing for cover.

Note: Considerationneed not be given to anchorage length
pad foundation if all column bars are in compression.
of column bars in
Step 3 Calculate bearing capacity of soil

Follow Section 6.5.
Step 4 Calculate column load combinations

Follow Section 6.3.
Step S Calculate approximate settlement

Follow Method 1 of Section 6.5.2.
Note: The approximatesettlement computation will help to determine the level
of differential settlement for which the building should be designed.
Step 6 Carry out analysis for bearing pressure

Follow Section 6.1.
Step 7 Calculate bearingpressures underfoundation

Follow Section 6.6.
Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance offoundation
Follow Section 6.5.3.
Step 9 Check combined sliding and bearing

Check:
/P\
/H'\ 7H
ll+ll+(--------l1
\P/
\PHX/
\P/
P = total vertical load unfactored

P == area of base x allowable bearing capacity
H1, H total horizontalloadunfactoredin x- and v-directions
Pm., PHy = sliding resistanceof base (Step 8) in x- and y-directions
where
Section 6.5.3.)
Step 10 Carry out analysis of bearingpressurefor bending moment and shear
Follow Section 6.2.
Step 11
Calculate bearingpressurefor bending moment and shear

Follow Section 6.6.
Step 12 Calculate bearing moments and shears in pad

Critical sections for bending moments and shears:
(see
242
ReinforcedConcrete
321
d
d
.4
L Le/2
PLAN
Le/2
PLAN
SK 6/26 Critical section for checkingbending

moments and shears in pad foundation.
SK 6/27 Critical section for bending moment.
Sections 1, 4 design bending moment.

Section 1 shear.
Section 2 shear.
Section 3 shear.
Note: When calculatingbending moments and shears the downwardloads on the

pad will be considered with the upwards loads.
In a complicatedunsymmetrical combined columnfoundation the bending
moment and shear force diagrambased on the pressure distributionshould

be drawn and critical sections determined from these diagrams.

From the soil investigations report, find the concentration of sulphates
expressed as SO3.
From Table 17 of BS8004: 1986,121 find the appropriate type of concrete.
Class of
exposure
Total SO1
2
3
4
5
Note: Concrete in 'class
(%)
<0.2
0.20.5
0.51.0
1.02.0
>2.0
Minimum cover on
blinding concrete
(mm)
Minimum cover
elsewhere (mm)
35
75
80
90
100
100
40
50
60
60
of exposure5' needs protective coating.
Step 14 Cakulate area of tension reinforcement and distribution
M = bending moment due to ultimate loads in pad

Find effective depth, d.
b = total width of section
0.156
K=
JCu
z = d 0.5 +
A=
(o.2s
0.87fz
SK 6/28 Rulesfor distributionof reinforcement

in pad foundation.
SK 6/29 Detailing rules for pad foundationwith

two columns.
K\1
0.95d
244
Reinforced Concrete
Note: Increase depth of pad foundation if K is greater than 0.156.
Distribution of tension reinforcement
Case
If
l> 1.5
(C1+3d), distribute two-thirds of total reinforcement in
y-direction in the zone (C + 3d).

Case 2
If 1> 1.5 (C + 3d), distribute two-thirds of total reinforcement in
x-directionin the zone (C + 3d).
Case 3
If l> 1.5 (Cj + 3d) or 1.5(C2 + 3d), whicheveris the lesser, distribute
two-thirds of total reinforcement(top) in y-direction in the zone (Cr1 +

3d) or (Cr2 + 3d), whicheveris the lesser.
Case 4
For bottom reinforcementin the combined foundation, follow the rules in

Case 1 and Case 2, assuming individual foundationsto the centre of column
spacing (1I2).
Note:
relates to effective depth for resistance against moment M which is

dabout
the orthogonal axis x. Similarly, d relates to effective depth for
in
which is about the
axis
M
orthogonal
y, or,
other words, the reinforcementin the x-directionis to resist moment about
the y axis and the effective depth is d.
resistance against moment
See Step 12.

Shear at Section 1
Check shear stress:
v1
0.8f
where
V1
or 5 N/mm2
= total shearat Section 1
b = total width of Section
d = effective depth of Section 1.

Shear at Section 2
Check shear stress:
V2
bd
2v
The value of v, is obtained from Figs 11.2 to 11.5, dependingon 100A/bd

where A is the total area of tensile reinforcementin the section.
245
Shear at Section 3
Check shear stress:
V3
V3
=
V.
bd
Note: Change the thickness of the pad if the shear stress at any section exceeds
the allowable limit. It is not cost-effective to provide shear reinforcement
in the pad foundation.
Step 16 Check punchingshear
SK 6/30
Punching shear
perimeters in pad foundation.
N = maximum ultimate vertical load from column

Find perimeters U0, U1 and U2.
d = O.5(d + d)
U() = 2(C, + C)
U = (U0 + 12d)
Check:
v0
=
U0d
O.8\/f or 5N/mm2
N pA vc
U1d
Vl=
A1
= (C + 3.Od)(C + 3.Od)
where Pi = average upwardspressure over areaA1 enclosedby perimeter

U1.
The value of v, is obtainedfrom Figs11.2 to 11.5 correspondingto Px or

Py' whichever is the lesser.
Px_
Py_
1OOA.,
ixux
1OOA,
1_I
V
246
Reinforced Concrete
lx
Aj
ly
SK 6/31 Typical tensile
reinforcementplan for pad

foundation.
Change the thickness of the pad if the punching shear stress exceeds
v, otherwise shear reinforcement will be required as per Step 7 of
Section 3.3.
the same principle individually to each column for

foundation.
Note: Apply
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement forflexure

Minimum tensile reinforcement= 0.00l3bh
460N/mm2)
a combined
in both directions
Note: Provide this minimum reinforcement also at the

where top reinforcementis required for flexure.
(f =
top of the foundation
Step 18 Check spacingof reinforcement
Clear spacing of bars should not exceed 3d or 750mm.

Percentage of reinforcement
l00A/bd in pad (%)
1
or over
0.75
0.5
0.3
less than 0.3
Note:
Maximum clear spacing of

bars forf =460N/mm2 (mm)
160
210
320
530
3d or 750
The above rules for spacing of bars in tension will in most cases ensure
adequate control of crack widths to 0.3mm where the cover does not
exceed 50 mm.

Determine pour configuration:

(1) Massive pour cast on blindingconcrete: R=0.1 to 0.2
(2) Massive pour cast on existing mass concrete: R = 0.3 to 0.4 at base
R=0.1 to 0.2 at top
R = restraint factor.
where
Determine the valueof temperature, T1, for OPC concrete cast on ground
from the table.
Section thickness (mm)
300
17
5(X)
28
28
28
700
1000
Calculate
where
Wmax
T1(C)
e = 0.8T1ctR
c = 12 x 106/C, or values from Table 2.3 may be used
3a. E1
+ 2 (ac. Cmin
\ hx
Note: The design crack width is 0.3 mm. If this is exceeded, closer spacings of
bars may be used.
xh/2T
I
p
DETAIL
SK 6/32 Early thermal crack width

calculation.
(JQ
DETAIL 1,
_________
248
Reinforced Concrete
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute thermalcracking

= 460N/mm2
Pcrit = 0.0035 for
Up to 300mm thickness of pad foundation

= 0.00175bh near top surface in each direction
From 300mm to 500mm thicknessof pad foundation
= 0.001 75bh mm2 near top surface in each direction
Ab = 0.35bmm2 near bottom surface in each direction
Over 500mm thicknessof pad foundation
= 0.875b mm2 near top surface in each direction

Ab = 0.35bmm2 near bottom surface in each direction
where b = width of pad perpendicularto the direction of reinforcement
(mm)
h = overall thicknessof pad (mm).

Step 21 Check crack width due to flexure
Loading conditions LC1 to LC4
in Section 6.3.
Find bending moment M across a critical section, as in Step 12.
= 15
m=
for long-term loading
I(mA\2 + 2mAsd]
x=HI
b i
L\bJ
I
mA
b
Az
Es
mh =
Wmax
b(h x)2
3EA(d x)
3acr Cmin
Note:
fh-x\
Ehl
Cmin)
+ 2(acrh x
In extremelysevereexposureconditionsit is prudent to checkcrack widths

and provide adequate reinforcementto limit it to an allowable value.
Design
Step 22 Design mass concrete foundation
0
3
SK 6/34 Critical sections in mass

concrete foundation.
A-
2D
SK 6/33 Typical plan and

elevation of mass concrete pad
foundation.
The size and depth will be determined based on a 45 dispersionof load

from column through mass concrete on to soil.
D = depth of foundation.
At critical section 1, find the bending moment and shear from the soil
pressure diagram for unfactored loads: serviceability limit state.
M = bending moment across critical section
V = shear across critical section
Check: ftb = stress in concrete in bending tension
= 6M or 6M < O.37\/f,
BD2
AD2
Vd
= shear stress in concrete

=
V
BD
or
Punching shear stress =
AD
O.037f.
2(C + C)D
O.O37f
Bearing stress under column base plate =
O.275f
250
Reinforced Concrete
Step 23 Calculate settlement
Follow Method 2 of Section 6.5.2.
Use load combination LC13 of Section 6.3.
Note:
The settlement calculations should be carried out to give a better understanding of the global effects on the structure. It may be necessary to alter
the sizes of some of the pad foundationsin a structure in order to even out
the differential settlements. It is also important in certain cases to feed
back these settlements in the analysis of the structure.
6.8 WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 6.1 RC pad with single column
Internal column.
Column size = 400mm x 400mm

Column spacing =6m x 6m on plan
The unfactored column loads are given in the following table:
Vertical load N (kN)

Horizontal shearH, (kN)
Horizontal shear H, (kN)
Moment M (kNm)
Moment M (kNm)
Dead
Imposed
Wind
610
480
42
38
95
105
Suitable bearing stratum at 1000mm below ground level. Medium dense

silty sand.
Type: Reinforcedconcrete pad with single RC column
Depth: 1000mm below finished ground level
1150mm below finished floor level.
Depth selected from considerationsof:
Frost attack.
Swelling of soil.
Suitable bearing stratum.
Presumed allowablebearing capacity from BS 8004: 198&2] = 150kN/m2
Maximum Vertical load V= 610+ 480 = 1090kN
Maximum eccentricity=
e = MIV=105/1090 = 0.1 m
Design
of Pad Foundations
251
6e=0.6mA
=7.3m2
Assume
B=3m.
a 3 m x 3m foundaticn pad with
area of 9m2: A = 3m and
Determine minimum thickness ofpad
Assume grade of concrete= C30
= 0.8\/f or 5 N/mm2 (whichever is lesser)= 4.38 N/mm2

= 2(C + C) = 2(400 + 400) = 1600mm
Vmax
Total factored load from column
N = 1.4 x 610 + 1.6 x 480 = 1622kN
1622 x i03
VmaxUo
or d
4.38
x 1600 =231mm
[(cf + 4C2)
where C1
C1J
= 430mm
1600
U, =
=
= 267 mm
N
C2==
12v
6
1622
x i03
=300370mm
12 x 0.45
Assumed = 0.45 N/mm2 which corresponds to about 0.3% tension reinforcementfor = 30N/mm2. Chooseoveralldepth of pad equal to 500mm
allowing for adequate cover.
Step 3 Calculate bearingcapacity of soil

Note: This step may not be necessary if the allowable bearing capacity for the
selected size of foundation is already available from the soils investigation
report. However, for completeness of a foundation design problem, this
step is included.
From field and laboratorytests the following soil parametersof the bearing
stratum are known:
ground water table = 2.Om below ground level
h = 0, i.e. height of water table above foundation level is zero.

y = unit weightof soil = l8kN/m3
p = total overburdenpressureat the foundation level.

= 18 X I (below ground)
= l8kN/m2
252
ReinforcedConcrete
p0 = p
'yh = l8kN/m2
= unit weightof water

c = soil cohesion = lOkN/m2
= angle of internal friction = 22 = 0.384 radian
a = e75' cpI2)tantan42
= e75 0192)
= 2.3974
a2
N =
2
cOS2(450
=9.19
+
N = (N9 1)cot = 20.3

= 29.0
from Table 6.1 in Section 6.5.1
' tan/K
2 \cos24
quit = 1.3cN
\
/
+ p0(N9
1)
+ 0.4'yBN + p
=1.3x 10x20.3+18x(9.191)+0.4x 18x3x6.6+18

= 572 kN/m2
Allowable bearing capacity =
= 190kN/m2

(See Section 6.3.)
Bearingpressure calculations
LC1
LC3
= 1.ODL + 1.OIL
= 1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OWL
LC1:
Combined vertical column load, N = 610 + 480 = lO9OkN
LC3:
N = vertical load = 1090kN

H=42kN M=105kNm
H=0 H=O M=0 M=0

H=0
M1=0
Note: By inspection, wind in one direction only may be checked
foundation.
Bending moment and shear calculations
= 1.4DL + 1.61L
= 1.2DL + 1.21L + 1.2WL
= 1.4DL + 1.4WL
LC5: N = 1.4 x 610 + 1.6 x 480 = 1622kN
LC5
LC6
LC7
H=0 H=O
M1=0
M=0
for a square
Design
LC6:
N ==1.2 x 610 =+ 1.2 x 480 = 13O8kN

=
LC7:
=0
= 1.2 X 105 = 126kNm
N ==1.4 x 610 == 854kN
=0
1.4 x 42 58.8kN
= 1.4 x 105 = 147kNm
1.2
x 42
50.4kN
Step 5 Calculate approximate settlement
This step may be ignored since the foundations are not connected by
ground beams and the differential settlements will have little effect on the
design of this foundation.
Step 6 Carry out analysis for bearingpressure
Floor slab
Backfill
i,,.
400x400 Column
///
3000x 3000
SK 6/35 Section through pad
foundation.
SK 6/36 Eccentric surcharge on

pad foundation on plan.
Weight of foundation = 9m2
x 0.5Dm >< 24kN/m3

= lO8kN
Weight of backfill + ground slab = 9m2 x 0.5Dm x lSkN/m3 + 9m2
x 0.15m x 24kN/m3
= 113.4kN
Surcharge on ground slab
= 5 kN/m2
Weight of surchargeon half foundation = 4.5m X 5 kNIm2 = 22.5kN

Eccentricity
of surcharge = 0.75 m
Weight of surcharge on full foundation = 45 kN

LC1: p = total verticalload
= 1090 + 108 + 113.4 + 45

= 1356.4kN
H=0 M1=0
=
P 1090 + 108 + 113.4 + 22.5
J-I=0
LC3:
= 1333.9kN
H1 = 42kN
M11 = 0
= 105 kNm
M
=
105
M=0
H=0
+ 42 x 0.45 + 22.5 x 0.75 =
140.8 kNm
Step 7 Calcukite bearing pressure underfoundation
(See Section 6.6.)

LC1:
= 1356.4 = 150.7kN/m2< 190kN/m
LC2:
= 0.104m <A/6 = 0.50m

P 6M
Pi = AB + A2B
x
= 1333.9 + 6 140.8
9
9x3
= 179.5 kN/m2 <
190
x 1.25 = 237.5 kN/m2
Note: 25% overstresson allowablebearing capacity may be allowedfor combinations including wind.
Bearing pressures are within allowablelimits.

Step 8 Calcuk,.te sliding resistance offoundation
Ignore passive resistance because horizontal movement of the foundation
should be avoided.

Assume = 17 from Table 6.6.
P = 610 + 108 + 113.4 (dead load only) = 831.4kN

P = Ptan = 831.4 x tan17 = 254kN > 1.5H = 1.5 x 42 = 63kN
= qAtan + cA
= 831.4 x tan22 + 10 x 9
= 426kN> P = 254kN
P = 1356.4kN
P = 190 kN/m2 x 9m2 = l7lOkN
H1 = 42kN
PHx = 426kN
Design
P
Li 1356.4
+=
1710
'Hx
of Pad Foundations
255
42
426
=0.89<1 OK
Step 10
Carry out analysis of bearing pressure for bending moment and shear
LC5:
N1.
= 1622kN
= N1. + 1.4 (foundation + backfill) + 1.6 (surcharge on backfill)

= 1622 1.4 x (108 + 113.4) + 1.6 x 45
= 2004kN
=0
LC6:
P1.
H,11 = 0
=0
=0
= N1. + 1.2 (foundation + backfill + surcharge)

=
1308 +
1.2
(108 +
113.4
+ 22.5)
= l6OlkN
=0
M1. = M1. + Hh +
= 126 + 50.4 x 0.45 + 1.2 x 22.5 x 0.75
= 168.9 kNm
LC7: P = N1 + 1.4 (foundation + backfill)
= 854 + 1.4 (108 + 113.4)
= 1164kN
=0
+ H14h
M1. =
= 147 + 58.8 x 0.45
= 173.5 kNm
Step 11
Calculate bearingpressurefor bending moment and shear

400 x400 Column
fVJ
_____ill
tt t
f ft
3000 x 3000
SK 6/37 Uniform bearing pressure

for loadcombination LC.
LC5:
p = AB = 9 = 222.7 kN/m2
LC6:
P
p,=+
AB
1601
A2B
6x
168.9
27
= 177.9 + 37.5 = 215.4 kN/m2

2227 kN/m2

x 400 Column
x400 Column
T.t_4oo
8
U,
3000
3000
2154
167B
kN/m2
kN/m2
JJiJJJJJJJjj142
JJJJJJJi?m2
SK 6/38 Bearingpressurefor loadcombination
SK 6/39 Bearing pressure for load combination
LC6.
LC7.
P2
P
A2B
= 140.4 kN/m2
LC7:
P
Pi=+
AB
=+
1164
9
129.3
A2B
6x
173.5
27
38.5 = 167.8 kN/m2
=
+
P2 = 129.3 38.5 = 90.8 kN/m2
Step 12 Calculate bending moments and shears in pad

LC5: Downward load on pad =Pd
Pd = self-weight of pad + backfill + surcharge
Upward load on pad = Pu

Pu = pressure of ground on pad
(see Step 10).
SK 6/40 Critical sectionsfor

bending moment and shears on
plan of pad foundation.
,jrcharqe
FLoor
Backfill
slab
015
050
-*--
SK 6/41 Calculation of Pd for

downwardload on overhang,
-Concrete of
pad foundation
p = (0.50 x 24 + 0.50 x 18 + 0.15 x 24) x 1.4 + (SkN/m2) x 1.6

42.4 kN/m2
Pu
222.7 kN/m2 constant
:424kN/m2
11111
130O
SK 6/42 Typical loading on pad

foundation overhang at section
Pu1
=222-7kNJm2
11.
Cantilever overhang at section 11

Bending moment at section 1
= 1500 200 =
= M, =
(Pu
1300mm
=/
Pd)Bt
2
180.3 x
3x
1.32
= 457.lkNm
Shearat section 1 =
V1
= (Pu p)Bl
= 180.3 x 3 x 1.3
= 703.2kN
Assume d = 425mm
= (Pu pd)B(I 0.425) = 473.3kN

Shear at section 3 = V3 = (p. pd)B(l 2 x 0.425) = 243.4kN
Shear at section 2 =
V2
215-4
SK 6/43 Loading on overhangof

pad foundationdue to
L.
LC6: Pressure at section 11
= 177.9 + 37.5x0.2 = 182.9 kN/m2

1
Pd = 1.2(0.50 x 24 + 0.50 X 18 + 0.15 X 24 + 5) = 35.5 kN/m2

Bending moment = M1
= (182.9 35.5) x 3 x 1 32
+ (215.4 182.9) x 0.5 x 1.3 x 3 x
x 1.3
= 428.6 kNm
The shears at sections 1, 2 and 3 need not be checked. By inspectionthey
will be less critical than LC5.
LC7 need not be checked. By inspection it will not be critical.
From SI report, total SO3 = 0.5%
Class of exposure= 3
(See write-up of Step 13 in Section 6.7.)
75 mm blinding concrete will be used.
Minimum cover on blinding concrete= 50mm
Assume 16mm diameter HT Type 2 deformed bars.
Effective depth of top layer (symmetrical reinforcementin both directions),
d=50050 168=426mm
Step 14 Calculate area oftensile reinforcement

Maximum bending moment on section 11 = 457.1 kNm (LC5)
M =
457.1 x 106
= 0.028
K=
fbd2 30 x 3000 x 4262
z = d[0.5 +
I(o.2s
f-)]
0.95d
/(o.25 ft028)]
M 457.1 x 106
d{O.5
0.87fz
0.87
0.95
426
405mm
X 460 X 405
= 2820mm2
Use 15 no. 16 dia. Type 2 HT bars in each direction (3015mm2).
Distribution of tension reinforcement
= C = 400mm
= 500 50 8 = 442mm
= 500 50 16 8 = 426mm
1.5(C + 3d,) = 2517mm < = 3000mm
1.5(C, + 3d) = 2589mm < 1, = 3000mm
ci,
x 2820 =
1880mm2
Reinforcementover central C. + 3d,(1678mm)and C + 3d(1726mm)
=
1.678
= 1120mm2/m
11+16 at175
2-16 equa
spaced
SK 6/44 Distribution of
reinforcementin pad foundation.
Use 11 no. 16mm dia. bars at 175mm centres (1149mm2/m) over the
central zone in each direction.
Use 2 no. 16mm dia. bars on each side outside the central zone.
Total number of 16mm bars used = 15(3015mm2)
All bars are HT Type 2.
260
Reinforced Concrete
(See Step 12 LC5.)
Check
v1
0.8\/f
or 5 N/mm2
= 703.2 x io = 0.55 N/mm2 < 0.8\/f

3000 x 426
'2 =
Check
V2
2v
= 473.3 x
3000
i03
x 426
= 0.37 N/mm2
= 15 no. 16mm dia. bars = 3015mm2

Use larger d (442 mm) for calculationof p.
100A1
bd
= 100 x 3015 = 0.23%

x
3000
442
= 30N/mm2,
From Fig. 11.3 for
v = 0.42N/mm2 > v2
No more shear checks are necessary.
Step 16 Checkpunching shear

d == 442mm
d = =426mm
0.5
+
434mm
d
(442
(I0 = 2
U1
426)
(C+ C) = 2(400 + 400) = 1600mm
= (U0 + 12d) = 1600 + 12 x 434 = 6808mm
--
v0
or 5N/mm2
(See Step 4 LC5.)
N = 1622kN
v0 =
><
= 2.34N/mm2 <0.8Vf
Pi = Pu Pd = 180.3 kN/m2
(see Step 12)
A1 = (C + 3.0d1)(C + 3.0d)
= (400 + 3.0 x 426)(400 + 3.0 x 442) x 106
= 2.90m2
Design
of Pad Foundations
261
N p1A1
(]d
(1622
x 2.9) x i03
6808 x 434
180.3
= 0.37 N/mm2
v = 0.42 N/mm2
OK
(from Step 15)
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcementforflexure

Minimumtensile reinforcement= 0.OOl3bh = 0.0013 x 300()
x 500
= 1950mm2 < 3015mm2
No top tension in pad foundation.
provided
Step 18 Check spacing of reinforcement

(see Step 15)
Percentage reinforcement p = 0.23%
Maximum spacing = 750mm not exceeded
Step 19 Check early thermalcracking
R = 0.15, say
= 28C
= 12 x 106/C
= 0.8T1cvR
= 0.8 x 28 x 12 x 10 x 0.15
= 4.032 x 10
x = h/2 = 250mm (assumed)
acr
V(742 + 137.52) 8 = 148mm
Er
3acrrr
Wmax
Cmin)
+ (2(acrhx
\
3 x 148 x 4.032 x i05
(2(148 66)
1 +
500
250
= 0.01 mm < 0.3mm

Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement to distribute thermal cracking
Top reinforcement= 0.00175bh
= 0.00175 x 3000 x 500

= 2625 mm2 over 3000mm
262
ReinforcedConcrete
Bottom reinforcement = 0.35b
= 0.35 x 3000
= 1050mm2
Note:
Step 21
Pd
If thermal crackinghas to be avoided, then a top mesh of 16 dia. bars at

200 c/c should be provided. This may seem unnecessaryin the present
circumstances since the pad will be fully buried in the ground.
Check crack width due toflexure
296kN/m2
///W// 'H_______
k\w/N\
'18kN/m3
fo
L
11111
AxB
3000 x 3000
SK 6/46 Calculation of net foundationpressure

at serviceability limit state.
SK 6145 Pressure diagram for serviceability

limit state.
Loading condition LC1. (See Step 7.)

Pu = 150.7 kN/m2
Pd = 0.5 x 24 + 0.5 x 18 + 0.15
M = (Pu
x 24 + 5 = 29.6kN/m2
Pd)B1
(150.7 29.6) x
3x
m = 15
A = 3015mm2
bi +
[(42
5 X
2mAd12
= 307kNm
b = 3000mm
mA
2 x 15 X
3015 X
3000
= 99mm
x
99
z=d=426--=393mm
=
f = zA = 307x106
x
M
393
d = 426mm
3015\
[(1
1.32
3015
259N/mm2
426]2
15 x 3015
_____
259
200x103
/hx\
b(h
acr
= 50 +
Wmax
io
x 1.295 x i03 = 1.588 x
10
x)2
3EA(d x)
3 x 200 x io x 3015 X (426 99)

66mm for second layer
16
148mm
x 10
(see Step 19)

3acr
3000 x (500 99)2 ______

____________________
_____ = 0.773
= 1.588 x
Cmjn
= 150099'\
= 1.295 x
Emh
Cjn)
h x
3 x 148 x 0.773 x
i0
66)
1+ 2(148
500 99
=0.24mm<0.3mm
Note:
Step 22
OK
The crack width should be checked if the foundation level is below the
water table and the total SO3 is higher than I%.
Design mass concrete foundation
Not required.
Step 23 Calculate settlement

Load combinationLC13: (See Section 6.3.)
LC13 = 1.ODL + 0.51L
(vertical loads only)
P = 610 + 0.5 x 480 + 108 + 113.4 + 22.5
SK 6/47 Calculation of settlement.
1093.9kN
264
Reinforced Concrete
Gross foundation pressure =
AB
121.5 kN/m2
Weight of soil removed = ABlY',' = 3
x 3 x 1 x 18 = 162kN
q = net foundation pressure = 121.5
=1
B
162
= 103.5 kN/m2
A = B = 3m
Completethe settlement computation table up to Z = 2.5B.

Ground water table at 2.Om below ground level
Total settlement = 24.53mm
Ckd = cone resistance (kg/cm2)
C = 147 CkdIPo
= vertical stressat centre of layer (kN/m2)
Z = depth to centre of layer
h = height of ground water above centre of layer
p0 = p
cJ is obtained from Fig. 6.2.
Note: Check whether this long-term predicted settlement is going

problem elsewherein the structural system.
to cause any
Step 24 Design connection of pad to column (see Chapter 10)

Example 6.2 RC pad with multiple columns
Foundation for the braced columns.
Unfactored loads from the columns.
2x4 -32$
H.D. BOLTS
SK 6/48 Combinedpad foundationfor a braced

bay.
SK 6/49 Typical arrangementof steel columns

at braced bay.
265
Settlement computation table for Example 6.1
H
1.0
l.()
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
ZIB
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
0.167
0.5
0.833
1.167
1.5
1.8333
2.167
7.5
2.5
oIq,,
0.8
82.8
0.52
0.35
0.22
0.16
0.10
0.08
0.075
53.82
36.22
22.77
16.56
10.35
8.28
7.76
p,
S (mm)
27
40
48
190
129
7.38
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
56
64
72
Ckd
35
35
35
65
65
90
90
120
6.61
5.25
2(X)
1.54
107
170
8()
149
184
165
88
2(X)
0.73
0.60
0.42
Loading table for Example 6.2

Columns
DL
IL
CLV
Al
+81)
+40
A2
+80
+50
+40
+20
+51)
+20
B1
B2
WL1 = transverse wind
+900
CLH
V
WL2
WL1
V
2(X) 12 fl05 9
50
25
9 50 25
200 12 105 9 5() 25
105 9 50 25
105
WL2 = longitudinal wind
600mm x 300mm wide ground beam to carry 230mm brickwork 3m high.

Suitable bearing stratum at 1200mm below ground level.
Finishedfloor level is 150 mm above finished ground level.
Stiff to very stiff clay layer.
Type: Reinforced concrete pad foundation combined 2 sets of columns.
Length of 32mm diameter HD bolts anchorage assembly = 400mm.
The bottom of grout under base plate will be 500mm below finished floor
level.
It is easier for constructionif the HD bolt is in the pedestal.

Height of pedestal = 1000mm say
of pad = 650mm assumed
Underside of base at 1650mmbelow floor level which is 1500mm below
finished ground level.
Thickness

Size of pedestal= 1400mm x 2500mm
Presumed allowable bearing capacity from BS8004: 1986121 = 200kN/m2

Assume a projection of 1750mm around the pedestals. The trial size
SK 6/50 Typical detail of column

base and pedestalon plan.
1
STIFFENER
Finishedfloor level
000
BASE PLATE
/
O5OO
PEOESTAL
SO
JL\
GROUT
"H.D. BOLTS
SK 6/51 Typical section through

pedestalcolumn connection.
becomes 11000 x 6000. This is based on experience and may need some
revision after all the calculations are carried out.
Determine minimum thicknessof pad.
Ultimate vertical load on pad through one pedestal =
N=1.4X(8O+8O+5O+5O)+1.6X(9OO)
= 1850kN including weight of pedestal
U0=2(C+C)=2x(1400+2500)=78OOmm
C1 = (JI6 = 1300mm
C2 = N/v = 1850/0.4 = 4265 mm2
SK 6/52 Elevation of pad foundation.
SK 6/53 Section through pad

foundation.
v, =
0.4 N/mm2
assumedfor
30N/mm2
d = 0.5[(C + 4C2)'5 C1J = 3.5mm

Punchingshear will not be critical.
Step 3 Calculate bearingcapacity ofsoil
Note: This step may not be necessary if the soils investigation report includes the
allowable bearing capacity calculationsfor different sizes of foundation.
From field and laboratorytests the following soil parametersof the bearing
stratum are known.
= unit weight of soil = l9kN/m3

Ground water table=2.Om below ground level
h =0
(ground water table below the level of foundation)
Purely cohesive bearing stratum.
quit = cN
+p
p = overburden pressure = yD = 19 x
c = cohesive strength = 75 kN/m2
1.5m
= 28.5 kN/m
D = 1.5m
B = 6.Om
N = 6.7
quit = 75
= 0.25
x 6.7 + 28.5 = 531 kN/m2

= 177kN/m2
Allowablebearing capacity =

LC1 = 1.ODL
+ 1.OIL + 1.OEP + 1.OCLV + 1.OCLH
Load Combination no. Column no. Vertical Ecc., Ecc., Ve

case
load, V
(m)
(m) (kNm)
no.
LC1
(kN)
Al
80
3.0
DL+IL+CLV
A2
3.0
B1
120
1170
3.0
B2
70
3.0
+ CLH
Totals
LC1
Al
CLH
A2
B!
B2
DL + IL + CLV
Totals
320
120
770
3.0
70
3.0
3.0
(kN)
(kN)
+12
+210
+585
+35
270()
+600
+24
0.5
0.5
960
160
60
12
0.5
0.5
2310
+210
+385
+35
2700
+200
24
+240
+360
+40
+0.5
+0.5
3510
3.0
1280
LC2
0.5
0.5
1280
Ve
(kNm)
+360
60
+12
12
= 1.ODL + 1.OEP + 1.OCLV + 1.OCLH + 1.OWL1 (or 1.OWL2)
(total 8 possible combinations)
Load Combination no. Column no. Vertical Ecc., Ecc., Ve

H
Ve
case
load, V (m)
(m) (kNm) (kNm) (kN)
no.
LC2
(kN)
Al
A2
225
25
3.0
DL+ CLV
Bi
1255
3.0
B2
155
3.0
+ CLH+ WL,
Totals
LC2
3.0
Al
70
3.0
DL+CLV
A2
+30
3.0
Bi
1200
3.0
B2
3.0
+ CLH WL2
Totals
1160
(kN)
+465
+113
+13
+628
+78
+21
+9
+21
+9
2700
+832
60
0.5
0.5
+210
+90
15
0.5
0.5
3600
+600
3300
+620
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1160
+675
75
3765
+35
25
25
25
25
+12
100
+24
+12
Design
Note: Most of
of Pad Foundations
269
the other combinations can be ignored by inspection. Also by
inspection it is clear that load cases LC3 and LC4 will not produce more
onerous design.
Step 5 Calculate approximate settlement
(See Method 1 in Section 6.5.2.)
Soil parameter required from soil investigation report
Assume this is not available.
From Table 6.5 of Section 6.5.2, assume
= m m2IMN
m = 0.15m2/MN
Consolidationsettlement =
qn
maH
= average pressure = 5OkNIm2

= 0.55q. = 27.5kN/m2
assumed
B = width of foundation = 6m
H = 1.5B = 9.Om
0.15
Settlement = mo H =
1000
x 27.5 x 9.0 x 100() = 37mm
Assume quarter of this predictedsettlement as differentialsettlement.This

is becausethe predicted maximum settlementis 40 mm, say, the minimum
settlement is half (i.e. 20mm) and the average settlement is 30mm, so the
average differential settlement is 10mm (4030).
Differential settlement= 10mm
42kN
42kM
42kNt
42kMt
6kNm
SK 6/54 Loads and moments due to differential settlement of pad foundation.
Step 6
Carry out analysis for bearing pressure

Self-weight offoundation = 2 x 1.4 x 2.5 x 1.0 x 25 kN/m3 (pedestal) +
6 x 11 x 0.65 x 25kN/m3 (base)
= 1248kN
270
Reinforced Concrete
= (6 x 11 1.4 x 2.5) x 0.85m x l8kN/m3

= 956kN
Weight of ground slab (150 mm) = (4 x 11) x 0.15 x 25kN/m3
Weight of backfill
= 165kN
Eccentricity,e = +1.Om
Backfilland surcharge
over the hatched area
SK 6/55 Plan of foundationshowingareas of superimposedloads.
Surchargeon ground slab @ 25kN/m2 = 4
Eccentricity,e = 1.Om
x 11 x 25 = llOOkN
Weight of ground beams + brickwork = (12 2.8) m x 0.3m X 0.6m X

25 kN/m3 (ground beams)
+3m x 0.23m x 22kN/m3

(brickwork)
= 224kN
Eccentricity, = 1.15m
Differential settlement = 10mm assumed (see Step 5)
6EI =
126kNm
for each beam
M=
E = 14 x
106kN/m2
long-term Young's modulus
Beam size = 300mm x 600 mm

Beam end reactions =
12EI = 2M
=
= 42kN
Moment on the foundation = 2 x (126) + (42 x 6) = 5O4kNm
are many possible alternatives of the differential settlement. The

worst, from the point ofview ofbearingpressureconsideringother loadings,
is found by inspection.
Note: There
Load case
Load type
LC
Combination I
LC1
Vertical,
M,,
H,,
V(kN)
(kNm)
(kNm)
(kN)
(kN)
+600
2700
+24
Column vertical
Column horizontal
1280
Foundation self-weight
1248
956
165
Backfill
271
+28
+ 165
Ground slab
Surcharge on slab
Ground beam
Differential settlement
1100
224
+1100
258
504
Totals
4973
+1635
3204
+24
Vertical,
M,,
M,
V(kN)
(kNm)
(kNm)
+620
+28
3300
115
Load case
Load type
Column vertical
Column horizontal
1160
H,
(kN)
H,,
(kN)
100
+24
1248
LC2
Backfill
956
Combination 2
Ground slab
Surcharge on slab
Ground beam
165
1100
224
+ 165
+1100
258
504
Totals
4853
+1655
3919
LC2
100
+24
SK 6/56 Sign convention of

positive forces on foundation.
Note: The foundations

horizontal force
are connected by ground beams in the x-direction. The
H may be distributedequally among all connectedfoundations. For the sake of conservatismthis has not been done.
272
Reinforced Concrete
Step
Calculate bearing pressures

y
h
___
Jill
A = 11
Ii
r4
p2
SK 6/57 Footprintof foundation.
SK 6/58 Bearing pressure locations.
LC1:
I p \ /6M\ toM,
p=ll(----ll---
\AB/
\AB2J
\A2B
/ 4973
\6x11/
x 1635\
\11x62!
76
76
3204
\112x6
= 75 + 25 + 26
= 126kN/m2 < 177kN/m2
(see Step 3)
Similarly,
P2 = 75
25 + 26 = 76kN/m2
25 26 = 24kN/m2
=
75
/33
= 75 + 25 26 = 74kN/m2
LC2: Pi = 74 + 25 +32 = 131 kN/m2
P2 = 8lkN/m2
/33 = l7kN/m
/34 = 67kN/m2
All bearing pressures are within allowable limit.

Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance offoundation
Check sliding between concrete and soil: ignore passive resistance.
Assume very aggressive soil and membrane tanking is used.
Assume
=5
tan = 0.09
H = lOOkN
H = 24kN
Load case LC2

Frictional resistance
Factor
= Ptan = 4853 x 0.09 = 437kN > H. and H
of safety against sliding =
437
V(H + H)
=4.2 OK
Check horizontal bearing capacity of soil:
For cohesive soil,

= cA = 75 x 6 x
Pi
11
= 4950kN
437
V(1002
+ 242)
Design
PHX = PHy
of Pad Foundations
273
3300kN
Load case LC2
P = 4853kN H = 100kN H = 24 kN
= allowable bearing capacity x area = 177 x 66 =
++=
v
P
H,
H,
PHx
'7Hv
4853
11682
++
100
24
3300
3300
= 0.45 < 1 okay
11682kN
Step 10 Carry out analysis ofbearingpressurefor bending moment and shear

Ultimate column load combinations
Load Combination no. Column no. Vertical Eec.,
case
load,
e,
no.
V(kN)
(m)
Lc9
l.4DL
+l.4CLV
+l.4CLH
Al
168
3.0
A2
+112
+1610
+70
3.0
Bl
B2
Totals
3.0
3.0
Ecc.,
Ve,
Ve,
H,
(m)
(kNm)
(kNm) (kN)
0.5
0.5
+504
+336
+84
56
+0.5
+0.5
4830
+16.8
+210
+805
+35
378()
+868
M,
M,
fJ
(kNm)
(kNm) (kN)
+868
+38.6
3780
ey
+1624
(kN)
+ 16.8
+33.6
Ultimate loads on foundation
Load case Combination
1.4DL
+l.4CLV
LC9
+1.4CLH
Load type
Column vertical
Column horizontal
1624
Backfill
1338
Ground slab
Ground beam
Totals
Note:
Vertical,
(kN)
(kN)
33.6
33.6
1747
231
+231
314
361
706
5254
+776.6
4486
It is most important that a complicated loading system on a multiple

column foundation should be investigated in a structured manner using
tables as shown. Otherwise mistakes will creep in.
Only one load case has been analysed to show the method. All other
load cases should be similarly investigated.
Step 11
Calculate bearing pressurefor bending moment and shear
ll
Load caseLC9
/ \ /6M\ + I
/6Mw
Pi = \ABJ + II
\AB2J
\A2B
/5254\
/6 x 776.6\ /6 x 4486
1+1
P
=(l+l
\66! \11x621
\112x6
+ 12 + 37 = 129 kN/m2
P2 = 80 12 + 37 = 105 kN/m2
p3 = 80 12 37 = 31 kN/m2
V4 = 80 + 12 37 = 55kN/m2
=
80
Note: Pressuresfor loadcase LC9only havebeen calculated to showthemethod. In

an actual design, other load cases should also be investigated.
129 ______________________55
105
31
SK 6/59 Bearing pressure

diagrams for load case LC9.
31
105
Step 12 Calculate bending moments and shears in pad
Load case LC9

Find pressures at critical sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 as shown. They are p,
P2 J33, p4, etc.

Average pressures at section 1 = Pi
Assume d = 550mm
Distance from yy axis = 4.8m =
/ P \ /12Mx1
Ptavll+(
\ A3B
\ABI
=
80
12
x 4486 x 4.8
ii3 x 6
= 112kN/m2
Similarly,
Design

11Cm
y
PA
P1
3000
E
9.0
3000
700
P2
P3
SK 6/60 Bearingpressure
locations on plan and critical
sections for bending moment and
shear.
P2,av =
P3,av =
P4.av =
P5,av =
P.av=
P7,av =
109 kNIm2
105 kN/m2
96kN/m2
8OkN/m2
64kN/m2
55 kNIm2
Average pressures at edges are 117kN/m2 and 43kN/m2.

Pd = downward load on pad (ultimate)
= self-weightof foundation + backfill
= (0.65m x 25kN/m3 + 0.85m x l8kN/m3) x 1.4
= 44 kN/m2 uniform excluding ground slab
Equivalent weight of ground slab acting on half the foundation width
= 0.5 x 0.15m X 25kN/m3 X 1.4
= 3kN/m2
Total downward load = 47kN/m2

Draw net pressure diagram.
Reinforced Concrete
276
1800 .1400
2300
2300
TT
H-'
I
70
58
1400 1800
4J
SK 6/61 Net bearing pressure

diagramto find bending moments
and shears load caseLC9.
Bending moment at section
158
3=6x[
= 642kNm
x 1.82 +
(70 58)1.82
+ B1 = (1610 168) = 1442kN (factored)

Weight of pedestal = 1.4 x 1.4m x 2.5m x 1.Om x 25kN/m3 =
LC9:
Column loads on A1
123 kN
(factored)
133 x 552 (70 33)

+
Bending moment at section 5 = 6m X L
2
3
(1442 + 123) X 3m
= 538kNm (no top tension)
/8 x 1.82 12 x 1.82
moment at section 7 =
Bending
6mx
= OkNm
Shear at section 1
= 6m x
[(70
+ 65) x
= 284kN
Shear at section 2
= 6m x
[(62
1.25
+ 70) )< i--
= 495kN
Shear at section 3
= 6m x
[(70
+ 58) )<
= 691kN
Shear at section 4
= 6m x
[(70
= 423kN
+ 49) x
(1442
+ 123)
x 552

Note:
It is useful to draw the bending moment diagram for the load
case.
Similarly bending moments and shears should be calculated for all load
cases and all critical sections parallel to the xx and yy axes following
the recommendationsin Step 12 of Section 6.7.
Follow Step 13 of Section 6.7.
Step 14 Calculate area of tension reinforcement and distribution
Step 15
to Step 23
Similar to Example 6.1.
Note: The numerous other checksrequired in Step 15 to Step 23 in this example

are not shown for brevity. They have already been shown in Example6.1.
Example 6.3 Mass concrete pad side bearing in cohesive soils
Foundation for roadside signpost.
32m
0E
LI)
E
C.)
,'-
SK 6/62 Roadside
signpost.
Vertical load
= l8kN
Horizontal wind shear = 4.5kN

Bending moment due to wind = 25 kNm
Size of columns = 203 x 203 X 46kg/rn UC
Size of base plate = 400 x 400
Size of foundation bolts = 4 no. M24
Bolt spacing = 300mm
Soil condition is stiff to very stiff clay.
Step 1
Select type and depth offoundation
-7--
:':
//
///
/J
//
/
SK 6/63 Details of column base

plate.
/
/
Ii
H
II
;i
II
II
II
//
//
I
I
I
I
o
g
/
/
///////////
I
600x600
SK 6/64 First trial of a side

bearing mass concrete foundation.

Assume 100mm projection on all sides of base plate.
The foundation size selected is 600 x 600 x 900 deep.
Note: This foundation will be designed as side bearing for the horizontal load
and the applied moment. The vertical load will be carried by the direct
bearing on the soil. It is very important that this foundation is cast against
the soil.
Step 3 Calculate bearing capacity ofsoil
y = unit weight of soil = 19kN/m3
p = total overburdenpressureat foundation level

=
= 19 x 0.9 = 17.1 kN/m2
h = height of water above foundation level = 0 m
p0 = p = 17.lkN/m2
c = minimum undrained soil cohesion = 150kN/m2
quit = C N + p
B
0.6
N = 9.1
1.5

quit = 9.1
x 150 + 17.1 = 1382.lkNIm2
Allowable vertical bearing capacity
= 460kN/m2
Maximum horizontal bearing capacity is the ultimate passive resistance of

soil given by the following equation:
q,1
= p0tan2 (45 + 4)12) + 2ctan(45 + 4)12)

= 2c at ground level for 4) = 00 and p0 = 0
= 300kN/m2
Step4 Calculatecolumnload combination

(See Section 6.3.)
For bearing pressurecalculations:
LC3
= 1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OWL
N = l8kN
H = 4.5kN
M = 25kNm
M=0
For bending moment and shear calculations:
= 1.4DL + 1.4WL
N = 25.2kN
H = 6.3kN
LC7
M = 35kNm
Step5 Calculateapproximatesettlement
This step can be ignored.
Self-weight of foundation = 0.6m
x 0.6m x 0.9m x 25kN/m3 = 8.lkN

FI = 4.5kN M, = 25kNm
P = 18 + 8.1 = 26.lkN
Step 7 Calculate bearing pressures
Soil is stiff to very stiff clay.
Determine horizontal modulus of subgradereaction.

Assume k1 = 14MN/m3
B = width of foundation
Kh
1.5B
14
1.5
x 0.6
(see Table 6.7 in Section 6.5.1)
= 0.6m
= 15.5 MNIm3
Note: Horizontalload and vertical load are treated separately to find the bearing
pressures.It is assumed that the vertical load will he carried uniformlyon
the base; size 600mm x 600mm. The horizontal load and moment will be
carried by side bearing in the manner shown.
Assumptions:
(1) Foundation block is fully rigid.
d(h-x)
155MN/rn3
155 d(h-x)MN/m2
x
PRESSURE
MODULUS OF
SUBORADE REACTION
DISPLACEMENT
SK 6/65 Displacement and pressure diagramsof side-bearingfoundation in

cohesive soil.
(2) Displacementd at topoffoundation whensubjected to bendingmoment

and horizontal shear H.
(3) Conservatively, that there is no net horizontal movement of whole
foundationblock. Moment and horizontal force are resisted by rotation
only. The pressure diagramwill be as shown x is depth from ground
level of point of rotation.
(4) Neglect friction on sides of foundation block.
(5) Neglectcontribution fromnon-uniform pressure distribution on bottom
surface of foundation.
if
P = 0.5KhBxd = 4.65dxMN
Q = 0.5KhB(h x)2
= 4.65(h x)2 MN
h = 0.9m
H = applied horizontal load = 4.5kN = 0.0045MN

Consideringhorizontal load equilibrium:
P=H+Q
or
PQ=H
1
(0.9 x)21 = 4.5 x
4.65d1x
I
L
x
or
i0
Taking moment about the foundation level:
Ph
x\
Q(hx)
________
x\
M Hh = 0
or 4.65dx(hJ 4.65d(h
\
3x
31
x)3
=25x103+4.5x103x0.9

or
(0.9
4.65d[x(0.9
x)3]
= 29.05 x
i0
Solving for the two unknownsd and x using a computer-assisted equation

solver.
= d = 22mm
Displacement
Point of rotation, x = 460 mm

Maximum allowable shear stress in mass concrete = 0.037f =
0.925 N/mm2
P = 4.65dx = 47.3kN
= 42.8kN
Q = 4.65(h
x)2()
Maximum horizontal pressure on the soil
= 15.5dMN/m2
= 15.5 x 1000 x
= 341 kN/m2
22
kN/m2
This pressure is higher than the unconfinedcompressive strength of soil,

which is 300kN/m2. To preventlocal heave of soil, revisesize of foundation
to 900mmx 900mmx 1300mm.
Kh
= 1.5B
14
______
=
1.5
x 0.9
10.4 MN/m3
P = 0.5KhBxd
Q = 0.5KB(h
x)2
P-Q=H
h = 1.3m
M = 25kNm
H = 4.5kN
B = 0.9m
By solving the above equations,
P = 34.5kN
d = 11.0mm
x = 673 mm
Q = 30.OkN
p = ll4kN/m2
maximum pressure < 300kN/m2 ultimate pressure
Factor of safety on ultimate =

Note:
j-- = 2.63
Thedisplacementof 11mmat ground level will mean 130mm displacement

at top of an 8000mmhigh structure. This should be checked for clearances
or other obstructions.
Revised weight of foundation= 26.3 kN

M=25kNm
H= 45kN
ll4kN/m2
25kNm
C-,
LI _ _
106 kN/m2
FORCE
_____
DIAGRAM
______
SK 6/66 Diagrams
PRESSURE
DIAGRAM
SHEAR
DIAGRAM
MOMENT
DIAGRAM
at serviceability limit state.
Vertical Bearing Pressure = =

A
44.3
0.9x0.9
= 54.7kN/m2 < 46OkN/m
Step 8 Calculate sliding resistance

Not required.

Not required.
Step 10 Carry out analysis of bearing pressurefor bending moment and shear
Not required.
Step 11 to Step 21
Not required.

= 25 N/mm2
Use C25 concrete
Maximum allowable tension
1.85 N/mm2
in bending = 0.37\/f = 0.37 x (25) =
Maximum bending moment = 25kNm approximately

Maximum shear = 30.OkN
Section modulus
Z=
x 90& = 1.215 x 108 mm3
M
Bending tensile stress in mass concrete = =
25x106
1.215 x 10
= 0.20N/mm2
Allowablebending tensile stress = 1.85 N/mm2 OK
Shear stress
30
900 x 900
= 0.037 N/mm2 < 0.925 N/mm2 OK
Example6.4 Mass concrete pad side bearing in cohesionless soils

Same loading and example as in Example6.3. Soil is dense sandy gravel
with =35.
Step 1
Select type and depth offoundation

Similar to Step 1 in Example6.3.

Choose 1000 x 1000x 1500 deep foundation.
Note:
In cohesionless soil the size of the foundation will be larger than in

cohesive soil because the allowable horizontal bearing capacity at higher
levels is lower. It will be very difficult to cast this foundation against the
soil because the sides of the excavation may not stay vertical. It will be
necessary to have well compacted granular backfill using mechanical
compactors.
Step 3 Calculate bearing capacity ofsoil
B = im
= unit weight of soil =
l8kN/m3
p = total overburdenpressureat foundation
level
= 18 x 1.5m =
27kN/m2
p0 = p
c=0
Ii =
27kN/m2
as h = 0
= angle of internal friction = 350

tan =
a = e75
4.20
Nq =
= 41.4
2cos2(450 +
= 82.0
7K0
1JI =42.4
N=0.5tan4(-
\cos4
quit = 1.3cN + po(Nq 1) + 0.4yBN + p
= 27 (41.4 1) + 0.4 x 18 x 1 x 42.4 + 27
= 1423kN/m2
Allowable vertical bearing capacity =
= 474 kN/m2
Maximum horizontal bearing capacity is ultimate passive resistance
given by the following equation:
= p0tan2
(450
+ 2ctan(450 +
= yhtan2
(450
= 66hkN/m2
of soil
Step 4 Calculate column load combination

See Step 4 of Example 6.3.
Step 5 Cakulate approximate settkment
Can be ignored.
Self-weight of foundation = 1 x 1 x 1.5
P = 37.5 +
18
x 25kN/rn3 = 37.5kN
= 55.5kN
H = 4.5kN
M = 25kNm
Step 7 Calculatebearingpressures
Assumptions:
(1) Foundation is rigid.

(2) Foundation carries part of moment and total horizontal shear by side
bearing up to ultimate horizontal bearing pressure of 66Z kN/m2 (see
Step 3).
(3) Residual moment is carried by bottom surface of foundation as a
variable pressure on surface. Factor of safety against overturningwill
be 1.5 or more.
(4) Rotational deformationof foundation is proportional to distance from
point of rotation.
(5) There is no net horizontal movement.
(6) Point of rotation is assumedat depth x from ground level.
Modulus of subgrade reaction = Kh =
B=
1.Orn
= 6.6MNIm3
assumed
(See Table 6.7 in Section 6.5.3.)

= 6.6ZMN/rn3
Z = depth from ground level (metres)

P=
1.65dx2
Q = 6.6hdB (h
for idealised triangular pressure distribution
x)2
for idealised triangular pressure distribution
66h
d(
MODULUS OF
DISPLACEMENT
PRESSURE (IDEALISED)
SUBORADE REACTION
SK 6/67 Displacementand pressure diagrams of side-bearing foundationin

cohesionless soil.
P=Q+H
M + Hh +
Q(h
P(h
=0
for idealisedtriangular
distribution
H = 4.5kN
Maximum pressure = p
= 1.65dx
also p =
from pressure diagram
66x
MN/rn2
2000
(from Step 3)
Equating the two gives

1.5dx =
66x
2000
d = 20mm
Ultimate horizontal passive pressure on side of foundation is reached at a
depth x/2 when horizontal deformationat top reaches 20mm. It is assumed
that moment-carrying capacity of foundation through side bearing will
have a limiting value when deformationreaches 20mm at top.
Find M when
h = 1.5m
d = 20 x 103m
H = 4.5 x 103MN
B = 1.Om
or P = 0.0165x2
and
M = P(1.5
Q = 0.099(1.5
0.5x)
Solving the equations:
x)2/x
Q(1.5 x)
_________
3
P=Q+H
Hh (MNm)
P = 19.4 x 103MN
x=
1.092m
Q = 14.9 x 103MN
M = 9.7 kNm
(maximum allowed by side bearing)
Residual moment = 25 9.7 = 15.3 kNm
By rigorous analysis:
d' = displacement at bottom

d = displacement at top
X = depth of neutral axis
Y = bottom of foundation to neutral axis

Y = point of application of Q from bottom of foundation
P = Ir-' (XX x) dB6.6x dx = 6.6 Bdl I = 1.1 BdX2

\61
J0
Q = 6.6d'BJ
'!"y(X+y)
dy =
[/XY\
6.6d'B[)
Y2
= 1.ld'B(3XY + 2Y2)
x+Y=1.5
/ x\ =0
M+4.5x 1.5+QY_Py1_)
Y=Y- f
y(X+y)dy
f 0 y(X + y)dy
=
Y[1
(X13 + Y/4)
(X/2 + Y/3)
Solving the above equations:
X = 1.0317m
Y = 0.4683m
d' = 8.9 mm pressure = 88.1 kN/m2
d = 19.7mm
Q = 18.57kN P = 23.O7kN
M = 13.25 kNm
= O.314Y
This gives a higher value of M and hence is less conservative.
Vertical load on foundation = P = 55.5kN
M
15.3
e===0.276m>=0.167m
P 55.5
6
(see Step 6)
P1=
(1.5A 3e)B
2 x 55.5
x
13
(L5
xO.276) xl
= 165kN/m2 < 474 kN/m (see Step 3)
x = 1.5A 3e = 0.672m
Restrainingmoment = 55.5 x
OK
= 55.5 x 0.5
= 27.75 kNm
Overturning moment = 15.3 kNm
= 1.8 > 1.5
Factor of safety against overturning =
OK
4.5kN
25kNm
400
300_
300_
I ii
MASSJ
SK 6/68 Soil pressure diagramon
mass concrete side-bearing
foundationin cohesionless soil.
35.5kN/m
672
L65kN/
CONCRETE
Note: This is a very conservative estimate of factor of safety against overturning

because in practice the value of moment resisted by side bearing will not
be restrictedto 9.7 kNm but will increase till the pressurediagram becomes
rectangular and not triangular as assumed in the analysis.
288
Reinforced Concrete
Maximum pressure at x12 from groundlevel = 1.65dx MN/m2
= 1.65 x 20 x
x kN/m2
= 36kN/m2
i0
iO x 1.092
Maximum passivepressure that can be generated at x/2 = 66 x 1.092/2 =

36kN/m2
Step8
to Step 21
Not required.

= 25N/mm2
Use C25 mass concrete
f,
Bending about vertical plane:

follow same principle as in Example 6.3.
Bending about horizontal plane:
Overhang= 200mm
Maximum shear assuming uniform pressure of 165 kN/m2 less weight of
foundation = 1.5 25 = 37.5 kN/m2
Net pressure upwards= 165 37.5 = 127.5 kN/m2

Shear = 127.5 x 0.3 x 1.0 = 38.2kN
Shear stress =
38.2 x
00
= 0.025N/mm2
><
Bending stress need not be checked.
negligible OK
Design
6.9
FIGURES FOR CHAPTER 6
O0
O8
OL
IL
Li 09
op
Ot
Os
(I)
oe
0I
6
B
L
9
cc
0
In
0
in
0
U'
UO!4IJJ
in
1e4 jo san/e,
in
CZ/q
0-1
00
02 03 0-4 0-5 0-6 0-7 0-8 09 _10
0-1
0-2
0-3
04
05
0-6
----
0-7
I I/
n-n
z/B
1-0
11
:i I
1-4
1-5
/--IIII
is
12
IE
76
17
18
1-9
2-0
2-1
22
,.
2-I
2-5
Fig. 6.2 Calculation ofmean vertical stress (o) at depth z beneath rectangulararea
a X b on surface,loadedat uniform pressure q.
LID
C)
N
C)
C
C)
LID
C
C
C
291
Fig. 6.4 Chart for calculation of maximum pressure under a rectangular base
subject to moments in two directions.
Chapter 7
Design of Piled Foundations
NOTATION
7.0
a
A
A
A.
A
A.
b
b
B
B
c
CH
d
D
Dr
eh
eh
Ef
fE.
f
f
ffd
to slendernessof a circular pile

of
Distance shear plane from nearest support
Deflection due to slendernessproducing additional moment about x-axis
Deflection due to slendernessproducing additional moment about y-axis
Net area of concrete in a pile cross-section
Cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
Surface area of pile in contact with soil
Total area of link bars perpendicular to longitudinal bars
Total area of steel reinforcement in a pile
Area of tensile reinforcementin pile cap
Area of steel effective in resisting shear in a pile
Area of tensile steel in a pile section resisting moment about b-axis
Area of tensile steel in a pile section resisting moment about h-axis
Deflection due

Overall dimension of rectangular pile section
Effective depth of tensile reinforcementin b direction
Width or diameter of pile
Overall width of a group of piles
Soil cohesionfor a stratum (kN/m2)
Horizontalload-carrying capacity of a single pile
Vertical load-carrying capacity of a single pile
Effective depth to tensile reinforcement in a concrete section
Depth of a group of piles below ground
Relative density
Eccentricity of combined unfactoredvertical load on pile cap in x-direction
Eccentricity of combined unfactoredvertical load on pile cap in y-direction
Eccentricity in x-directionof combined unfactoredhorizontal load H
Eccentricity in y-directionof combined unfactoredhorizontal load H,
Stressstrain modulus of pile material (kN/m2)
Stressstrain modulus of soil (kN/m2)
Stress in concrete due to prestress alone
Skin resistance at soil/pile interface
Maximum design principal tensile stress in concrete
Characteristicyield strength of steel reinforcement
Cube strength of concrete at transfer of prestress
293
Reinforced Concrete
294
ftp
f
h
h
h
H
H1
H
H1
H1
H1
K
1
10
11
L
L
Lb
m
m
M
M0
M
M1
M
M
M
M
M
M1
M11
Average concrete stress in a prestressedconcrete section after losses

Average tensile stressin steel tendons after all losses
Characteristicultimate strength of steel tendons
Characteristicyield strength of shear reinforcement
Overall depth of pile cap

Overall dimensionof a rectangularpile
Overall diameter of a circular pile
Effective depth of tensile reinforcementin a rectangularpile in h-direction
Unfactored horizontal load on a single circular pile
Unfactored combined horizontal loads on pile cap in x-direction
Unfactored combined horizontal loads on pile cap in y-direction
Unfactored horizontal load on a single pile in x-direction
Unfactored horizontal load on a single pile in y-direction
Ultimate horizontal load on pile cap in x-direction
Ultimate horizontal load on pile cap in y-direction
Ultimate horizontal load on a single pile in x-direction
Ultimate horizontal load on a single pile in y-direction
Moment of inertia of pile (m4)
Polar moment of inertia of a group of piles about z-axis through CG
Momentof inertia of a group of pilesabout xx axisthrough CG of group
Momentof inertia of a group of pilesabout yy axis through CG of group
Modulusof subgrade reaction of soil (kN/m3)
Coefficient
of friction
Factor used to determine transmission length of prestressingwires or
strand
Effective length of pile for calculation of slendernessratio
Unsupported length of pile
Transmission length of prestressingwires or strands
Depth of penetration of pile

Overall length of a group of piles
Average depth of pile in ground
Modular ratio E/E
Coefficient
of volume compressibility (m2/kN)
Factored bending moment in a circular pile section

Moment to produce zero stress at tension fibre of a prestressed section
with O.8f (average uniform prestress)
Unfactored bending moment in a single circular pile
Unfactored combined moment on pile cap about x-axis
Unfactored combined moment on pile cap about y-axis
Modified bending moment about x-axis to account for biaxial bending
Modified bending moment about y-axis to account for biaxial bending
Unfactored moment about x-axis due to eccentricsurchargeon pile cap
Unfactored moment about y-axis due to eccentricsurchargeon pile cap
Unfactored bending moment in a single pile about x-axis due to
Unfactored bending moment in a single pile about y-axis due to H1
Unfactored combined moment on pile group about x-axis
Unfactored combined moment on pile group about y-axis
Design
Madd
Madd ,
N
N
N1,
N11
N.
N,
N11,
NbaI
Pv
P
Pa
P1
q
q
qcs
R
RH
S
T
T11
T11
U
v
v
v
v
v
V
V,
V.
Vcr
of Piled Foundations
Ultimate bending moment in pile about x-axis

Ultimate bending moment in pile about v-axis
Additional bending moment in pile about x-axis due
Additional bending moment in pile about y-axis due
Slenderness ratio in a prestressedpile
Statistical average of SPT number for a soil stratum
Combined vertical load on pile cap unfactored
Ultimate vertical load on a circular pile
Adjusted bearing capacity factor for cohesion
295
to slenderness
to slenderness
Adjusted bearing capacity factor for LIB> I

Design ultimate capacity of a concrete section subjected to axial load only
Design axial load capacity of a balanced section (= 0.25f11hd)
Percentageof tensile reinforcement in a circular pile
Percentageof tensile reinforcement in a pile section to resist bending
about x-axis
Percentageof tensile reinforcement in a pile section to resist bending
about y-axis
Total vertical load on a group of piles
Allowable unfactored vertical load on pile
Ultimate axial compressive load on pile
End-bearing resistance of pile
Skin friction resistance of pile
Effective vertical stress at pile point
Statistical average of cone resistance of soil in a stratum (kN/m2)
Unconfined compressive strength (kN/m2)
Side friction resistance in a cone penetrometer
Number of piles in a group
Initial estimate of number of piles based on total horizontal load
Initial estimate of number of piles based on total vertical load
Spacing of nodes in pile for finite element analysis
Spacing of links used as shear reinforcement
Unfactored torsion on a group of piles
Allowable unfactoredtension load on pile
Ultimate axial tensile load on pile
Perimeter at punching shear plane in a pile cap
Shear stress in concrete in pile cap
Design concrete shear stress in concrete
Shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about x-axis
Shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about v-axis
Modified design shear stress to take into account axial compression
Design shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about x-axis
Design shear stress in concrete for shear due to bending about y-axis
Ultimate shear force in a circular pile section
Shear resistance of a concrete section
Shear resistance of uncrackedprestressedsection
Shear resistance of cracked prestressed section
of pile (kN)
of
Depth lever arm
Weight
Coefficient for calculationof skin resistance of a pile

Factor for computationof effective length of a pile
Factor for conversionof biaxial bending moment into uniaxial bending
Unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
Angle of friction between soil and concrete
Poisson's ratio
Angle of internal friction
Nominal diameter of tendon in prestressed concrete section
13
(3
7.1
VERTICAL LOAD SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
Applied load
Ii
I
W:Weight
of pile
t
II
Psil
FSkin friction
F=End bearing
SK 7/1 Single pile capacity.
+ Psj w
where
T = P1 + W
P. = ultimate compressiveload on pile
T == ultimate tensile load on pile
skin friction resistance
= end-bearingresistance
W = weight of pile
First method for point resistance
= A(38N)
where
()
380N (Ar)
(see Reference 6, page 602)
area of pile (m2)

AN == cross-sectional
statistical
of the SPT number in a zone of about 8B
average
above to 3B below the pile point
Design of Piled Foundations 297
B = width or diameter of pile

Lb = average depth of pile in the ground
Secondmethod for point resistance
= Aq
where
(see Reference 6, page 602)
A = cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
statistical average of cone point resistance in a zone of about

SB above to 3B below pile point (kN/m2)
Third method for point resistance
= A(Nc + q N) (see Reference6, page 598)

where A = cross-sectional area of pile (m2)
c = cohesion or undrained shear strength S q/2kN/m2
= unconfined compressive strength
= effective vertical stress at pile point
= adjusted bearing capacity factor for cohesion (see Fig. 7.2)
bearing capacity factor adjusted for

initial angle of shearing resistance
Reference 8, page 600.)
Lib> I dependent on
(see Fig. 7.2).
(See
L = depth of penetration
LIB should be greater than L/B as obtained from Fig. 7.2 for the value
of
Note:
Find point resistance by more than one method if soil test data allow and
take the lowest for a conservative estimate.
Determination of skin resistance
=
where A,
= pile perimeter x pile length over which f. acts (m2)

= skin resistance (kN/m2)
First method ofskin resistance
ff == 2NkNIm2
NkN/m2
where
for large volume displacement piles

for small volume displacementpiles
N = statistical average blow count in stratum for SPT.
Secondmethod of skin resistance
= 0.005qkN/m2
where q = cone penetration resistance (kNIm2).
Third method of skin resistance
f, = q,kN/m2
for small volume displacement piles
fs = 1.5q to 2qcs
for large volume displacementpiles

where cs = side friction resistance in cone penetrometer.
Fourth method of skin resistance
f. = cw + 0.5 q Ktan (see Reference8, page 603)

where c = average cohesion or S. of stratum (kN/m2)
= effective vertical stress (kN/m2)
= angle of friction betweensoil and pile
K0 = coefficient of friction
Dr = relative density of sand.
Table 7.1 Values of K0 (Reference
8, page 603).
K. for low Dr
K0 for high Dr
Pile type
Steel
Concrete
Wood
200
0.5
1.0
0.75
0.67
1.0
1.5
2.0
4.0
(See Reference 7, page 136.)

Table 7.2 Values of
(Reference 7, page 126).

Values of c
Soil condition
DIB
Sands or sandy gravel
overlying stiff to very
stiff cohesive soil
<10
c=50 c=100
1.0
0.75
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.65
0.35
0.75
20
1.0
1.0
>40
Soft clays or silts

overlying stiff to very
stiff cohesive soil
>20
Stiff to very stiff

cohesive soils without
overlying strata
10
0.9
>40
1.0
10
c150
c=200 c=250
1.0
1.0
0.4
0.75
0.4
0.75
0.4
0.30
0.70
0.25
0.63
0.2
0.55
0.2
0.7
0.9
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.5
The units of c are kN/m2

Note: Find skin resistance by more than one method if soil test data allow and
take an average.
025
a25
where P0 = allowable pile load in compression

Ta = allowable pile load in tension

7.2
HORIZONTAL LOAD
- SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
Method 1 Cohesive soils
/EB4\i I E
kB=l.3ll
\EfIf! \1
as per Vesic, 1961 (see Reference 6).
where
k == modulusof subgrade reaction (kN/m3)

B
width or diameter of pile (m)

=
E = stressstrain modulus of soil (kN/m2)
E1 stressstrain modulus of pile material (kN/m2)
= moment of inertia of pile (m4)
= Poisson's ratio of soil
E may be obtained by the following methods:

(1) Triaxial tests.
(2) Borehole pressuremeter tests.
= 650N(kN/m2)
(3)
N = SPT number of blows.
= 3 (1 2t)Im where
(4)
ibility (m2/kN).
m = coefficient of volume compress-
Method 2 Cohesive soils
= 240qkN/m3
where
q = unconfinedcompressionstrength (kN/m2).
Cohesionless soils
k = 80 1C2i/%Iq + C1 (0.5
'
BN)] kN/m3
as per Vesic (see Reference 8, page 631 and page 323, equation 98).
where
for square piles

C1 = C2 = 1.0
=
1.3
to
1.7
for circular piles
C1
=
2.0
to
4.4
for circular piles
C2
= effective stress(kN/m2)
= unit weight of soil
Nq and Ny may be obtained from the following table (Hansen equations)

see Reference
8, page 137, Table 44:
Finite element model of vertical pile

Spring stiffness = SBk kN/m
where S = node spacing not greater than B
B = width or diameter of pile (m)
= modulus of subgradereaction (kN/m3)
Table 7.3 Values of Nq and N (Reference 8, page 137).
4) (degrees)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Nq
1.0
1.6
2.5
3.9
6.4
0.4
10.7
18.4
33.3
64.2
134.9
319.0
0.1
1.2
2.9
6.8
15.1
33.9
79.5
200.8
568.5
Rotation about
axis
0-
"-Translations about
x and y axis
Translations
7 .'"-.
Rotationabout
Note:
SK 7/2 Two-dimensional model of

of freedom
pile in soil (degrees
and
bottom
of
top
pile).
Forhorizontal loadswhichare not constant and are reversible or repetitive,

the top 1.5B of pile may be assumedunsupported by soil.
Boundary conditions
(I) Free head pile
Translationsx, y
Rotation z
Translationsy
Rotation z
(2) Fixed head pile
Translationsx, y
Rotation z
Translationsy
Rotation z
Free at top
Free at top
Restrained at bottom
Free at bottom
Free at top
Rigid at top
Restrained at bottom
Free at bottom
Materialtype
For sustained horizontal load due to dead load, water pressure, earth
etc., use short-term Young's modulus of concrete for bending

moment computations but long-termYoung's modulusof concrete for pile
head deformation.
For short-term horizontal loads due to wind, earthquake, crane surge,
etc., use short-termYoung'smodulusof concretefor bending moment and
pressure,
deflection computations.
Software
Use any fully validated softwarewhich has a suite for analysis of 2-D plane
frame with sprung boundaries.
Member type
For rectangularpile use minimum width B in all computations involving B.

A cracked section moment of inertia may be used for reinforcedconcrete
piles based on Section 2.1.
7.3 PILE GROUP EFFECTS

7.3.1 Spacing of piles
S
S
where
2B
3B
for end-bearing piles

for friction piles
S = spacing of piles
B = least width or diameter of pile.
Note: Piles carrying horizontal load should not be spaced at less than 3B.
7.3.2 Pile group capacity

Ultimate group capacity = group friction capacity+ group end-bearing
capacity
Ultimate group friction capacity= 2D(B + L)cc
SK 7/3 Group of piles plan of

overall dimensions
of group.
SK 7/4 Elevationof group of piles

showing group capacity.
where
c = average cohesion of clay
= average S = average q/2

= coefficient (from Section 7.1, Table 7.2)
D = depth of pile group below ground
B = overall width of group
L = overall length of group.
Ultimate group end-bearing capacity = BL (Nbc +
where c = cohesionor undrained shear strength S. = q,I2 at bottom of
pile group
q == unconfined
compressivestrength
effective stress at bottom of
q
pile group
= bearing capacity factor (see Fig. 7.2)

N = bearing capacity factor (see Fig. 7.2)
Nj,,
Note: Total vertical load on a group of piles should not exceed the group
capacity. Individualpile loads inside the group will be limitedby the single
pile capacity. Piles carrying horizontal load and spaced at 3B or more need
not be checked for group effects due to horizontal load.
ultimate group capacity + ultimate group

end-bearing capacity
Allowable group capacity =
2.5
7.4 ANALYSISOF PILE LOADS ANI PILE CAPS
7.4.1 Rigid pile cap
N = combined vertical load on pile cap unfactored
M = combined moment about xx unfactored

//
SK 7/5 Loads and eccentricityon pile cap.
SK 7/6 Plan view of loads and

eccentricityon pile cap.
lJ == combinedhorizontalload on pile cap
unfactoredin xx direction
unfactoredin yy direction
eccentricityof N from CG of pile group in xx direction
= eccentricity of N from CG of pile group in yy direction
eh = eccentricity of from CG of pile group in xx direction
= eccentricity of from CG of pile group in yy direction
h = depth of pile cap.
lI = combinedhorizontalload on pile cap
H
H
Loads on pile group
P = vertical load on pile group

= N+ weight of pile cap+ weight of backfill on pile cap + surcharge
on backfill
= moment about xx on pile group

= M + Ne + Hh + M
= moment about yy on pile group
= M + Ne + Hh + M
R=Total number of piles
---
x'andR y' are orthogonal

distances of each pile
from corner pile
SK 7/7 Typical pile foundationshowing CG of group and co-ordinatesof piles.
H/R
TrlIz
SK 7/8 Group of piles subject to

horizontal loads and torsion.
where M and M are moments with respect to CG of pile group due to

eccentricsurchargeon backfill or pile cap.
T = torsion on pile group
= Heh + HYeh
Jx = y2 about xx axis passing through CG of pile group
= x2 about yy axis passing through CG of pile group
Iz = jxx + 11vy
R = number of piles in group.
Vertical load on a pile = (P'\ (MY\1 (Mx\1
+
Horizontal load on any pile = resultant of (H
R
Sign convention
Vertical loads:
Torsion on pile group:
downwards positive
clockwise positive
Moments on pile group:
clockwise positive
and
T(x2
+ v2)
I,
+ve M producescompressionin piles which have +ve y ordinates.

+ve
producescompressionin piles which have +ve X ordinates.

is positive in direction of increasingx in positive direction.
H is positivein direction of increasing y in positive direction.

Eccentricities
are +ve for +ve x and +ve for +ve y.
Bending moments in pile cap

bendingmoment in a pile cap.
Take sections XX or YY through pile cap at faces of columns or base

plates. Find pile reactionsdue to combined and load factored basic load
cases. Considerall upward and downward loadings across sections XX
and Y V. Find bending moments across section. Find horizontal load on
each pile by using the following expressions:
where R is number of piles in pile cap. Find bending moments in pile M1

and
correspondingto
corresponding to
assuming an end
and
are
fixity to pile cap following the method in Section 7.2.
combined factored ultimate horizontal loads.
SK 7/10 Additional bending

momentin pile cap due to pile
fixity.
Algebraicallyadd the bending moments in pile cap due to vertical load

and pile fixity moments due to horizontal load to find design bending
moments in pile cap.
7.4.2 Flexible pile cap
Large pile caps including piled raft foundations should be modelled as
flexible. The modelling will normally be carried out using either a grillage
suite of a computer program or a general-purposefinite element program.
The piles should be modelled as springs in the vertical direction. The
vertical spring stiffness should be obtained from test results on site. A
parametricstudy can be carried out using minimum and maximum stiffness
of the pile if there is a large variation.
Grillage model
(1) Divide pile cap into an orthogonal grillage network of beams. Ensure
that piles are located at crossing of orthogonal beams. Each grillage
beam represents a certain width of pile cap.
(2) Use short-term Young's modulusfor concrete material properties.

(3) Full sectionconcrete stiffnessproperties may be used for hypothetical
grillage beams (hypotheticalwidth x depth of pile cap).
(4) Piles will be modelled as sprung supports vertically.
(5) Vertical loads on pile cap may be dispersed at 45 up to central depth
of pile cap.
(6) Apply at each node with a pile, the moments given by the following
formulae:
M = Hh
R
about x-axis
Design
Idealised gillage
Pile
Pile11 elements
/
7
//
//
7
/
/
/
7
/
/
/
/
--.+.
..
-.
N
N
/ I
/
/7\\\
/'---\ = ____ ____

N
=
z =i_LL
/l
H!
I
4Pile
4Pile
7/
of Piled Foundations 307
raft
4 Widthof
idealised as
griIlage element
of raft
idealised
Width
elements grillage
Width of raft
idealised
SK 7/11 Planof raft on piles showing idealised grillage elements
flexible
analysis.
r
/
tColumn
/
Column load may spread

onto grillage element
h/2
hI2fiI______
Cap/Raft
TY
I
______
/
A45
45\
Pile modelled
as spring
elements
Pile
nPile
Idealised grillage
element at centre
of raft
SK 7/12 Partsection through raft showing details of grillage idealisation.
M=
Hh
about y-axis
(7) Find horizontal load on each pile by using the following expressions:
=H
and
=H
where R is total number of piles in group.
and
(8) Find bending moments in pile,
correspondingto
to
an
end
to
corresponding
assuming
fixity
pile cap following
method in Section 7.2. Apply these moments to pile cap grillage
model as nodal loads. The pile head to pile cap connection may be
assumed as hinged and then
and
will be zero.
Find
moments
in
(9)
bending
pile cap by grillage analysis. Divide bending
moments by width of hypothetical strips of pile cap representing
grillage beams and obtain M1, M and M1 in pile cap per metre
width. Apply load factors and combinebasic load cases. Modify these
combined moments by WoodArmer method to find design bending
momentsJ''121
(10) Combine basic load cases at serviceability limit state to find reactions
at pile nodes. Compare maximum reaction with pile capacity.
Finite-element model
-Piles
SK 7/13 Typical finite element

modelling of a circular raft on
piles.
a finite element model of pile cap using either 4-noded or

8-noded plate bending elements. The elements may only have three
degrees of freedom at each node viz z, Ox and Oy. The piles will be
represented by vertical springs.
Piles will come at nodes in finite element model. Between two piles'
nodes there should be a minimum of one plate node without pile.
(2) Use short-term Young's modulusfor concrete material properties.
(3) Full section concrete section properties may be used in the analysis.
(4) Vertical loads on pile cap may be dispersed at 45 up to central depth
of pile cap. These loads may be applied as nodal loads or uniformly
distributed loads on plate elements dependingon software used.
(5) Apply at each node with a pile, the moments given by the following
(1) Create
formulae.
Hh
M =
about x-axis
M = H1h
i
about y-axls
Design
309
(6) Find horizontalloadon each pile by using the following expressions:
and
where R is total number of piles in group.

and M.
(7) Find bending moments in pile,
corresponding to
corresponding to
assuming an end fixity to pile cap following
method in Section 7.2. Apply these moments as nodal loads in finite
element model at nodes with piles. These moments will be zero in the
case of a hinged connectionof pile to pile cap.
(8) Carry out analysis using a validated general-purposefinite element
software. Apply load factors to combine basic load cases. Modify the
combined M, M and
using the WoodArmer method to find
design bending moments.I'2]
(9) Combine basic load cases at serviceability limit state to find reactions
at pile nodes. Compare maximum reaction with rated pile capacity.

Applied loads on pile cap will be combined using the following principles.
7.5.1 Pile load calculations
LC1:
LC2:
LC3:
LC4:
where
1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OEP + 1.OCLV + 1.OCLH

1.ODL + 1.OEP + 1.OCLV + 1.OCLH + l.OWL (or 1.OEL)
1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OEP + 1.OWL (or 1.OEL)
1.OL + 1.OWL (or 1.OEL)
DL = dead load
IL = imposed load
EP = earth pressure and water pressure

CLV= crane vertical loads
CLH = crane horizontal loads
WL
= wind load
EL = earthquake load.
7.5.2 Bending moment and shear calculations in pile cap or piles

LCs:
1.4DL + 1.6/L + 1.4EP

1.21L + 1.2EP + 1.2WL (or 1.2EL)
1.4WL (or 1.4EL) + 1.4EP
1.4WL (or 1.4EL) + 1.4EP (if adverse)
1.4CLV + 1.4CLH + 1.4EP
1.6CLV+ 1.4EP
1.6CLH + 1.4EP
1.2DL +
LC6:
1.4DL +
LC7:
1.ODL +
LC8:
1.4DL +
LC9:
LC1(: 1.4DL +
LC11: 1.4DL +
LC12: 1.2DL +
1.2CLV + 1.2CLH
+ 1.2EP + 1.2WL (or 1.2EL)
310
Reinforced Concrete
7.6
STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PILED FOUNDATIONS

Step 1 Select type ofpile
The type of pile will depend on the following principal factors:
Environmentalissues like noise, vibration.

Location of structure.
Type of structure.
Ground conditions.
Durabilityrequirements.
Programme duration.
Cost.
The commonly availabletypes of piles can be broadly classified as below.

Large-displacement piles (driven)
Precast
concrete.
Prestressed
concrete.
Steel tube with closed end.
Steel tube filled with concrete.
Small-displacementpiles (driven)
Precast concrete tube with open end.
Prestressed concrete tube with open end.

Steel H-section.
Screw pile.
Non-displacement piles
Bored and cast-in-situ concrete pile.

Steel tube in bored hole filled with concrete.
Steel or precast section in drilled hole.
Step 2 Determine vertical capacity of singlepile
Follow Section 7.1.
Step 3 Determine horizontal capacity of singk pile

Follow Section 7.2.
Note:
Horizontal capacity of a single pile is limited by maximum deflection of

pile cap that structure can accommodateand also by pile structural capacity.
Step 4 Determine approximate number ofpiles and spacing

iV
P
cv
RH =
Ct-I
R1
= R1 or
RIH, whichever is greater
R = approximate number of piles
where
P = total vertical load on pile cap unfactored
C == rated workingload capacityof pile
vertical load
rated
load
CH
working
capacity of pile horizontal load
H = total horizontal load on pile cap unfactored
= (H +
Spacing of piles should be according to Section 7.3. To minimise the cost

of pile cap, the spacing should be kept close to minimum allowed. Larger
spacing increases the pile group capacity and pile group moment capacity.
.
SK 7/14 Determination
of
numberof piles.
approximate
a group of piles with approximate number of piles= R,.

Find
CG
of pile group and locate orthogonal axes xx and yy
(2)
the
CG.
through
Find
CG
of
(3)
group of piles on left of axis yy and right of axis yy.
Find
the
x-axis
distance between these two CGs and call it S.
(4)
(5) Similarly, find about y-axis.
(6) Find Mr/P= e and Mr/P= e, where M and M are total combined
applied moments on pile cap about xx and yy respectively.
(7) Find e1/ and e/S.
(8) Find and from Fig. 7.1.
(1) Select
(9)R=
1.1
where
EKE.
R = number of piles in group for checking pile load.
Note: The factor 1.1 is introduced to cater for additionalvertical loads from selfweight of pile cap, surchargeon pile caps, backfilling, etc.
Revise
the number of piles in group from R to R.
312
Reinforced Concrete
Step 5 Determine size ofpile cap
Allow 1.5B from centre of pile to edge of pile cap.
Depth of pile cap is governedby the following:
Shrinking and swelling of clay.

Frost attacks.
Holding down bolt assemblies for columns.
Water table and soluble sulphates.

Pile anchorage.
Punching shear capacityof pile cap.
Step 6 Carry out load combination
Follow Section 7.5.
Step 7 Check pile group effects
Follow Section 7.3.
Step 8 Carry out analysis ofpile cap

Follow Section 7.4.
From the soils investigations report, find the concentration of sulphates
expressed as SO3.
Find, from Table 17 of BS8004: 198612], the appropriate type of concrete.
Table 7.4 Minimum cover to reinforcement for class of exposure.
Class of
exposure
Total SO1
percentage
<0.2
0.2toO.5
2
3
4
5
0.5 to 1.0
1.Oto2.0
>2.0
Minimum cover
on blinding (mm)
Minimum cover
elsewhere (mm)
35
40
50
60
75
60
80
90
100
100
Note: Concrete in 'class of exposure 5' needs protective membrane, or coating.

The uneven heads of piles normally necessitate a minimum 75 mm cover
over blindingfor pile caps. The concrete pileswill have minimum cover as
specified elsewhere.
Step 10 Calculate area of reinforcement in pile cap

M = bending moment as found in Step 8 at ultimate limit state
M
fbd2
where
0.156
= concrete characteristiccube strength at 28 days
b = width of section over which moment acts

d = effective depth to tension reinforcement.
If K is greater than 0.156, increase depth of pile cap.
M
0.87fz
z=
d[O.5
\/(o.25
0.9/]
0.95d
Distribute this area of reinforcementuniformly across the section.

Note:
The effective depth to tension reinforcementwill be different in the two

orthogonal directions.
Step 11 Check shear stress in pile cap

-Pile diameter
Column
cap (effective depth = d)
SK 7/15 Critical section for

checking shear stress in pile cap.
Enhancement
of shear stress is allowed if a15d
/5
The critical section for checkingshear stress in a pile cap is

into the
pile. All piles with centres outside this line should be considered for
calculating shear across this section in pile cap. For shear enhancement,
is from face of column to this critical section. No enhancement of shear
stress is allowedif is greater than 1.5d. Where pile spacingis more than
then enhancementof shear should be applied only on strips of width
The rest of the section will be limited to unenhanced shear stress.
33.
V=
where
P=
B=
or enhanced v( if applicable
sum of all pile reactions at ultimate loading on left of
section
width of pile cap at critical section
d = average effective depth at critical section

v1 = v,
()
O.8\/f, or 5 N/mm2
For rectangularpiles the critical section may be considered at face ofpile.

Pile with equivalent
-Critical section
diameter f
L_1
for shear
'
3$
concrete
vC (design
shear stress)
2d
Vcc
(enhanceddesign
concrete shear
stress)
Column
E-$- .
vc
[1
2d
SK 7/16 Diagram showing zones

of enhancedshear stress on critical
section.
Pile cap
The value of
can be found from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 depending on
of
tensile
reinforcementand
percentage
Shear capacity of section should be greater than or equal to applied
shear. Ultimate limit state analysis results should be used for checking
f.
shear capacity.
Step 12 Checkpunchingshear stress in pile cap
shear
around
.$15
perimeter
No check necessaryif pile

spacing is less than 34
SK 7/17 Perimetersfor punchingshearchecks.
Design
When the spacing of piles is greater than 3 times the diameter of a pile
then the punching shear plane for column should he considered. For
rectangularpiles the plane can be considered at face of pile. The stress on
this punchingshear planeshould not exceed dependingon the percentage
of tensile reinforcement in pile cap.
Check of punching shear stress is also required at perimeter at face of
column or pile. This shear stress should not exceed O.8\/f or 5 N/mm2.
-Punching shear perimeter
around pile-
v<o.sj5N/mm2
01 loaded area
0
in
Punching shear
perimeter
Pile cap
Punching shear
perimeter
SK 7/18 Further perimetersfor punchingshear checks in a pile cap.
The punching shear planes for piles will depend on location of pile with
respect to edge of pile cap.
Find the perimeter U at punchingshear plane.
v=
v.
Ud
where
P = ultimate vertical column load or ultimate vertical pile reaction
v = design concrete shear stress obtained from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
Percentageareaof tensile reinforcement for computation of design concrete

shear stress will be average percentage across punchingshear planes.
Step 13 Check area of reinforcement in pile
i1
Effective length of pile, I.

= unsupported length of pile (piles which are not subjected to
where
horizontal load may be assumed fully supported by ground
from ground level piles subjected to horizontal load may be
assumed supported by ground at a depth of i.5b below
ground level where b is width of pile or diameter of pile)
= 1.2
= 1.6
for piles with head fixed to pile cap

for piles with head free to rotate.
Rectangularpiles
SK 7/19 Typical section through a

rectangularpile.
(A) If la/b 10, then treat piles as a short column.

(i) Pile with no moment
N = 0.4fbh + 0.75Af
Check N applied direct load on pile.
(ii) Pile subjected to uniaxial moment
Find e = MIN and then e/h.
Find N/bhand selectappropriatetable from Tables 11.8 to 11.17 depending
on and k = dlh.
From appropriate table find p which satisfies value of N/bh for given e/h.
Find A=pbh/100.
Put A/2 on each face of pile equidistant from axis of moment.
f'
Note:
The moment M in pile is due to horizontal load as obtained in Step 3
following Section 7.2.

(iii) Pile subjected to biaxial moment
Assuming diameter of reinforcementand finding cover from Step 9, findh'
and b'.
Find Mi/h' and MIb'.
If Mi/h' > Mr/b', then
M = M + 3MV (7)
If Mr/b' > MIh', then
M, = M + 3MI
Ib'

Find N/fbh.
The values of (3 are given in the table below.

Table 7.5 Values of 3 for biaxial bending of pile.
N/fbh
1.00
0.1
0.88
0.2
0.77
0.3
0.65
0.4
0.53
0.5
0.42
0.6
0.30
Designas uniaxialbending with N and M or M whichever is more prominent. Find

in manner described in (ii) for pile subjected to uniaxial
moment.
(B) If 1/b> 10, then treat pile as a slender column.
a =
hK
2000 I-)
h
1 //\2
I bK
a=
2000\b/
I
Select
K= N11-N
ha
NUL = 0.45fA + 0.87fA
NbaI = 0.25fbh
NUL
A = bh
Madd
Madd
= Na
= Na
Combine these additional moments with moments obtained from analysis

as in Step 3 following Section 7.2. Design pile subjected to biaxial bending
as described previously.
Circular piles
circularpile.
Use minimum
six bars
318
Reinforced Concrete
(A) If la/h 10, then treat pile as a short column.

(i) Pile with no moment
Assume size of reinforcementand at least six bars.
= 0.252th2
N = 0.4fA + 0.75Af
Check N applied vertical load on pile.
(ii) Pile with moment

Find e = MIN and the e/R, where 2R = h.
Find N/h2 and select appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27
correspondingto and k = h/h.
Find p from appropriate table which satisfies N/h2 for given value of e/R.
= ptR2/l00.
Find
Use at least six bars.
(B) If le/h> 10, then treat pile as a slender column.

12
a = 2000hK
Madd
(assumeK = 1 conservatively)
= Na
Combine this additional moment with moment obtained by analysis

in Step 3 following Section 7.2. Design pile with moment as described
in (ii) above.
Step 14 Check stresses in prestressed concrete piles
SK 7/21 Typical section of a

pretensionedprestressed pile.
Stresses may be checked at

BS811O: Part 1, Section 41h1
the serviceability limit state only as per
Permissible maximum compressive fibre stress in concrete =

Assume
pile as Class 3 member with a limiting crack width of 0.1 mm.

Hypotheticalfiexural tensile stress in concrete = 4.1 N/mm2
for Grade 40
= 4.8N/nim2
for Grade 50 and above

Depth factors to modify tensile stress are shown in the following table.
Factor
Depth (mm)
Upto400
1.0
0.95
0.9
500
600
N = direct serviceload on pile

M1 = bending moment as obtained from Step 3 about axis xx
= bendingmoment as obtained from Step 3 about axis yy.
Assume the pile section is uncracked.
Find A = area of concrete
= moment of inertia about xx axis

= moment of inertia about yy axis
P = residual prestress after all losses.
Maximum compressive stress
in concrete =
/P+N\I + /My
/ \
\ A
I
+ /Mx
Maximum tensile stress in concrete =
1P + N\
'Xx
/My
(Mx
\\
m = modular ratio
= strand stress prior to release

= stress in concrete due to prestress alone.
(1) Loss due to elastic shortening =

(2) Lossdue to relaxationof steel
(10m)%
refer
to strand manufacturer's
brochure.
(3) Loss due to creep of concrete follow clause 4.8.5 of BS 8110: Part
1.111
(4) Loss due to shrinkage of concrete follow clause 4.8.4 of BS811O:

Part
iJ'
Note: Prestressedpiles designedas fixed to pile cap must extend into pile cap by
a minimumdistance equal to transmission length given by the following

equation:
K4
= --(mm)
vi
where
cube strength at 28 days

600 for plain or indented wire
= 400 for crimped wire
= 240 for 7-wire standard or super strand
= 360 for 7-wire drawn strand
4) = nominal diameter of tendon.
concrete
fCu
Step 15 Check shear capacity of RC pile

rectangularpile subject to biaxial
bending and shear.
Ultimate limitstate shear forces in pile are H1 and

Corresponding
The ultimate coexistent
bending moments in pile are Mpyu and
direct load on pile is N.
Rectangularpiles
No shear check is necessary if:
s 0.6h
and
0.6b
0.8\/f, 5N/mm2
HT,VU/bh'
and Hpxu/hb'
0.8Vf, 5 N/mm2
Shear check is necessary if:
and
Mpxu/Nu > 0.6h

Find v1 =
and/or
H/bh'
Find Px = 100A/bh'
Find VCX and
> 0.6b
=
Vy
Hpxu/hb'
MI,VU/NU
and
and Py = 100A/hb'
correspondingto p. and p, from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.

vx
vv
+----1
vex
Check
vcy
If this check fails, provide shear reinforcementin the form of links.
Ac = bh
concrete shear stress
rO.6 NuHxub/MyuAc
Enhancement of desiqn
concrete stress= 06t'(u Hyuh/MxuAc
Hyuh/ Mxu 10
SK 7/23 Shear stress enhancement

presence of axial load.
Note:
of design
Enhancement
Ac= bh
due
to
Hxub/Myu
10
SK 7/24 Shear stress enhancement due to

presence of axial load.
v1 and
may be enhanced by using the following formulae due to
presence of an axial load N:
v. = v + 0.6NUH
v=v+
O.NUH
A
and
0.8f
5N/mm2
< 0.8Jf
5N/mm
should be less than or equal to 1.0.
Shear reinforcement
A
where
bS(v v)
0.87f.
= total areaof legs in direction of shear
h = width of section perpendicular to direction of shear

S = spacing of links
460N/mm2 for links.
Circularpiles
N=
ultimate vertical load with
= combined ultimate horizontal load

= moment in pile due to
Asvx bxSv(VxVc'x)
O87j
bySv(VyVy)
O87iyv
SK 7/25 Shear reinforcementin a

rectangularpile.
Asv(a1Of link)
A5= area of alt bars
longitudinal
SK 7/26 Shear reinforcementin a

circular pile.
No shear check is necessary if.
M/N
where
O.60h
and HIO.75A
5 N/mm2
A = O.252th2.
Shear check is necessary if:
MIN> O.60h
Shear stress, v = H/O.75A
p = 1OOA/1.5A
where
assuming50% of bars effectively
A = total area of steel in pile.
in tension

Find v, correspondingto p from Figs 11.2 to 11.5.
Theshear stress may be enhanced by using the following formuladue to
presence of an axial load N11:
0.bNUH
v, +
AC1 'Pu
0.8Vf
SN/mm2
should be less than or equal to 1.0.
HpuhlMpu
If v> v, then use shear reinforcement.

V=
V = 0.75vA
0.87fA()
where
A = total area of link barsperpendicularto longitudinal bars, i.e.

the two legs of hoop reinforcement
characteristic yield strength of link reinforcement

f.. =
S = spacing of links.
Find z/R from appropriate table from Tables 11.18 to 11.27 corresponding
to
h/h, p. N/R2 and eIR.
f,
V, + V
Check H11
The total shear resistance for inclined links =

V.= [0.87fA. (cos a + sin a cot (zIS)1
= totalareaoflink bars i.e.the two legs ofhoop reinforcement.
where
may be taken as 45 when a is angle of inclination of link.
Step 16 Check shear capacity ofprestressed pile
Prestressing
LAps tofirid Vc
SECTION
SK 7/27 Typical section and

elevation of a prestressedconcrete
pile.
ELEVATION
V0 = 0.67bh(f + 0.8fft)
VCF
V=
(i
VCO
0.55f
vbd +
___E_)
or
VCr
resistance
M,V
0.lbd\/f11
as the case may be (kN)
design ultimate
shear
V0 = shear resistanceof section uncracked (kN)

Vcr = shear resistanceof section cracked (kN)
= maximum design principalstress at the centroidal axis = O.24\/f
= design compressivestress at centroidal axis of concrete section due
to prestress alone
= design effective prestress in tendons after all losses O.6f

= characteristicultimate strength of tendons
v, = design concrete shear strength from Figs 11.2 to 11.5 where percentage of steel reinforcementshould include tendons plus any ordinary
untensioned longitudinal steel reinforcement in tensile zone of
section
d=
effective depth to centroid of reinforcing steel in tension zone

where reinforcing steel should include tendons and any untensioned
reinforcement
= characteristic
cube concrete strength at 28 days
M0 = moment to produce zero stress

section.
at tension fibre with O.8f on
b
Prestressing strands
___
Uniformly prestressed
pile section
Uniform Prestress
O8Sip
21
+
Stress due to M0
M0 ZcO8Zjcp
SK 7/28 Stress diagram for a symmetrical rectangularprestressed pile due to M0.
If H<O.5V, no shear reinforcementis required.

If H. O.5V, thenprovideshearreinforcementasfollows.
Shear reinforcement
If horizontalshear on pile,
is less than or equal to (V + O.4bd) then,
O.4b
O.87f
If horizontal shear on pile,
is more than (17 +O.4bd) then,
Design
S
Note:
325
0.87f..d
For biaxial bending and shear, check requirement for shear reinforcement
for each direction of bending separately, but allow for contribution of
concrete shear resistance V in one directionofloadingonly for calculation
of shear reinforcement. (See Step 7 of Section 4.3.1.)
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement in RCpile

For rectangularand circular piles, 1OOA/A 0.4.
Step 18 Check minimum prestress in prestressed pile
Find slendernessratio of pile = n =

where
b = minimum width of pile
/ = total length of prestressed pile at commencement of driving.
Minimum prestress after losses = 60npsi

= 0.4nN/mm2
or
If diesel hammer is used,

minimum prestress in concrete = 5 N/mm2
Step 19 Maximum reinforcement in pile
100A/A 6
Step 20 Containment of reinforcement in pile
Minimum dia. of links 0.25 x largest bar 6mm
Maximum spacing of links = 12 x smallest dia. of bar
Step 21 Links in prestressed piles

At top and bottom 3B length of pile, provide 0.6% of volume of pile in
volume
of link.
Step 22 Minimum tension reinforcement in pile cap

0.OOl3bh
in both directions
Step 23 Curtailment of bars in pile cap
A minimum anchorage of 12 times diameter of bar should he provided at
ends by bending bar up vertically. Additionally check that full tension
anchorage bond length is provided from critical section for bending in a
pile cap where design for fiexure and requirement for Ilexural steel in
tension is determined. In finding anchorage bond length beyond that
section, actual area of steel provided may be taken into account.
Step 24 Spacing of bars in pile cap

Clear spacing of bars should not exceed 3d or 750mm.
fJ[pt
L

pile cap.
= Tension Anchorage
Bond Length
Percentage of reinforcement,
100AIbd (%)
1

of bars in pile cap (mm)
or over
0.75
0.5
0.3
Less than 0.3
160
210
320
530
3d or 750
Note: This will deem to satisfy a crack width limitationof 0.3mm.

Step 25 Early ther,nal cracking
See Chapter 3.
Step 26 Assessment of crack width in flexure
See Chapter 3.
Step 27 Connections
See Chapter 10 for connectionof pile to pile cap and column to pile cap.
7.7 WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 7.1 Pile capfor an internal column ofa building
Size of column= 800mm x 800mm
Spacing of column =8m x 8m on plan
Design
Unfactored column loads
Vertical load, N (kN)

Horizontal shear,
(kN)
Horizontal shear,
(kN)
Moment, M (kNm)
Moment, M (kNm)
H
H
Dead
Imposed
1610
1480
18
28
112
Wind
72
156
112
'148
624
Geotechnical information (see SK 7/30)
StratumI
Average thickness of layer= 1.5m
Classification: very loose yellow brown to brownish grey sandy silt.
Average N = 3 (SPT)
c = 11.3kN/m2
= 40
= 2fikN/m3
Stratum2
Average thicknessof layer = 9 m
Classification: soft to medium bluish-grey clayey silt.
Average N = 5 (SPT)
c = 20.2 kN/m2
= 50
= 24kN/m3
Ysat = 27 kN/m3
Stratum 3
Classification: stiff to very stiff bluish-grey silty clay.
= 14 (SPT)
c = 6OkN/m2
= 6
Ysat = 26kN/m3
Average N
Stratum4
Classification: dense to very dense mottled brown sandy silt.
Average
N = 24 (SPT)
c = 13.8 kN/m2
= 310
'(sat = 27kN/m3
I
uJ
Ui
uJ uJ
0><C
c
LU
>- u_
<0
VERY LOOSE YELLOW BROWN
SANDY SILT NS3
SOFT TO MEDIUM BLUISH-GREY

CLAYEY SILT N=5 AVERAGE
I-
STIFF TO VERY STIFF BLUISHGREY

SILTY CLAY N=14 AVERAGE
-s
DENSE TO VERY DENSE MOTTLED BROWN
SANDY SILT N=24 AVERAGE
0
CN
0
g
N-
VERY STIFF TO HARD

SILTY CLAY N=31 AVERAGE
g
In
1/)
SK 7/30 Averageground condition

soil strata.
Design
Stratum5
Average thicknessof layer= 15 m
Classification: very stiff to hard silty clay.
Average
N = 31 (SPT)
c = 71.5 KN/m2
= 8
Vsat = 28kN/m3
Water table at 3.Om below ground level.

Step I Select type ofpile
Considering all the factors as described in Step 1 of Section 7.6 it is
decided to use a non-displacement pile.
Choose 600mm diameter bored and cast-in-situ concrete pile.
Step 2 Determine vertical capacity ofpile
Follow Section 7.1.
Pu = Ppu + Psi
First method ofpoint resistance
/Lb
A(38N)--
Assume pile to go into Stratum 5 and stop at 8.Om within Stratum 5.

Lb = average length of pile = (1.5 + 9 + 2 + 7 + 8) m = 27.5m
A = cross-sectional area of pile = ir x
0.62
= 0.283m2
B = 0.fiOm
N = statistical average of SPT in a zone of about 8B above to 3B below

pile point = 31
= 15280kN
Pp = 0.283 x 38 x 31 x --0.6
=
380N(A) = 380 x 31.0 x 0.283 3334kN
Secondmethodofpoint resistance
P, = A(Nc +
= 0.283m2
c = 71.5 kN/m2
= lOkN/m3
= effective vertical stressat pile point
=1.5x26+1.5x24+7.5x27+2x26+7X27+8X27
(27.5 3) x 10
= 489.5 kN/m2
330
Reinforced Concrete
00
STRATUM
526KN/n13
Lfl
c,
t24KN/m3
Water TabLe
0
o
STRATUM
5at=27KN/m'
N-
STRATUM
0
0
tsat=2GKN/m3
0
0
0
N-
tsat2?KN/m3
0
o
tsatr27KN/m3
0
0
U,
N-
STRATUM
STRATUM
SK 7/31 The pile penetrating

different strata.
L=27.5m
L/B=46
B=O.6Oni
=8
From Fig. 7.2,

Nj,,
N = 15
=3
and
LIB = 3.5
L
> >
B
= 0.283 1(15 x 71.5) + (3 x 489.5)1 = 719kN
Design
0
0
331
-J
li
uJ
SK 7/32 Conditionat bottom of

pile.
Determination of skin resistance
=
Used non-displacementpile of 600mm diameter.
First method of skin resistance
f. = NkNIm
Stratum I
= perimeter x depth of stratum

= it x 0.60 x 1.5
= 2.83m2
= 3kN/m2
Pi = 3 x 2.83 = 8.5kN
Stratum 2
A.2 = it X 0.60
x 9 = 17m2
fs2 = 5kN/m2
= 5 x 17 = 8SkN
Stratum3
A3=tX0.60X2=3.8m2
f3 = l4kN/m2
P3 = 14 x 3.8 = 53.2kN
Stratum 4
A4 =
tx
0.60
x 7 = 13.2m2
f4 = 24kN/m2
P4 = 13.2 x 24 = 316.8kN
Stratum5
A5 =
tx
0.60
x 8 = 15.1m2
fs5 = 3lkN/m2
= 15.1 x 31 x 468.lkN
P1 = 931.6kN
Fourth method of skin resistance
f = cc + 0.5Ktan
Ignore the second term because is very small.

Stratum 1
= 0.75 c = 11.3 kN/m2

1sjl = Asi X
= 0.75 x 11.3 x 2.83 = 24kN
= 2.83m2
Stratum2
= 0.75 c = 20.2kN/m2
PS12 = 0.75 x 20.2 x 17 = 257.2kN
A52 = 17m2
Stratum3
= 0.75 c = 6OkN/m2
Psi3 = 0.75 x 60 x 3.8 = 171 kN
A53 = 3.8m2
Stratum4
A54 = 13.2m2
= 2.0 say with high Dr

= 31
c = 13.8 kN/m2
from chart
K5 = 2.0
o = 0.75 = 23.25
tanO = 0.43
= effective
vertical stress
at middle of layer
10
=1.5X26+1.5x24+7.5x27+2x26+3.5x27_(16_3)x
=
294 kN/m2
f=
Psi4
+ 0.5 Ktan
cw
= 13.2 [2 x 13.8) + (0.5 x 294 x 2 x 0.43)1 =
2033kN
The fourth method of skin resistance is giving much higher values than the
first method and may be ignored from the point of view of conservatism.
Pu =
Ppu
I'su
= 719 + 932
=
1651kN
Allowable working load on pile
= 1651 = 660 kN
----
Designed pile is 600mm diameter bored and cast in-situconcrete pile with
an average length of 27.5m to carry a workingload of 660kN. This is a
conservative theoretical estimate of single pile vertical load capacity and
must be verified by actual pile tests on site.
Step 3 Determine horizontal capacity ofsingle pile
See Section 7.2.
Assume cohesive soil.
Method 1
= 650N
where N = SPT No.

E5 of Stratum 1 = 650 x 3 = 1950kN/m2
E5 of Stratum 2 = 650 x 5 = 3250 kN/m2
E5 of Stratum 3 = 650 x 14 = 9100kN/m2
E5 of Stratum 4 = 650 x 24 = 15600kN/m2
E5 of Stratum 5 = 650 x 31 = 20 150kN/m2
E5
/EsB\1 7
E.
k5B=1.3lJ I
\EfIf/ \1t2
E1
= 28 x
106 kN/m2
for pile concrete
= 7t\
I
I
D = \64
X 0.60 = 6.36 X 103m4
\64/
k51 B
1672kN/m2
k52B = 2909 kN/m2
k53B = 8875 kN/m2
k54B = 15914kN/m2
k5B = 20999kN/m2
k51
k52
k53
k54
k55
= 14792 kN/m3
= 26523 kN/m3
= 34998 kN/m3
2787kN/m3
= 4848kN/m3
Method 2
k == 240qkN/m2
48OckN/m2
k1 = 480 x 11.3 =
5424 kN/m3
k2 = 480 x 20.2 = 9696kN/m3

k3 = 480 x 60 = 28800kN/m3
k4 = 480 x 13.8 = 6624kN/m3
k5 = 480 x 71.5 = 34320kN/m3
The values given by Method 1 are smaller or softer which will produce
larger deflectionand bending moments in pile.
For the sake of conservatism use values given by Method 1.
S = node spacing for finite element analysis = 0.60m

B = 0.60m
spring stiffness
= SBkkN/m
00
0)
3
4
____1
5
6
7
8
9
10
I-.
12
uJ
E
13
14
15
z2
16
17 _______
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
:26
27
28
29
30
31
SK 7/33 Finiteelementmodelof
pile.

Ignore top 1.5B of pile for lateral support from soil.
The whole length of pile need not be modelled.
StratumI
Spring stiffness = 0.60 x 0.60 x 2787
= 1003kN/m
Stratum 2
Spring stiffness
Stratum 3
Spring stiffness
= 0.60 x 0.60 x
= 1745kN/m
484S
= 0.60 x 0.60 x
= 5325kN/m
14792
Stratum 4
Spring stiffness = 0.60 x 0.6
x 26523 = 9548 kN/m
Assume full fixity of pile with pile cap.

Apply unit load at top of pile and find pile stiffness and bending moment
and shear in pile using a two-dimensional computer program.
= 0.283m2
I = 6.36 x 103m4
Results ofcomputer run

Maximum moment = 2.48kNm/kN
Pile top deflection = 0.l2mm/kN

Single pile horizontal stiffness = 012
= 8333kN/m
Step 4 Determine approximate number ofpiles and spacing

Maximum vertical load on pile cap = 1610 + 1480 = 3090kN = P
P
iV
3090
660
Assume maximum allowable horizontal displacement of pile cap is 10mm.

Maximum horizontal load
= 28 + 18 + 156 = 202 kN = H
Maximum horizontal load on pile to limit deflection

= 8333 x 0.010
= 83kN per pile
H 202
RH = = = 2.4
CH
83
= greater of
R and
RIH
= 4.7 x 1.1 = 5.17

Use 6 no. piles.
1.1R,
= 4.7
to 10mm

2.48
1 .58
2
1 .05
3
.058
0.21
5
-0.08
-0.28
-0.42
-0.51
-0.56
10
0.57
11
-0.57
12
0.56
13
-0.52
1.
-0.48
15
-0.43
16
-0.37
17
-0.31
18
0.25
19
-0.19
20
-0.14
21
-0.11
22
-0.09
23
-0.05
2t.
SK 7/34 Bending moment (kNm)

due to 1kN horizontal load at top
-0.02
25
of pile.
Step 5 Determine size ofpile cap
B = diameter of pile = 0.6m

1.5B = 1.5
x 0.6 = 0.9m
0.9m from centre of pile to edge of pile cap.

Assume 0.9 m depth of pile cap.
Allow
Design
1800
SK 7/35 Layout of piles under pile

cap.

'
PLAN
Spacing
of pile cap assumed is 5.4m x 3.6m x 0.9m.

Step 6 Carry out load combination
Estimation of load on pile
LC1
= 1.ODL + 1.OJL
N=
1610 + 1480
H1 = 28 + 18
= OkN
M1
= 3090kN
= 46kN
= OkNm
M = 112 + 72 = 184 kNm

LC3
= 1.ODL + 1.OIL + 1.OWL
3090kN
Wind in xx direction
H1 = 46 + 156 = 202kN
J1 = OkN
= OkNm
M = 184 + 624 = 808 kNm
M1
Wind in yy direction
H1 = 46kN
H = ll2kN
M1 = 448 kNm
M = 184 kNm
LC4
1800
= 1.ODL + 1.OWL
_900,
N = l6lOkN
H1 = 28 +
= OkN
156
= 184kN
JJ
= OkNm
M = 112 + 624 = 736kNm
M1
= 28kN
H = ll2kN
M1 = 448kNm
M = 112kNm
H1
Estimation
ofloads onpilesfor bending moment andshear cakulationsin pile
cap
LC5
= 1.4DL + 1.61L
N = 1.4 x
1610 + 1480 x 1.6
= 4622kN
H1=1.4x28+1.6X18=68kN
= OkN
M1 = OkNm
M = 1.4 x
112
1.6
LC6 = 1.2DL + 1.21L
N=
1.2
72
= 272kNm
+ 1.2WL
x 1610 + 1.2 x 1480 = 3708kN
in xx direction
H1 = 1.2 x (28 + 18 + 156) = 242.4kN
= OkN
Wind
M1
= OkNm
= 1.2 x (112 + 72 + 624) = 969.6kNm
H1 = 1.2 x (28 + 18) = 55.2kN

JI = 1.2 x 112 = 134.4kN
M1
= 1.2 X 448 = 537.6kNm

= 1.2 x (112 + 72) = 220.8kNm
LC7 = 1.4DL + 1.4WL
N = 1.4 x 1610 = 2254kN

H1 = 1.4 (28
= OkN
+ 156) = 257.6kN
Design
M OkNm
M = 1.4 (112 + 624) = 1030.4kNm
H = 1.4 x 28 = 39.2kN
H = 1.4 x 112 = 156.8kN
M
1.4
x 448 = 627.2kNm
M = 1.4 x
112
= 156.8kNm
LC8 = 1.ODL + 1.4WL
This condition may be ignored because it is highly unlikely that wind will
cause any tension in piles.
Step
Check pile group effects
- i--
1
0
0
U,
SK 7/36 Layout of piles
overall
dimensions.
Group friction capacity = 2D(B + L)cac
B = 1.8m
L = 3.6m
c = average cohesionof clay

(11.3 x 1.5) + (20.2 x 9.0) + (60 x 2) + (13.8 x 7) + (71.5 x 8)
27.5
= 35.9kNIm
= 0.75 say (See Section 7.1, Table 7.2)
D = 27.5m
Group friction capacity
= 2 x 27.5 (1.8 + 3.6) x 35.9 x 0.75

= 7996kN
Group end-bearing capacity = BL(Nc +
c = 71.5 kN/m2
at bottom of group
= effective stressat bottom of group = 489.5 kN/m2
N'= 31 for
N = 15 J
(see Step 2)
=8
Group end-bearing capacity = 1.8 x 3.6 x (15
= 16465kN
Ultimate group capacity = 7996 + 16465

Allowable group capacity =
24461
2.5
x 71.5 + 489.5 x 3)
= 24461 kN
= 7M kN
Allowable group capacity based on single pile capacity

3960kN
=6x
660 =
Design basis is single pile capacity.

Step 8 Carry out analysis ofpile cap
Assume that pile cap is rigid. Assume 500mm backfill on top of pile cap.
Assume a surchargeof 5 kN/m2 on backfill with no eccentricity.
it is always advisable to use the table as presented.
W
weight of pile cap

+ weight of backfill on pile cap
+ weight of surchargeon backfill
= 5.4m x 3.6m x 0.9m x 24kN/m3

+ 5.4 x 3.6 x 0.5m x 2OkN/m3
+ 5.4 x 3.6 )< 5kN/m2
= 712kN
Maximum service load on pile without wind= 665 kN
Maximum service load on pile with wind= 771 kN
SK 7/37 Calculationsof pile group

stiffness.
T=
LC6
LC6
LC7
LC7
LC
LC1
LC1
LC1
LC4
LC4
0
112
184
28
68
242.4
55.2
257.6
39.2
736
112
272
969.6
220.8
1030.4
156.8
448
P=N+
627.2
0
0
537.6
0
112
46
184
448
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e e
P, = N + 1.4W (or 1.2W)
MVV=MV+Nek+HVh--M
156.8
134.4
0
0
46
202
184
808
0
0
3090
3090
3090
1610
1610
4622
3708
3708
2254
2254
Heh + He11
Load case
Analysis of loads on pile cap.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
eh
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e11
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
3251
3251
4562
4562
3802
3802
3802
2322
2322
5619
P or P,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
768.3
658.6
548.8
548.8
0
0
333.2
1187.6
270.5
1262.2
192.1
137.2
225.4
989.8
225.4
901.6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
CD
CD
39.2
=
P
horizontal displacement at top
768.3
I
+
1262.2
192.1
270.5
1187.6
658.6
548.8
508
711
983
925
920
717
y = 0.9m
17.82m2
x = 1.8m
(see Step 3)
of pile = 0.l2Hmm (see Step 3)
My
12.96m2
156.8
55.2
257.6
134.4
242.4
112
28
68
R = no. of piles = 6
My + Mx
V(H + H)
= 4.86m2
3251
3251
2322
5619
4562
4562
512
767
548.8
112
46
184
901.6
137.2
333.2
665
771
225.4
989.8
225.4
46
202
3802
3802
3802
2322
Qmax
P or P
M= = bending moment in pile = 2.48H
H=
Qrnax
LC7
LC6
LC6
LC7
LC
LC3
LC3
LC4
LC4
LC1
Load case
Loads on pile.
373
601
367
26.94
42.93
24.21
40.40
595
890
19.24
11.33
30.67
20.18
33.67
7.67
H or
266
262
501
602
496
Qmin
66.8
106.5
100.2
60.0
28.1
47.7
76.1
50.0
19.0
83.5
M or
3.2
5.2
4.8
2.9
2.3
1.4
3.7
2.4
0.9
4.0
(mm)

SURCHARGE ON BACKFILL
Li
LJLJ
SK 7/38 General arrangementof

pile cap and piles.
Allowable service load on pile without wind = 660kN OK

Allowable service load on pile with wind= 660 x 1.25 = 825 kN OK
Bending momentand shearforce

calculation of bending momentin
pile cap.
in pile cap
are taken at the face of column.

Assume column size = 800mm x 800mm
Sections 11 and 22
Dead load of pile cap + surcharge+ backfill = 0.9 x 24 + 0.5 x 20 + 5 =

36.6 kN/m2
Applying load factors for different load cases:
x 36.6 = 51.2 kN/m2

x 36.6 = 43.9 kNIm2
M1 = bending moment due to dead load of pile cap etc. on section 11
x
x
= 3.6 51.2 2.32
1.4
1.2
=487.5kNm
or
x
= 3.6 43.9
x 2.32 =
418.0kNm
M2 = Bending moment due to dead load of pile cap etc. on section 22
= 5.4 x
or =
51.2
2
x 1.42 =
5.4 x 43.9 x 1.4
271.0kNm
= 232.3 kNm
SK 7/4.0 Critical sections for shear.

From soil test reports, the total SO3 is 0.75%. This means it is Class 3
exposure (see table in Step 9 of Section 7.6).
Minimumcover on blindingconcrete = 50mm

Minimum cover elsewhere= 90mm
Assume 90mm cover for pile cap everywhere.
Step 10 Calculate area of reinforcement in pile cap
M = bending moment in pile cap

M1,
= 2264.9 kNm
as found in Step 8.
from table in Step 8.
Q- and Q.
are pile
487.5
418.0
418.0
487.5
487.5
reactions
983
925
676
717
427
Q
271.0
232.3
232.3
271.0
271.0
M2
2264.9
2172.0
1140
907.7
1134.0
M22
199.1
170.7
1816.4 1090.7 170.7
1520.1
542.0 199.1
1105.7 755.0 199.1
M11
1405
M2
1323
2007.6
813
1593.2 1026
2752.4
2590.0
2234.4
M'1'1
298.6
256.0
256.0
298.6
298.6
V44
4315= 120mm
43= diameter of pile
V and V44 are combined bending moments and shears in pile cap
=600mm
M11, M77,
M'1
= 1.4 (Q + Q.)
M'2 = 0.5 (Q + Q2 + Q)
M11 = M1 + M'1
=
=
=
+
+
+
+
V'-3
Q- Q
V' Q1 Q Q V33 V13 V33
and V4 are bending moments and shears in pile cap due to dead load of pile cap + surcharge
M M2,
M1, M2, V3 and V'4 are bending moments and shears in pile cap due to pile reaction
Q, Q,
LC7
LC7
LC
983
925
882 920
542 717
684 711
937
760
890
595
844
367
657
LC5
LC6
Q2
Load case Qi
Bending moments and shear in pile cap.
1626
2052
1138
2646
2810
2280
V44
1434
1966
1850
1596
V33
938.9
1234.9
1766.9
1679.3
1425.3
VII
1753.4
1327.4
2511.4
2024.0
2390.0
V44
SK 7/41 Momentsin pile and pile

cap due to pile fixity.
For this load case, pile fixity moment= 19.0 kNm per pile.
Pile fixity moment on pile cap is opposite in sign to moment M11 and may
be ignored.
Assume 20mm diameter reinforcement.
f
d1
= 900 90 (cover) 10 (half bar dia.) = 800mm
b = 3.6m
= 30N/mm2 for concrete in pile cap

2264.9 x 106
= 0.033
K = M11 =
fbd2 30 x 3600 x 8002
z=
+
d[0.5
= 0.96d
=
./(o.25
0.95d = 760mm
M11
0.87fz
x 106 =
x 460 x 760 7447 mm2
2264.9
0.87
Assume f, = 460N/mm2 for HT reinforcement

Area of 20mm dia. bar = 314mm2
24 X 314 = 7536mm2
Use 24 no. 20mm diameter bars equally spaced (approximate spacing

150mm) in the xx direction.
M22 = 1134kNm
Ignore the effect of pile fixity moments.
Assume 12mm diameter reinforcement.
d = 900
90(cover 20(bar dia.) 6(half bar) = 784mm
Design
K=
M22
fbd2
1134 x
30 x 5400
106
0.011
x 7842
z = 0.95d by inspection
= 0.95 x 784 = 745mm
A. =
M22
1134 x 106
0.87 x 460 x 745
0.87fz
Area of 12mm dia. bar =
= 3803mm2
113mm2
34 x 113 = 3842 mm2
Use 34 no. 12mm diameter bars equally spaced (approximate spacing

155 mm) in the yy direction.
(See also Step 22 for minimum reinforcement.)
All bars are high tensile reinforcementto be placed at bottom of pile cap.
There is no requirement for bars on top of pile cap.
IT
0
0.C
0)
Li
Li
SK 7/42 Pile cap reinforcement.
Step 11
Check shear stress in pile cap
= shear on critical section 33

= 1766.9 kN (see table in Step 8)
= 2700 400 (half column) 1080 =
V33
1220mm
1.5d = 1.5 x
800
a, > 1.5d1
hence no enhancement of shear stress is allowed
bd
= 1200mm
= 1766.9 x i03 = 0.61 N/mm2

3600
x 800
= bOA. = 100 x 7536 = 0.26%
x 800
v = 0.425N/mm2< 0.61 N/mm2
bd
3600
from Fig. 11.3
SK 7/43 Criticalshear plane in pile

cap.
Thecheapest alternativeis to bring the outer pilesin towardsthe centre of

pile cap by 20mm in the xx direction only. This has very little effect on
pile reactions.
=
2d
1200mm
1.5d = 1200mm
2x800 1.333
1200
Increase grade of concrete from
= 30N/mm2 to
cap.
v1 = 0.47N/mm2
V2 =
= 40N/mm2in pile
from Figs 11.2 to 11.5
/2d\ = 0.47 X 1.333

vi()
\a
= 0.63N/mm2 > 0.61N/mm2 OK

V = shear on critical section 44
= 2511.4kN (see table in Step 8).

a = 1800 1200 + 120 400 (half column) = 320 mm
1.5d = 1.5 x 784 = 1176mm > a
2 x 784
320
= 100A
bd
=4.9
100 x 3482
5400 x 784
= 0.08%
(See Step 22 for minimum percentage of reinforcement.)
= 0.40N/mm2 for
v2 = 0.40 x 4.9 =
= 40N/mm2
1.96N/mm2
V 2511 x it)3
bd 5400 x 784
= 0.59N/mm2 < 1.96N/mm OK

Step12
Check punchingshear stress in pile cap
SK 7/44 Critical planes for

punchingshear of piles in pile cap.
U1
= perimeter of column = 2 (800 + 800) = 3200 mm
Since pile spacing is not greater than 3 times diameter of pile, then
punchingshear stress at critical perimeter for column need not be checked.
U2
= perimeter on punching shear critical plane for pile load

= 2300 + 2256 = 4556mm
Ultimate maximum column load, N = 4622 kN

Ultimate maximum pile load, Q = 983kN
350
Reinforced Concrete
Column punching shear stress =
N =
U1d
x i03
3200 x 0.5 x (800 + 784)
4622
= 1.82 N/mm2 <0.8Vf

5N/mm2
Punching shear stress at perimeter of pile =
or
OK
983 x iO
<
><
800
= 0.65 N/mm2 <0.8Vf

Pile punchingshear stress
= Q =
OK
983x103
4556
x 0.5 (800 + 784)
= 0.27N/mm2
Minimum
v, for Grade40N/mm2 concrete = 0.40N/mm2 OK
Step 13 Check area of reinforcement in pile

Unsupported length of pile, 10, is assumednegligible.
Assume le/h < 10.

The pile is treated as a short column. From tables in Step 8,
with M = 28.lkNm
Qrnax = 983kN
= 367kN with M = 106.5kNm
Max. shear,
Vmax
= 42.93kN
Assume minimum cover is 75 mm.
SK 7/45 Pile reinforcement.

Allowing
420
for links and bar diameter, assume h = 420mm.

= 0.70 = k
= 30N/mm2
= 0.029
M = 28.1
= 0.029m
e=
983
= 0.095
x iO = 2.73N/mm2
600 x 600
983
Design
351
From Table 11.19, it is observed that minimum reinforcement may be

used.
Use minimum reinforcement.
For the second load case,

367
Qm,.
x iO = iN/mm2
600x600
h2
e
R
=1
Again use minimum reinforcement.
Step 14 Check stresses in prestressed concrete piles
Not required.
Step 15 Check shear capacity ofRC pile
No shear check is necessary if
M,
N
106.5
x 10
0.60h.
=290mm
x io
= 0.60 x 600 = 360mm
367
0.60h
M/N

42.93
0.75A
0.75
x i03
x r x 6002/4
= 0.20N/mm2<0.8\/f
OK
Step 16 Check shear capacity ofprestressed pile
Not required.
Step 17 Check minimum reinforcement in RC pile
100A
A
A. =
0.4
A. x 0.4
100
tx
3002 x 0.4
100
= 1131mm2
Use 6 no. 16mm dia. HT bars (1206mm2).
Step 18 Check minimum prestress in prestressed pile
Not required.
Step 19 Maximum reinforcement in pile
Not required.
352
Reinforced Concrete
Step 20 Containment ofreinforcement in pile
Minimum dia. of links = 0.25 x
192 mm
bar dia. = 4mm
12
6mm
x smallest dia. of bar =
12 X 16
Use 6mm dia. links at 175 mm centres.

Step 21 Links in prestressed piles
Not required.
Step 22 Minimum tension reinforcement in pile cap
0.OOl3bh
in both directions
Minimum reinforcementin the xx direction = 0.0013
x 3600 x 900 =
4212 mm2
Provided 7536 mm2 (see Step 10).

Minimum reinforcementin the yy direction
= 0.0013 x 5400 x 900 =
6318 mm2
Area of 16mm dia. bar = 201 mm2
32 x 201 = 6432mm2
Area required = 3842 mm2

from Step 10
Use 32 no. 16mm dia. bars equally spaced (approximatespacing 170mm)
in the yy direction.
SK 7/46 Pile cap reinforcement

revised to suit minimum
reinforcement.
ofbars in pile cap

Minimumanchorage at ends of bars is 12 X dia. of bar.
Step 23 Curtailment
12 x 20
12 x 16
= 240mm
= 192mm
Provide a minimum 250mm bent up length of pile bottom reinforcement.

Check full anchoragebond length of the main tension bars.
= 40N/mm2
Reinforcementused is Type 2 deformed bars.
From Table 3.29 of BS811O: Part 1: 1985,1'1
tension anchorage length =
32 = 32 x 20 = 640mm
More than 640mm length of bar is available beyond section 1I in Step 8.

Step 24 Spacingof bars in pile cap
Maximum percentage of reinforcement
100.4,
bd
= 100
<
7536
= 0.26%
x 800
Maximum allowedclear spacing forp less 0.3% is 3d or 750mm, whichever
3600
is less.
Spacing of bars adopted is 150mm.

Step 25 Early thermal cracking
If it is felt necessary to limit early thermal crackingof concrete in pile cap
then minimum reinforcement on sides and top of pile cap should be
provided based on method of calculation shown in Chapter 2.
Step 26 Assessment of crack width in flexure
Normallythe calculations In Step 24 will deem to satisfy the crack width
limitations of BS811O: Part 1: 19S5.l
If calculations are necessary to prove the limitations of crack width due
to flexure in pile cap then methods shown in Chapter 3 should he followed.
Step 27 Connection ofpile to pile cap
From Step 17, 16mm HT Type 2 deformed bars are used.
From Table 3.29 of BS811O,
full anchorage bond length =
32; 32 x 16 = 512mm
The bars from the pile will project 600mm into pile cap. (See general
recommendationsfor design of connectionsin Chapter 10.)
7.8 FIGURES FOR CHAPTER 7
::
06
Fig. 7.1 Determinationof pile
efficiency.
.12
o
.4
-o
4..
(.j
Fig. 7.2 Bearing capacity factors

for deep foundations.
20
8, deg
Chapter 8
Design of Walls
NOTATION
8.0
Deflectiondue to slendernessof wall

Distancesfrom compression face to centroid of layers of concrete in
compression
Distancesfrom compression face to centroid of layers of tensile

reinforcement
A
Ah
Area bounded by median line of wall in closed cell

Net area of concrete in a section of wall
Centroid of compression in a wall section
Area of steel in shear reinforcementplaced horizontally in in-plane
direction
AT
b
b
B
c
C
d
d1
d0
e
ea
e11
e2
E
Centroid of tensile steel in a wall section

Area of steel in shear reinforcementplaced vertically
Area of steel in compression in a section of wall
Total area of steel in tension in a wall section for in-plane bending
Total area of steel in tension in a wall section for out-of-planebending
Layers of tensile steel reinforcement in wall for stress analysis
Layers of compressive steel reinforcementin wall for stress analysis
Actual width of flange of a shear wall
Unit width of wall for out-of-planebending
Effective width of flange of a shear wall
Plan length of wall for the computation of moment of inertia
Coefficient to determine torsional stiffness of a rectangular section
Torsional stiffness of a rectangular section
Effective depth from compression face to centroid of tensile steel
Effective depth of tensile steel in wall for in-plane bending
Effective depth of tensile steel in wall for out-of-plane bending
Eccentricity of load on wall section for in-plane bending
Slenderness coefficient of slender braced plain wall
Resultanteccentricity of all loads at right angles to plane of wall
Resultanteccentricityof loads at top of wall
Resultanteccentricity of loads at bottom of wall
Modulus of elasticity
Stress in concrete compression
Characteristicyield strength of reinforcement
Tensile stress in steel reinforcement
355
Reinforced Concrete
356
G
h
Modulusof rigidity
of wall
of flange of a shear wall section
of web of a shear wall section
hf
Thickness
Thickness
Thickness
Height of wall
Effective height
H0
K
L
m
M
M'
M1
Mo
M0
MUd(,
N
P
p
q
Qi
R
s
Sh
S
T
v,
v0
'oh
vj
V
V1
V
V0
V0
V0
X
z
of wall
Clear height of wall

Torsional stiffness of a closed cell structure
Factor to determine additional moment due to slenderness
Length of wall in in-plane direction
Modular ratio E5IE
Applied bending moment on a concrete section
Modified applied moment to account for axial load
In-plane applied bending moment in a wall section
Out-of-planebending moment in wall about horizontal plane
Out-of-planebending moment in wall about vertical plane
Additional bending moment in out-of-planedirection due to slenderness
Total design ultimate axial load on a wall
Axial load
In-plane axial load due to out-of-plane loading on wall panel
Percentage of tensile steel for in-plane bending of wall
Percentage of tensile steel for out-of-plane bending of wall
Shear flow in componentsof a closed cell (kNIm)
In-plane shear flow due to torsion in a closed cell
Restraint factor
Median length of wall
Spacing of horizontal shear reinforcement to resist in-plane shear
Spacing of vertical shear reinforcementto resist in-plane shear
Torsion (kNm)
Shear stress in concrete wall section due to V,
Design concrete shear stress in wall section for in-plane bending
Design concrete shear stress in wall section for out-of-plane bending
Shear stress in concrete wall section due to VOH
Modified design concrete shear stress for in-plane bending
Modified design concrete shear stress for out-of-planebending
Combinedin-plane flexural shear and torsional shear
In-plane shear force in a wall section
Shear resistance of shear reinforcementfor in-plane shear
Shear resistance of shear reinforcementfor out-of-planeshear
Availableconcrete shear strength for in-plane bending after allowing
for V0H
Available concrete shear strength for out-of-planebending after allowing
for V1
Out-of-planeshear about horizontal plane
Out-of-planeshear about vertical plane
Shear flow in the componentsof a closed cell (kNIm)
Depth of lever arm
Design
of Walls 357
to determine effective height of wall

Factor for determination of deflection due to slendernessof wall
Rate of twist (radians per metre length of member)
Factor to determine effective width of flange of shear wall
Coefficient
0
w
8.1
ANALYSIS
OF WALLS
8.1.1 Walls and properties of walls

8.1.1.1 Definitions
ELEVATION
OF WALL
L>4h
SK 8/1 Plan and elevation of
concretewall.
Wall is a vertical load-bearingmemberwhose length exceedsfour times its

thickness.
Unbraced wall is designed to carry lateral loads (horizontal loads) in
to vertical loads.
Braced wall does not carry any lateral loads (horizontal loads). All horizontalloads are carried by principal structural bracings or lateral supports.
Reinforced wallcontains at least the minimum quantitiesof reinforcement.
Plain wall contains either no reinforcement or less than the minimum
quantity of reinforcement.
addition
358
ReinforcedConcrete
Stocky wall is where the effective height (He) divided by the thickness(h)
does not exceed 15 for a braced wall and 10 for an unbraced wall.
Slender wall is a wall other than
8.1.1.2
8.1.1.2.1
a stocky wall.
Effective heights
Reinforced wall monolithic construction
SK 8/2 Wall monolithically

constructedwith slab and
foundation.
=
where
H0 = clear height of wall.
Values of
for braced walls.

End condition at top

1
Values of
0.75
0.80
0.80
0.85
for unbraced walls.

Endconditionat top

1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.5
Design
of Walls
359
D1>h1
H0
_h1
ENO CONDITION
D2>h1
D2< h2
H0
END CONDITION
'1
D3<h2
H1
CONDITION
H0
END
D>h3
WALL FIXED TO
FOUNDATION
WALLS MONOLITHICWITH SLAB OR
SK 8/3 Wall/slab construction

showing
FOUNDATION
end conditions.
8.1.1.2.2
Reinforced wall simply supported construction
H = O.75H0
for braced wallwhere lateral support resists lateral move-
ment and rotation
H = H0
for braced walls wherelateral supports resistlateral movement

for unbraced wall with a roofslab or a floor slab at top
1.5H0
=
He = 2.OH,
for unbraced wall with other forms of constructionat top
______
H0
SK 8/4 Slab simply supported on

wall.
8.1.1.2.3 Reinforced wall cantilever construction

H = 2.0H0 for moment connection at foundation
8.1.1.2.4 Bracedplain wall
With translationand rotation restraint at any lateral support:
H = O.75H0
With translation restraint only at any lateral support:
He = H0
Cantilever construction:
SK 8/5 Cantileverwall.
H = 2H0
for rotational and lateral restraint at foundation
Design
8.1 .1.2.5
of Walls
361
Unbraced plain wall

Supporting a roofor a floor slab:
= 1.5H()
For other walls with lateral restraints:
= 2.0H0
For cantilever plain wall:
= 3.0H0
8.1.1.3 Effective width offlanges for in-plane bending
Theeffective width is width ofwall perpendicularto directionof horizontal
loading which is considered as effective as compression flange, and also
vertical reinforcement provided in this width acts in tension as in tension
flange.Thesefactorsfor effective widtharebased on the recommendationsin
BS5400: Part 5131
7/
H
bs
ACTUAL
WIDTH
SK 8/6 Effective width of flange on plan of wall

arrangement.
bej
2b6
7-
2xACTUAL
WIDTH
SK 8/7 Effective width of flanges of a closed

cell on plan.
be
LJ
ACTUAL
WIDTH
iHy
2
2x
ACTUAL
WIDTH
______
-H
SK 8/8 Effective width of flanges

shaped shear wall on plan.
of a channel
SK 8/9 Effective width of flanges of a channel

shaped shear wall on plan.
362
Reinforced Concrete
be
i1
h
be
fHY
V//I
I
b
b3
ACTUAL WIDTH
SK 8/10 Effective width of flanges

of an I-shaped shear wall on plan.
ACTUAL WIDTH
From diagrams of typical shear wall sections:
b1 = 0.85 i,b1
= Wb2
b3 = 0.85 ipb3
be4 = 0.85 ipb4
be5 = 0.85 ipb5
be6 = Wbo
be2
Effective breadth ratio
b/H
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
for shearwalls (see BS 5400: Part 5131).
Uniformly distributed loading

Cantilever
wall
Point loading at top
Continuous
Cantilever
Continuous
wall
wall
wall
1.0
1.0
0.91
0.35
0.27
0.21
0.77
0.58
0.41
0.24
0.15
0.12
0.18
0.11
1.0
0.82
0.68
0.52
0.80
0.67
0.49
0.38
0.30
0.24
1.0
0.84
0.67
0.49
0.30
0.19
0.14
0.12
b = actual width of flange

H = height of cantilever walls, or
= half heightbetweenmonolithichorizontalrestraintsfor continuouswalls
Note: The flange width limitationsby use of a factor ip are required to take into
account shear lag effects. For ultimate limit state analysis, effects of shear
lag in compression flange are sometimes ignored, but effective tension
reinforcement in flange for in-plane bending should be limited within
effective flange width as given by above expressions.
Design of Walls 363
SK 8/11 Cantilever shear wall.
SK 8/12 Continuous shear wall.
8.1.1.4 Moment ofinertia and shear area

The moment of inertia and shear area to be used for the computation of
deflections of a cantilever shear wall structure and also for input to a
computer program with a view to finding the interaction with other walls
and frame structurescould follow the typical suggestions given below,
Type 1 shear wall
B2
SK 8/13 Type
I shear wall.
for horizontal force H1,
=
+ h3B
Shear area = 0.8 (B,h1 + B3h3)
For horizontal force H,

=
Shear
area = 0.8B2h2
Type 2 shear wall
bi
_________ -i
fI H,
B2
SK 8/14 Type 2 shear wall.
For horizontal force Jl,
I=
(2h1B)
Shear area = 0.8 (2h1B1)
For horizontal force H,

lx = Tj (2h2B)
Shear area = 0.8 (2h2B2)
The above philosophymay be applied to any shape and size of shear wall
layout in a building. The stiffnessof wallslying parallel to the directionof
loading may only be included in the computation.
Note: The flanges of the shear wallshave been ignored, as in T-beams in building
frames, because the horizontal loads are generally of a reversible nature
Design
of Walls
365
and concrete in alternate flanges goes into tension. Consideringcracked

section moment of inertia including effective width of compression flanges
does not produce too dissimilar results.
The out-of-plane stiffness of walls may be ignored in the global 3-D
frame analysis.
8.1.1.5 Torsionalstiffness
8.1.1.5.1
Open cell shear wall
B2F_
SK 8/15 Open cell shear wall.
B3
The torsional stiffness of individual wall elements should be added.

The torsional stiffness of the open cell as a whole is
C = cihBt + c2hB2 + c3hB3
Values of coefficient c.
Note:
8.1.1.5.2
B/h
0.14
1.5
0.20
2
0.23
0.26
0.29
10
0.31
In a global 3-D model each wallof the open cell shear wall maybe modelled
separately as vertical stiffness elements. The property of each wall will
then include the individual torsional stiffness expressed as C= ch3B.
Single closed cell shear wall
Torsional stiffness,
4A2
(BIh)
4A2
2B1
h1
+ 2B2
h2
SK 8/16 Single closedcell shear

wall.
A = B1B2 (area bounded by median line)

T = 2Aq
where T = torsion applied
q = shear flow (kN/m).
SK 8/17 Closed irregularcell

section subject to torsion.
The general formula for any single closed cell is given by:
4A2
fds
Jh
where A
= area bounded by median line of wall thickness
h = thickness of wall
s = median length of wall.
Design of Walls 367
J=
T
where
T = torque applied = 2Aq

G = modulusof rigidity = E12(1 + tt)
E = modulusof elasticity
B = rate of twist in radians per metre length = (q/2AG) $(ds/t)
q = shear flow (kNIm).
8.1.1.5.3 Multi-cell closed shear wall
x2
x1
x4
It
SK 8/18 Closed multiple-cell
section subject to torsion.
_________________________________________
General equation for unit twist of one cell:
Bi=G(xijxil Jxi+,
iI.,
fds
pi = J 7
Pi.i =
f ds
J
For compatibility, assume

X,_1p,1, + X1p,
Assume
x4
3,
pi,i+1
f
J
ds
= 2..41G0
x; = X/2GO
X1p,1,, + X1'p,
X1'+ip,,,
= A,
From this general equation:
Xp1
Xp1,2
+ Xp2
X',z2I-n2,n
,ziPn
Xp2,3
= A1
= A2
nP,z1.11
x;,1p,1,,, + X,',p,,
iiI
= A,,
Solving for the unknownsin the above matrix gives values of X
T = 4G0 AX
When T is known, 0 can be found.
to X,.
J=
A,X1'
Shear flow, X1 = 2G0X =
xl +I =
(i)x;
8.1.2 Modelling for structural analysis

8.1.2.1 Global analysis for in-plane forces
Modelling as individual walls
Each individual wall can be modelled as
a vertical beam element with

in
and
8.1.1.5.
as
described
Section
8.1.1.4
properties
SK 8/19 Wallsof a shearwall system converted

to equivalentbeam elements.
Modelling as
SK 8/20 A closed cell converted to one

equivalent beam element.
a combined unit
A set of wallscan be combinedto be representedby one beam element. In

this case the property of this beam element will be the summation of
properties for individual walls. The representativebeam element may be

located at the CG of the wall configuration.
In the case of closed cell shear wall structure the equivalent torsional
stiffness will not be the sum of the individual torsional stiffnesses of the
walls. The equivalent torsional stiffness will be found as per Section
8.1.1.5.2. When a closedcell shear wall structure is modelledas individual
wall elements, then the torsional stiffness parameters for these individual
wall elements will be considered as negligible. A separate single beam
Design
of Walls 369
BEAM TORSIONAL ELEMENT
SK 8/21 Cell converted to a

combination of flexural and
torsional elements.
element must be modelledto represent the torsional stiffness of the closed

cell system. This beam elementwill have no bending or shear stiffness hut
only torsional stiffness. This element may be placed at the CG of the
closed cell structure. This separate torsional beam clement will be connected by rigid offsets with the individual wall bending elements.
The design of walls should be carried out on an individual wall basis.
The determination of individual wall moments and shears from the representative single beam element will be carried out by using the relative
bending and shear stiffnesses of individual walls.
8.1.2.2 Localanalysis for out-of-plane forces
Out-of-planeforces on the wall may be due
to the following:
Eccentricdead and live load.

Wind pressure on wall panel.
Earthquake wall mass excitation.
Earth pressure on wall face.
Water pressure on wall face.
Thermal gradient across wall thickness.
Localanalyses shouldbe carried out using appropriateboundaryconditions.
Published tables may be used to find out-of-plane bending moments and
shears. Combined bendingmomenttriads usingthe WoodArmer principle
should be used to find the reinforcement requirement.
For out-of-plane local analyses, follow the general guidelines in

Section 3.1.
Fora complicated wallgeometry,wallpanelsin theout-of-plane direction
may be modelledusing hypothetical grillage elements using for solution a
grillage suite of a computer software.
8.2 STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WALLS

Step 1
Findproperties of wallsystem
Find moment of inertia and shear area (follow Section 8.1.1.4).
Step 2
Find torsional stiffness of wall system

Follow Section 8.1.1.5.
Step 3 Carry out modellingfor analysis

Follow Sections 8.1.2.1 and 8.1.2.2.
Step 4 Carry out global analysis
hE1
hEl
1.
Vi
hEl
01
SK 8/22 Description of in-plane

forces in a wall.
Find in-plane forces in walls. After analysis the following internal forces
should be availablefor each individual wall section in the system.
M1 = in-plane bending moments
= in-plane shear force

= in-plane shear flow due to torsion
N = axial load
V1
StepS Carry out local analysis
Find out-of-planeforces in walls (follow Section 8.1.2.2).

After analysis the following internal forces should be available for each
individual wall panel in the system.
Design
L
_________
Mov
371
MOM/METRE
jlttttttttttt
Mon
of WaIls
Mov
Von/METRE
___________________________
SK 8/24 Out-of-plane internal forces in a wall

section.
MOM
SK 8/23 Elevation of a wall panel showing outof-plane moments.
M0 == out-of-plane bending moment about horizontal plane

M0
out-of-plane bending moment about vertical plane

about horizontal plane
shear
about vertical plane
out-of-plane
VOH = out-of-plane shear
V0 =
Step 6 Carry out combination of loading
This should preferablybe carried out in a tabular fashion for differentload

cases. The load combinations should be generally as follows:
LC1
LC2
LC3
LC4
LC5
= 1.4DL + 1.6LL + 1.4EP + 1.4WP

= 1.ODL + 1.4EP + 1.4WP
= 1.4DL + 1.4WL + 1.4EP + 1.4WP
= 1.ODL + 1.4WL + 1.4EP + 1.4WP
= 1.2DL + 1.2LL + 1.2WL + 1.2EP + 1.2WP
Note: Load combinations LC2 and LC4 should be considered only when dead
and live load have beneficial effects.
where
DL
= dead load
LL = live or superimposedload
= wind load or earthquake load

WP = water pressure
WL
Step7 Check slenderness of wall
Determine type of wall: braced, unbraced, plain or reinforced.

Find effective height (follow Section 8.1.1.2.1)
H = f3HO
Check slendernessratio HIh.
For braced reinforced wall with < 1% reinforcement,limit of He/h 40.
For braced reinforced wall with 1% reinforcement, limit of He/h 45.

For unbraced reinforced wall and plain wall, limit of He/h 30.
If Hjh 15 (braced) or 10 (unbraced), then design as a stocky wall.
Otherwise, design as slender wall.
Step 8 Findeffective width offlangesfor reinforcedwall

Step 9 Find additional out-of-plane moments about horizontal plane
to minimum eccentricity of h/20 or 20mm of direct

loads from beams and slabs simply supported on wall.
(2) Moments due to slendernessof wall.
(1) Moments due
For He/h> 15 (braced) or >10 (unbraced):

Note: Wall braced or unbraced in the transverse direction only to be considered
for additional moments.
Deflection due to slendernessof wall,
a = 3Kh
Assume K= 1 for conservatism.
I
2000
hI
'J/Jj-
BRACED WALL
Madd/2
_____
+ Madd
BOTH ENDS OF WALL FREE TO ROTATE
BUT RESTRAINED IN POSITION

Initial
BRACED WALL
___________________
walL moment
SK 8/25 Wall additionalmoment.
UNBRACED WALL
______________________
SK 8/26 Wall additionalmoments.
Additional moment due to slenderness, Madd = Na

where
N = direct ultimate load on wall.
Combine this additional moment, Madd, with any other out-of-plane

moments obtained from analysis using Figure 3.20 or Figure 3.21 of
BS811O: Part 1:
1985.111
Design of Walls 373

Note: These additional moments should be doubled if the wall has only one
central layer of reinforcement.
J7f
'i" /.
_______
BRACED WALL
UNBRACED WALL
CANTILEVER WALL
SK 8/28 Wall additional
moments.
ROTH ENO5 OF WALL RE5TRAINED TO ROTATE

= Initial Moments inthe wall from analysis
SK 8/27 Wall additional moments.

These out-of-plane
bending moments and shears are about a horizontal
plane.
Step 10 Design stocky braced reinforced wall with approximately symmetrical
arrangementof slabs
Spans of slab on either side of wall within 15% and slab subjected to
uniform load.
fA + O.67Af
n total design ultimate axial load on wall.
0.35
where

Determine cover to reinforcementas per Tables 11.6 and 11.7.
Step 12 Design of reinforced wall rigorousmethod
Using the effective flange widths found in Step 8, find by elastic analysis
the stresses in the concrete and steel due to in-plane bending moment and
axial load only.
(1) Assume initially 0.40% area of steel in wall distributed uniformly in
two layers on two faces.
(2) Assume a value ofx for depth of neutral axis from compressionface.
(3) Divide compression zone into layers of concrete with depths
d2,
d3, etc. and find centres of these layers from compression face
d,
a2, aC3, etc.

(4)
Conveniently
group bars in tension zone and find area of groups
a,
SK 8/29 A typicalexampleof
analysis of a shear wall.
etc. and also distances of these groups of bars from comi.e. ati, at2, at3, etc.
face,
pression
(5) Find the following:
x)
AT =
Ast(at x)
S1 = A1 + (m
1)A,
=
where A1
area of concrete in the layer 1 of concrete in compression zone
A1 = area of compressive reinforcementin layer 1 of concrete in compressionzone
m = modular ratio = E/E.

A
+ Sa
x=
(x a)aS
(x a)S
mA1 + :s
M
moment
in-plane bending
Nx(e + AT x)
=
(A
fst =
axial compression
A) (x a)S
(d
- x)
x (x
x)A [f
- ae)S -
N]
Design
of Walls
375
(6) Finally check:
+mf
If x is different from the assumedvalue then repeat the exercise with

a new assumedx until convergence is reached.
(7) Find final stresses and after convergence. If is greater than
O.87f,, then increase area of steel by proportion f/0.87f. If is
greater than O.45f, then increase thicknessof wall.
(8) Find revisedf and with increasedreinforcement.There will be no
need to carry out the iteration to findx with increased reinforcement.
LAYER
AVERAGE STRESS
Neutral Axis
SK 8/30 Elastic stress analysis of a

shear wall.
STRESS DIAGRAM
(9) Draw stress diagram for in-plane bending moment and direct axial
load. Divide wall intounitlengths. Over each unit length convert the
average compressive stress in compressionzone into a direct load by
multiplying with the areaof the unit length of wall. This compression
force acts in combination with the out-of-plane bending moment in
that length of wall. Design reinforcement for out-of-plane bending
additional to that already provided in that unit length using Tables
11.8 to 11.17 design tables for rectangular columns.
(10) In the tension zone of the wall subject to in-plane bending moment
and axial load only, assumethe concrete as unstressed. Find reinforcement required for out-of-plane bending moment as in an RC beam
following Step 10 of Section 2.3. Add this reinforcementto reinforcement already provided for in-plane bending moment.
If reinforcementprovidedfor in-plane bending is not fully stressed
to the ultimate limit of 0.87f, then the residual capacity of this
reinforcementmaybe used to withstand out-of-plane bendingmoment.
Average tensile strain in the tensile flange may be found and
converted to an average tensileforce in the flange for computation of
reduced shear stress for out-of-plane bending. Conservatively ignore
concrete shear resistance in tension flange.
SK 8/31 Out-of-planebending of a
panel of a wall.
Note: Each panel of wall should be checked
for global loads in both orthogonal

directions separately if these loads are not acting simultaneously. The
worst reinforcementfrom either of the two orthogonal loads will be used.
The out-of-planebending moments for combination with in-plane bending
moments are about the horizontal plane.
Step 13 Design
of reinforced wall simple method
___LF
L/2
L12
12
________________
hf/2
SK 8/32 Analysisof a shear wall
against in-planebending.
Flanged wall
M' = M + N
where
IL
- hf
M = in-plane bending moment
N = axial load.
K=
fbd2
sO.156
Design of Walls 377
= =+
0.45
'
M'
N
(
A= (\0.87fz!
\0.87f
This reinforcement will be provided in effective width of flange in two
layers as shown. The web of the flanged wall will have the minimum
reinforcement unless dictated by out-of-plane bending moments or
reinforcement requirement as part of tension flange for other directionof
orthogonal load.
If x > hf, then follow Step 11 of Section 2.3.
The out-of-plane bending about a horizontal plane on either the wall
flange or the wall web may be due to the following:
(1) Out-of-planeframingaction with supported slab.
(2) Slenderness of wall.
(3) Eccentric loads from beam or slab or any other structure on wall.
(4) Coacting horizontal loads on wall panel due to wind, earthquake,
water pressure or earth pressure.
(5) Thermal gradient across wall thickness.
The reinforcementfor the out-of-planebendingmoment about a horizontal

plane will be calculated as follows.
In the compression zone of concrete wall due to in-plane bending
moment, assume that the concrete has already reached the ultimate stage
COMRES5ION ZONE
DUE TO Mi
Moh
SK 8/33 Analysis of a shearwall

against in-planeand out-of-plane
bending.
TEN5ON
DUE
ID
ZONE
Mi
5TRE5S
DIAGRAM
and cannot take any more load. Hence, the bending moment will be
resisted by equal amountsof compressive and tensilesteel with a lever arm
equal to the distance between the two layers of steel.
In the tension zone of concrete wall due to in-plane bending moment,
assume that the concrete is unstressed and use the beam theory to find
reinforcementdue to out-of-plane bending moment.
Thereinforcementrequired due to out-of-planebendingmoment will be
added to the reinforcementfound for in-plane bending.
Step 14 Design ofreinforced wall shortand squat cantilever deep-beamapproach
L
Mi
V
/
______________
4Sf-.
LEVER ARM FOR
Mo
J (5L-2H)/40
PLAN
(5L-2H)/20
SK 8/34 Design of a shear wall by

deep-beam method.
ELE VAT ION
This approach may be used for wallswith total height less than or equal to
their length. For in-plane bending consider the wall as a deep-beam and
follow the deep-beam theory of stress distribution.
For horizontal loading to resist in-plane bending moment
oH
H
when70.5
z=--
= 2(H+L)
when0.5<1
Tension reinforcementto be distributed over a length of wall equal to

5L
2H
20
15L 2H
=L
40
IL
5L2H
M' = M + N I ______
40
IN
A = IM'\
0.87fz) o.87j
Note:
The flexural strain in concrete is very small in a short and squat cantilever
wall and for all practical purposesmay be ignored when designing for the
Design
of Walls
379
transverse out-of-plane bending moment. Use the normal beam theory to

find reinforcement for the transverse out-of-plane bending moment.
Add this additional reinforcement for transverse out-of-plane bending
moment to reinforcement already found for in-plane bending moment.
The out-of-plane bending moi'ent in this context is about the horizontal
plane.
The flanges of the wall, if present, either in tension or compression may be
ignored if this deep-beam approach is used. The shear strains in a wall
with the aspect ratios of a deep beam may be high and a conservative
approach taking the shear-lag effect would be to ignore the flanges.
Step 15 Check shear
d,
hf/2
___________
SK 8/35 Design for in-plane shear.
h/2
In-plane bending
1OOA,
pi =
Pj = percentage of tensile reinforcement in in-plane direction

= reinforcementavailableto resist in-plane bending
d1 = effective depth as shown.
where
v1
-V.
Lw I
where
v1
O.8\/f,
= shear stress due to in-plane bending and torsional shear flow

in wall
V1
5N/mm2
= combined in-plane shear

= flexural shear + torsional shear
= V1 + Q1 (see Step 4).
380
Reinforced Concrete
= design concrete in-plane

Figs 11.2 to
shear stress depending on p1 and
11.5)
(see
SK 8/36 Design for out-of-plane

shear.
Out-of-plane bending
IOOAS()
bd,
where
As0 = reinforcementavailable to resist out-of-plane bending

b = unit length horizontally
d0 = effective depth in transverse out-of-plane direction
p = percentage oftensilereinforcementinout-of-planedirection.
v0 = design concrete out-of-plane shear stress depending on p0 and f0

(see Figs 11.2 to 11.5)
VOH = out-of-plane shear about a horizontal
plane over a unit width b.
voh =
O.8\Jf, s 5 N/mm2
No shear reinforcementis necessary if the following equation is satisfied:

V0
+
V0
V
Note:
In Step 12 and Step 13 the wall is designedas flanged beams for in-plane
loading. For out-of-planeshear in the flanges which acts together with the
in-planeloading,the check should be carried out separatelyforcompression
and tension flange. For compression flange the enhancement of design
shear stressdueto axial load may be allowed based on average compressive
stress. For tension flange the concrete may be conservatively ignored and
theshear force will be totallycarried by shear reinforcement.Alternatively,
average tensile strain in concrete may be found and the shear stress
reduction formula may be used.
Step 16 Calculate shear reinforcement

Note: Increase or decrease of design concrete shear stress due to presence of
axial load may be allowed following the formula on page 160.
Design
of Walls
381
SK 8/37 In-plane shear

reinforcement in walls.
Plan
Case 1:
V1
V0h
= /(1
Elevation
Side Elevation
<
oi'\
V,/
= availableconcrete shear strength in in-plane directionfor use

with shear reinforcement.
V=
where
Provideshear reinforcementin in-plane directionfor a shear force equal to

(V, V1) and check:
(V,
V()
O.87AhfYdj
SI
where
= shear resistanceof horizontalbars in wall for in-plane shear

Sh = spacing of horizontal bar in wall
= area of horizontalshear reinforcement
= characteristic yield strength of reinforcement.
V5
Note: Provide equal amount

of vertical shear
reinforcement with horizontal
A Ah
sv
Ss
where
A = area of vertical shear reinforcement
= spacing of vertical shear reinforcement.
In this Case 1, no shear reinforcementis required for out-of-plane flexure.

Provide the shear reinforcement for in-plane shear in addition to other
bars required for in-plane and out-of-plane bending moments.
Case 2: V0h> v,
vci
et 'i
'oh + V
Reinforced Concrete
382
vco
V0 Voh
+
v = available
V0h
where
V1
concrete shear stress strength in in-plane direction

for use with shear reinforcement
v0 = available concrete shear stress strength in out-of-plane
direction for use with shear reinforcement.
V, = hd1
V0 = V() bd0
Provide shear reinforcement in in-plane direction, as
satisfies
V
,
- V)
SK 8/38 Out-of-planeshear
reinforcementin walls.
I
I
I
I
I
S
S
.
..
(V1
--I
.J
JI
44
I
I
.J
41
'77/ ;' '
in Case 1, which
width
S
S
b1Unit
____
S
S
CC-CCU[
________________
Side Elevation
Elevation
Plan
For shear reinforcementin out-of-plane horizontal direction, use links

through thickness of wall.
For out-of-plane horizontal directional shear, resistance from links, V50,
for a unit length b is given by
Vso
Note:
0.87fA5d
= area of links over a unit width b

S = vertical spacing of links.
where
A5
Check
V0 V0
If considerable ductilityis required of a shear wall, as in seismic design,

the whole shear force should be carried by reinforcementand the shear
capacity of concrete may be ignored if the shear capacity of concrete is
exceeded.
Step 17 Check-out-of-plane bending about vertical plane
After local analysis of wall panel the bending moments, direct loads and
shears about the vertical plane in the panel are obtained.
Design
Mov
_
C_
of Walls
M0v
Nov
N0-d)
Mov
MovCi_Nov
NovLb
Mov
M0VcNONOV
Mov
Mov
Etevation
of Wall
Panel
NQ
I-4T+Vov
SK 8/39 Internalforcesin wall

panel due to out-of-plane loading.
383
Plan of Wall Panel
V1-+1
1-.INo
1
Designhorizontal reinforcement for flexure ofwallpanel about a vertical

plane. The procedure is the same as in Step 4 of Section 3.3.
Check shear stress and reinforcement forshear as in Step 6 of Section 3.3.
Step 18 Design ofplain (not adequately reinforced) walls
(A) Stocky bracedplain wall
SK 8/40 Eccentdc loading on wall

in out-of-planedirection.
Check
where
_____
0.3 (h 2e)f
ultimate axial load per unit length on

n == maximum
resultant eccentricityof all loads at right angles to plane of
wall
wall (minimumvalue of
e is h/20).
(B) Slender bracedplain wall

Check
and
nn
0.3
0.3
(h
(h
2e)f
1.2e
2ea)fcu
=
2500h
where He
= effective height (as per Section
8.1.1.2).
(C) Unbraced plain wall

Check
and
where
e1,2
0.3 (h 2ei)f
0.3 [h 2 (e2 + ea)]fcu
= resultant eccentricity of loads at top of wall
= resultant eccentricity of loads at bottom of wall.
Step 19 Shear check ofplain walls

Check V :S 0.25n
where
V = in-plane ultimate shear force per unit length.
Check
v=
where
v = shear stress
b = unit length(mm).
0.45N/mm2
Note: A plain wall subjected to in-plane shear should satisfy at least one
above checks.
of the
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement
Minimumcompression (vertical) reinforcementin reinforced wall= 0.4%

= 460N/mm2) of gross cross section
Minimum horizontal tension reinforcement to withstand out-of-plane
loads = 0.13% (f',, = 460N/mm2) of gross cross-section on each face
= 460N/mm2) of gross
Minimum anti-crack reinforcement=0.25%
(f
cross-section
Step 21
(f
Check maximum reinforcement

Maximum vertical reinforcement in wall= 4%
Step 22 Check containment of wallreinforcement
of gross cross-section
For vertical compressionreinforcementin walls up to 2% of gross crosssectionalarea, use the following minimum horizontal bars:
0.25% of gross concrete area
Horizontal bar diameter should be greater than or equal to size of
vertical bars but not less than 6mm diameter.
For vertical compressionreinforcementin walls greater than 2% of gross
cross-sectional area, use links through the thicknessof wall.
Dia. of linksdia. of vertical bars or 6mm, whichever is greater
in horizontal and vertical direction
Spacing of links 2h
Spacing of links in vertical direction should not be more than 16 times
vertical bar diameter.
Design
e(0
of Walls
385
200
,
'I
.: ::
c'J
VI
r--
L
---
'l
1.
..
Elevation
I, .. -.
SK 8/41 Detailing rules for walls.
Plan
2h
of Wall
_k
_fl_ 1/4
L____Diarneter
oflt
Anyvertical compression barnotenclosedby link shouldbewithin 200mmof

a restrained bar.
Step 24 Clear spacing of bars in tension
Step 25 Connections
See Chapter 10.

8.3
WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 8.1 Reinforced concrete cell

Design the walls of a reinforced concrete cell which forms part
horizontal stability system of a building.
Step 1
of the
Findproperties of wall system

Stiffness in y-direction
Divide the wall cell system into six beam elements located at
of each wall.
the centroid
Equivalent beam elements 1, 2, 3 and 4 contribute to stiffness in

y-direction.
SK 8/42 Location of flexural vertical beam elements.
Equivalent beam elements I
x 600 x 112O0
and 4 (ignoringflanges)
70.25m4
x 11200 = 5.38m2
Equivalent beam elements 2 and 3 (ignoring flanges)
Shear area = 0.8 x 600
=
12
x 400 x 11200 = 46.84m4
Shear area = 0.8

Note:
x 400 x 11200 = 3.58m2
The moments of inertia and shear area of equivalentbeam elements 1, 2,

3, and 4 about the y-axis will be ignored in the analysis.
Stiffness
in x-direction
Equivalent beam elements 5 and 6 contribute to stiffness in x-direction.

Equivalent beam elements 5 and 6 (ignoring flanges)
-x = x
Shear area
600
0.8
24000 = 691.2m4
x 600 x 24000 = 11.52m2
Note:
The moments of inertia and shear area of equivalentbeam elements 5 and

6 about the x-axis will be ignored in the analysis.
Step 2
Find torsional stiffness of wall system
Equivalent torsional rigidity element of the closed cell structure may be

located at the centroid of the cell.
Design of Watts 387
of torsional
vertical beam element.
SK 8/43 Location
of areas about the left-hand edge of the cell,

0.6 x 10 x (1.3 + 0.4 x 10 x 8.8 + 0.4 x 10 x 13.2 + 0.6 x 10 x 23.7
By taking moments
+ 2 X 0.6 x 24 x 12
___________
6 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 2 x 14.4
11.8m
Areas of cells on centreline are as follows:

10.6 >( 8.5 = 90.1m2
=
A2 10.6 X 4.4 = 46.6m2
A3 = 10.6 x 10.5 = 111.3m2
A1
P1
of each arm of cell
(lenththicknessof arm
=1(2_x_8.5\
0.6
= 72.5
/10.6\
(10.6
\0.6/
\0.4
1)
Similarly,
P2= (2
x 44\
0.6
= 67.7
x 10.5\
P3= (2
0.6
/2 x 10.6\
\ 04 )
,
/10.6\
\0.61
(10.6\
= 79.2
P1.2 =
P2.3
10.6
= 26.5
= 10.6 = 26.5
Substituting
n = 3 in the general equations in Section 8,1.1.5.3.
388
ReinforcedConcrete
Xp1 Xp12 + 0 = A1
V'
Xp12+ A2f32
Jt3P23
A
t12
Xp23 + Xp3 = A3
or 72.5X 26.5X + 0 = 90.1
26.5X + 67.7X 26.5X = 46.6
0 26.5X + 79.2X = 111.3
0
Solving these equations:
X = 2.38m
X = 2.11m
X3 = 2.2m
J=
(A,X:)
= 4(A1X + A2X + A3X)
= 4(90.1 x 2.11 + 46.6 x

= 2183.5m4
2.38
+ 111.3 x 2.2)
It is always useful to check at this stage the torsional rigidity of the outer
cell, ignoring the internal dividing walls. This gives confidence in the
numerical accuracy of the analysis.
For single outer cell:
4A2
(B/h)
4 x (23.4 x
10.6)2
(2 x 23.4/0.6) + (2 x
= 2171m4
10.6/0.6)
This value is very close to the multiplecell rigidity.

Note: The torsional beam element to be used in the analysis will have negligible
moments of inertia and shear area.
xl
.x2
x3
.4
CELL
x,.2
x23
xl
x3
CELL
CELL
SK 8/44 Torsional shear flow
xl
x2
/2T\
Xi =
X2 =
/2T
x3
= 2.18
X 1O3TkN/m
= 2.18 x 1O3TkN/m
diagram.
Design
x3
()x; =
2.02
of Walls 389
x 103TkNlm
Step 3 Cariy out modellingfor analysis

Follow recommendationsin Section 8.1.2.1 and 8.1.2.2.
Step 4 Carry out global analysis
The results of the analysis for different loadings are as follows:
Global torsion
+50000kNm (clockwise) for horizontal load in -dirction
= +40000kNm (clockwise)for horizontal load in xdrectIon
Wall no.
Load
case
DL
LL
WL(y)
DL
LL
WL(y)
DL
3
LL
Local
(kN)
(kN/m)
+20000
+1335()
+1200
+13350
+1200
+8
980
615
3180
1325
+20000
+ 1700
101
+35000
+3000
+87
+3u0()
87
LL
WL(x)
DL
LL
WL(x)
7200
3125
7200
3125
+3500()
SK S145Elevation Wall 1.
+97
+1700
LL
DL
V1
(kNm)
3180
1325
980
615
shear flow
M1
WL(y)
DL
WL(y)
5
N
(kN)
///7
10600
390
Reinforced Concrete
Step5 Carry out local analysis
Find out-of-planeinternal forces in wall panels (follow Section 8.1.2.2).
After analysisthe following internal forces are reported:
Wall no.
Line
Load
M011
case
Vo
M0
(kNm/m)
(kN/m)
(kNm/m)
DL
28
26
LL
WL
DL
B
o
0
0
IF
CE
20
Vov
(kN/m)
WL
10
32
30
DL
LL
WL
28
26
DL
10
5
32
30
LL
LL
WL
GJ
(..J
D
H
M
////////////////
///////
///////,'7///////'
8500
- 4400
10500
SK 8/46 Elevation WallS.
Wall 1 only will be designed as an example.

Wall 5 panels are shown in sketch to illustrate the location of lines where
results should be available for outof-plane bending.
Note: The example shown uses only one value of bending moment and shear per
line of interest. In practice, more values along the line will have to be
considered.
Step 6 Carry out combination of loading

Most computer programs used for the analysis will automaticallycarry out
the combinationaccording to principles described in Step 6 of Section 8.2.
Reproduced below is the result of one combinationof Wall 1.
Load case LC3 = 1.4DL + 1.4WL
Design
of Walls
391
Wall 1 subjectto WL (y-direction)

In-plane forces (see Step 4 in Section 8.2):
N = 4452kN
M1 = 28000 kNm
V1
2380kN
= 1440kN (97 x 10.6 ><
1.4)
Out-of-planeforces (see Step 5 in Section 8.2):
At line D (WL in y-direction),

MOH = l4kNm/m (deadload x 1.4)
VOH = 42kN/m (DL x 1.4)
On flanges (part of Wall 5 and 6),

MOH = 39kNm/m (WL in y-direction)
V0 = 36kN/m (WL in y-direction)
Step 7 Check slenderness of wall
Follow Section 8.1.1.2.1.
Type of wall= unbraced, reinforced in the in-plane direction
rr1
SK 8/47 Section through WaIl
= 30N/mm2
f, = 460N/mm2
= (3 H0
H0 = clear height = 12.Om
Monolithic construction at
top and bottom of wall.

Assume thicknessof slab at top is 400mm.
End conditions are 1 at bottom and 2 at top.
He
= 1.3 x 12000 = 15600mm
He = 15600
= 26 > 10 < 30
Design as slender wall.
(limit for unbraced reinforcedwall)
3)2 ReinforcedConcrete
Step 8 Find effective width offlanges
SK 8/48 Plan of Wall I showing

effectiveflange widths.
2550
J

Assume the shear wall behaves as a cantilever.
8500
b=-=4250
H
w
H=12000
= 0.35
= 0.53 for loading at top of wall
b = ip b = 0.53 x 4250 = 2250mm

Step9
Find additional out-of-plane moments

Wall is assumed braced in the out-of-plane direction.
a=Kh,H=fH0=0.8x 120009600
Assume
1
K = 1 for conservatism.
/HC\2
256
==0.128
= 0.128h = 76.8mm
Madd = Na (out-of-plane)
= 4452 x 0.0768
= 342kNm
= 342
10.6
= 32.3 kNm/m
Step 10 Design stocky braced reinforced wall

Not applicable.
Design
of WaIls 393
LL
162
162
SK 8/49 Moments due to

Out-of-Plane Madd
slenderness.

Maximum size of aggregate = 20 mm
Condition of exposure mild

Minimum cement content = 275 kg/m3
Nominal cover = 25mm
Step 12 Design
of reinforced wall rigorousmethod
0
8
0
SK 8/50 Elastic stress analysis of

Wall 1.
(1) Assume 0.40% reinforcementin wall.

Reinforcementper metrelength =
OOxl000xO.40 =
2400mm2/m
Use 1200mm2 on each face per metre length.

(2) Assume a value of x for depth of neutral axis from compression face.
x = 3000mm assumed.
(3) Divide compression zone into convenient layers of concrete.
(4) Divide tension zone into convenient layers of steel.
(5) Find the following in completingthe table:
S = A + (m 1)A
= (x a)S
C2 = (x a)aS
C3 = (a x)A
C4 = (a1 x)atA
C1
Number
A
(x
1.53
2
3
0.72
0.72
4
5
6
Totals
(x 106)
106)
6120
2880
2880
1.62
2.97
11880
3.14
300
1200
0.76
0.76
A1
3760
3648
5280
3648
3648
6800
3648
8320
3648
9840
6120 10900
24360
2400
C1
C3
C2
4.374
1.312
2.772
1.042
1.368
1.642
1.094
8.317
4.392
13.862
19.407
16.147
24.952
24.553
48.348
52.699
6.198
4.048
117.658
108.259
0.456
= C2 = 4.048 X 1012 = 653 mm

6.198
AT
= c4 =
x i09
9201mm
+
X = mA1a
Sa = 1735mm
mA1 + S
28000x103
4452
=6289mm
f = (ATNx(eA)+ AT(x x)a)S
x 3000 x (6289 + 9201 1735)

(9201 653) x 6.198 x iO
4452x i03
= 3.467 N/mm2
C4
(x10) (x 1012) (x 106) (x1010)
9.426
Design of Walls 395
fstL (atd
F
= /11100
I
iF(f\
IH(xa)S-N
x)AJL\x/
3000
F/3.467\
I x I 1 I x 6.198 x i09 4452 x io
\117.658 x
L\30001
106/
186.6 N/mm2
(6) Check x = ---- = 2419 mm
mf
Second approximationfor x is halfway between first approximationand
the check result.

Assume x = 2700 mm
After carrying out the same tabular exercise as before it is found that:
f == 3.66N/mm2
f.,t
182.4N/mm2
Check
x = 2570mm.
No further iteration is necessary.

Check reinforcement in compression flange due to out-of-plane bending
Average compressive stress in flange = (3.7 + 2.8)
3.25 N/mm2
SK 8/51 Elastic analysis

diagram.
stress
:83 N/mm2
Average compressivestress in reinforcementin flange = 3.25 X
15
for m =
15
= 48.75 N/mm2
Over a unit length of wall,
compressive force, N = 3.25
x 600 = 1950kN
Out-of-planebending moment due to DL + WL(y) + additional moment

due to slenderness
= 39 +
(see Step 9)
---
= 55.2 kNm/m
..
d565
35
.-..
. . . .. .
h=600
-f
- _J
SK 8/52 Section through wall for

out-of-planeanalysis.
Material strengthschosen:
= 30N/mm2
d
565
f=
k===0.95
460N/mm2
M
e==0.028m
See Table 11.8.

h
= 0.047
Forp = 0.4,
from chart is 13.53 > 3.25N/mm2
Nominal steel is required as per chart.
Check reinforcement in tension flange for out-of-plane bending

Maximum tensile stress in
183 Nfmm2
bar due to in-plane bending moment=
Maximum allowable ultimate tensile stress in bars = 0.87f

= 0.87 x 460
= 400N/mm2
Availabletensile force in bars per metre length of wall per face of wall
= (400 183) x 1200 (area on each face)
= 260.4kN/m
Maximum out-of-plane bending moment= 55.2kNm/m
Design
of WaIls 397
fbd2
55.2 x
30 x 1000
= 5.76 x
10
x 5652
i0
dLO.5
Ii'
l0.25
K\1
0.95d
0.95d = 537mm
M
=
Required tensile force in bars =
z
55.2
x io =
102.8 kN/m
537
This is less than 260.4 kN/m available. Hence, no additionalreinforcement

is required in tension flange.
Step 13 Design
of reinforced wall simple method
Not required. The design principle is exactly similar to beam design and
has not been illustrated.
of short and squat cantilever wall deep beam approach

Not required, because HIL> 1.
Step 14 Design
Step 15 Check shear
SK 8/53 Shear check of Wall 1.

A1
available tension reinforcement below neutral axis in web ignoring

flange
(11.2 2.6) x 2400
= 20640m2
d, = 11200 3(X) = 10900mm (approx.)
= bOA., = 100 x 20640 = 0.32%

hd1
600 x 10900
398
Reinforced Concrete
= 30N/mm2
From Figs 11.2 to
11.5,
v = 0.47N/mm2
= combined in-plane shear
= V1 + Q = 2380 + 1440 = 3820kN
V,
v1
= i-- = 0.58 N/mm2

hd,
A0 = available tension reinforcementfor out-of-plane bending

= 1200mm2/m (each face)
d0 = effective depth in out-of-planedirection = 565 mm
x
= 100A0 = 100
1000
bd0
From Figs 11.2
1200
x 565
= 0.21/o
to 11.5,
v = 0.4N/mm2
VOH = out-of-plane shear coacting with
= 4.2kN/mm
V0h
V1
on the web
= 0.007N/mm2
l l
/0.58\ + /0.007\ = 1.25>1

v1
voh
=
+
\ 0.4 1
v0 \0.471
Shear reinforcement is necessary for in-plane shear.
to presence of axial load has

been ignored in these calculationsbut may be allowedas per formula on
page 160.
Note: Increase of design concrete shear stress due
Step 16 Calculate shear reinforcement

Case 1: V0h<
V1
v0\
= 71 jv
\ V0/
= / 0.007\
---)
)<
0.47
= 0.46 N/mm2
V( =
V1
vhd1 = 3008.4kN
V
= 3820 3008.4 = 811.6kN
Shear reinforcementis required to resist 811.okN.
Design of Walls 399
Sh
O.87fd,
811.6 x
=
iC)3
0.87 x 460 x 10900
= 0.19
If Sh = 300, then Ah = 300x 0.19 = 57mm2 which is 29 mm2 of horizontal
bar on each face at 300mm centres, or, 97mm2 per metre on each face.
=
= 0.19
forf = 460N/mm2
Vertical shear reinforcementadditionalto vertical bars providedfor bending is required if availablevertical bars have no residual capacity.
In the web 2400mm2/m vertical bars are available at a maximum average
stress level of, say, 160N/mm2 (see Step 12). Hence residual capacity
availablein vertical bars in web = 0.87 x 460 160 = 240N/mm2
Modified
A/S to take into account the residualcapacity
= 0.19 x 0.87 x
= 0.32
A for shear required per metre length of wall = 320 mm2
(modified)
Available vertical bars = 2400mm2/m in web

Hence no additional vertical bars are necessaryto resist shear in web.
No shear reinforcementis required in out-of-plane direction.
Step 17 Check out-of-plane bending about vertical plane
50
SK 8/54 Out-of-plane bending

about vertical plane.
M0 = 1.4 x 28
= 39.2 kNm/m
V0, = 1.4 x 26
= 36.4kN/m
(see Step 5)
550
K=
fbd2
30
39.2 x 1O
=4.3x103
x 1000 x 5502
d[O.5 \/(o.25
= 0.95d = 522mm
0.87fz
39.2 x 10'
0.87 x 460 x 522
0.95d
= 187.6 mm2
Add to this reinforcementthe horizontal reinforcementrequired in Step 16

for in-plane shear.
Total horizontal reinforcementrequired on each face (assuming the load
WL is reversible in direction)
= 187.6 + 97 = 284.6mm2/m
V0 = 36.4 x io = 0.07N/mm2
v0 = --j
1000 x 550
Shear stress is negligible.
Step 18 Design ofplain walls

Not required.
Step 19 Shear check ofplain walls
Not required.
Step 20 Check minimum reinforcement
Minimumcompression vertical reinforcementin wall = 0.4%
= 460N/mm2)
This has been provided.
(f
Minimumhorizontal tension reinforcementon each face
= 0.13% (f, = 460N/mm2)

= 0.13 x 1000 x 600
= 780mm2/m on each face
This amount is greater than horizontal reinforcementfound in Step 17.

This reinforcementwill be adopted.
Minimum anti-crack reinforcement is 0.25% in both directions on each
face. This has been provided.
Step 21
Check maximum reinforcement
Not required.
Step 22 Check containment of wall reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement is less than 2% of gross concrete area.
Design of Walls 40!

Hence requirement is to provide horizontal reinforcementequal to 0.2%
of gross cross-sectional area. This is provided.
Vertical bar diameter 20mm
Horizontalbar diameter = 10mm >
(20mm)
Step 23 Checkearly thermal cracking

Crack width limitation = 0.3 mm
(see Step 14 of Section 3.3).
Assume
T1
R = 0.8 at base.
= 32C
= 0.8T1cR
= 0.8 x 32 x
12
x 10-6 x 0.8 = 2.46 x
i0
Check horizontal barsfor vertical cracks

Cmjnz4S
SK 8/55 Crack width for

horizontal bars 10mm @ 100 c/c.
Assume 10mm diameter bars at 100mm centres (785 mm2lm).

acr = 65.7mm (1.414 x
50 5 = 65.7)
take x = h/2
max
3acr Er
+ 2(a1
Cmin)
h x
x
3 65.7 x 2.46 x
1+ 2(65.7300
45)
=0.O4mm<0.3mm OK
Check vertical bars for horizontal cracks
Assume 20mm diameter bars at 250mm centres vertically (1256mm2/m

each face).
J-
25O
125
125
SK 8/57 Sketchto find acr.
SK 8/56 Crack width for vertical

bars 20mm @ 250 c/c.
acr =
120 mm
Wmax
x 120 x 2.46 x iO4

1+ 2(120
25)
=0.O5mm<0.3mm OK
Step 24 Clear spacings of bars in tension
Reinforcementprovided is 20mm diameter at 250mm centres both faces
vertically and 10mm diameter at 100mm centres both faces horizontally.
These spacings satisfy the requirements according to Step 13 of Section
3.3.
Step 25 Connections
Follow Chapter 10.
Chapter 9
Design of Flat Slabs
9.0 NOTATION
A
b
C.
d
dh
Gk
l
'ho
'h,max
12
Area of column or area of effective column head

Effective width of slab for transfer of moment to edge column
Size of a rectangularcolumn in x-direction
Size of a rectangularcolumn in y-direction
Depth of column head
Effective diameter of column or effective column head
Characteristicdead load
Dimensionof column in direction of 'h
Effective dimensionof column head
Shorter span framingonto columns
Longer span framingonto columns
Actual dimensionof column head
Maximum dimensionof column head taking 45 dispersion
Centre-to-centreof column in direction of span being considered
Centre-to-centreof column perpendicularto direction of span being
considered
M'
M1
Mtmax
Q
V1
Veff
Wk
x
9.1
Design limit moment at hI2

Moment transferred to column by frame analysis
Limiting moment between flat slab and edge column
Total ultimate load per unit area on flat slab
Characteristiclive load
Calculatedshear from analysis
Effective shear at column/slab interface
Characteristicwind loading
Length of side of a perimeter parallel to axis of bending
DEFINITIONS
Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported by columns with, or
without, drops. The columns may be with, or without, column heads.
Drop is a local thickeningof the slab in the region of the column.
403
404
Reinforced Concrete
WITH DROP AND

NO COLUMN HEAD
WITHOUT DROP AND

NO COLUMN HEAD
SK 9/1 Flat slab section. SK 9/2 Flat slab
section. SK
WITHOUT DROP AND

WITH COLUMN HEAD
9/3 Flat slab
section.
Column head is a local enlargementof the column at the junction with the
slab.
9.2
ANALYSIS
OF FLAT SLABS
I
Lx[
__________
LLY],
Ly
>
Lx
SK 9/4 Typical plan of flat slab.
Flat slabsare usually supported by a rectangular arrangementof columns.

The analysis may be carried out by an equivalentframe method or by the
use of a finite element computer code. When using the equivalent frame
method the ratio of the longer to the shorter span should not exceed 2.
The analysis for uniformlydistributed vertical load may be carried out by
usingTables 9.1 to 9.6.
The properties of the flat slab for analysis are similar to those already
discussed for solid slabs in Chapter 3.
9.2.1 Effective dimension of column head
= effective dimensionof head
= actual dimension of head

=
'h,max Ic + 2(dh 40)
= dimension of column in direction of 1h
dh = depth of head
= is takenasthe lesser of 1ho or 1h,max
'ho
Design of Flat Slabs 405
SK 9/5 Flat slab -- definitions.

Note: This means that the maximum dimension
column up to 40mm below the slab.
is limited by a 45 dispersionof
9.2.2 Effective diameter of a column head
h == effective
(4A/t)0.251
diameter of column or column head
h=
A
4,
area of column or area of effective column head as defined by 4,
= shortest span framing onto column
h should not be taken greater than one-quarter of shortest span of slab

framing into column.
9.2.3 Drops
Drops will be effective in the analysis if the smaller dimension of the drop
is at least one-third of the smallest span of surroundingpanels.
For the checking of punching shear, this limitation does not apply.
9.2.4 Load combinations for analysis
LC1
LC2
= l.4Gk + i.Qk
l.4Gk + l.Qk
on all spans
on alternate spans and otherspans loaded with
l.OGk
where Gk = characteristicdead load

Qk = characteristiclive load.
9.2.5 Effective width of slab for analysis
Forvertical loading assume full width of panel betweencolumns for frame

analysis.
For horizontal loading as a frame assume stiffness of halfwidth of panel.
SK 9/6 Plan of flat slab showing

panel widths for analysis.
The analysis should be carried out using a computer program or a moment

distribution method. The analysis may also be carried out for uniformly
distributed vertical loads using Tables 9.1 to 9.6.
The analysis may be carried out using Table 3.13 of BS811O: Part 1:
1985[h] provided the lateral stability is not dependent on the slabcolumn
connection and loading on the flat slab for the design is based on a single
load case, i.e. LC1, the ratio of Qk/Gk does not exceed 1.25, Qk does not
exceed 5kN/m2, and there are at least three rows of panels.
9.3 DESIGN OF FLAT SLABS
The design may be based on the negative moment at h/2 from the
centrelineofthe column.But thisnegativemomentwill havetobemodified if
the sum of the positive design moment and the average negative design
moment is less than the following expression:
M' =
()(i
2h)2
I
SPAN A
Li
SPAN B
Ii
5PAN C
SK 9/7 Negativemoment
limitationfor flat slabs section.
SK 9/8 Typical plan of flat slab

negative moment limitation.
where
1 = centre-to-centreof column in direction of span being

considered
12
= centre-to-centre of column perpendicularto directionof span

being considered
n = total ultimate load on slab (kN/m2).

To give an example:
For Span A
For Span B
O.5(M3
+ M4) + M7
M'
Increasenegative moments M1, M2, M3, etc. until these conditions are
satisfied.
9.3.1 Divisionof panels
tOF
COLUMN
STRIP
MIDDLE
5TRIP
OF COL
I_______
CDL
Lx/2
SK 9/9 Flat slab division of

strips.
COLUMN MIDDLE COLUMN

STRIP
STRIP STRIP
Ly>Lx
COLUMN
STRIP
408
Reinforced Concrete
PLAN OF SLAB WITH DROP

IGNORE DROP IF DROP WIDTH < Lx/3
SK 9/10 Flat slab
division of
strips.
Panels are divided into column strips and middle strips as shown.
For slab without drop the column strip is 1/4 wide on either side of the
centreline of column, where l. is the shorter span.
For slab with drop the column strip is the size of the drop. Ignore drop if
the size of the drop is less than 1/3.
9.3.2 Divisionof moments between columns and middle strips
The moments obtained from analysis of frames should be divided as
follows (these percentages are for slabs without drops):
Negative
Positive
Column strip
Middle strip
75%
55%
25%
45%
Note: Where column drops are used and column strips are determined from the
width of the drop, it mayso happen that the middle strip is bigger than the
middle strip in a slab without drop. In that case the momentsin the middle
strip will be proportionately increased and those in the column strip
decreased to keep the total positive and negative moment unchanged.
9.3.3 Design of flat slab panels
Thedesignis similar to the design of slabs and theworked examplesare in

Chapter 3.
1/6
At
-116
SK 9/11 Detailingof
reinforcement in flat slabs.
At
Column
Internal panels and edge panels

Two-thirds of the negative support reinforcement in the column strip
should be placed in half the width of the column strip centred over the
column.
9.3.4 Moment connection to edge column
r:l
cx
L beCxCy J
SK 9/12 Effective widthof slab for

momentconnectionto edge
column.
for transfer of
to find effective width of slab
momentbetweenflat slab and edgecolumn. This moment should be
See sketches above
limited
to

Mtmax
where
= 0.15bd2f
d = effective depth of top reinforcementin column strip.
The moment Mt,max should not be less than half the design moment from
an equivalentframe analysis or 70% of the design moment from a grillage
or finite element analysis. The structural arrangement may be changedif
Mt.max does not satisfy the above condition.
M2
MOPIENT FROM
ANALYSIS
EDGE
REDISTRIBUTED
MOMENT TO
ACCOUNT FOR
Mt. max.
SK 9/13 Insufficient moment

transfer capacity at edge column.
Where the design moment is larger than Mtmax, redistribution of

moment may be carried out to reduce the design moment to Mt,max.
Otherwise, to transfer moments in excess of Mt.max to edge column, the
edge of the slab should be reinforced by an edge beam or an edge strip.
Theedge beam will be designedto carry the additional momentby torsion
to the column.
9.3.5 Shear in flat slabs
Punching shear around columns should be checked according to Step 7 of

Section 3.3. The shear to be consideredfor the punchingshear calculation
is increasedfrom the calculatedcolumn shear by an amount dependent on
the moment transferred to the column by frame action.
For internal column connections,

Veff =
v(i + 1.5Mt)
vtx
Design
of Flat Slabs
411
dlMt
nfl
PUNCHING 5HEAR
PERIMETER
SK 9/14 Moment diagramat an internal column

of a flat slab.
where
SK 9/15Definition of dimension x.
V, = calculated shear from analysis

M1 = moment transferred to column
by frame analysis
length of side of perimeter considered parallel to axis of
bending.
Alternatively,
= 1.15V
for simplicity
Forcorner column connections,

Vff = 1.25V
For edge column connections,

for bending about axis parallel to free edge
Veff = 1.25V
Veff
1.5M\
.5+
2
Vt(1
for bending about axis perpendicular to free
edge
Alternatively,
Vff 1.4V1
The moment M1 may be reduced by 30% where the equivalent frame
analysis is used and both load cases LC1 and LC2 have been considered.
The shear reinforcementwill becalculatedaccording to Step 7ofSection 3.3.
412
ReinforcedConcrete
9.4 STEP-BY-STEPDESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FLAT SLABS

Step 1 Carry out analysis as in Section 9.2.
Step 2
Find moment connection to edge column as per Section 9.3.4 and redistribute moments if necessary.
Step 3
Draw bending moment diagrams and calculatemoments at h/2 following

Section 9.3.
Step 4 Check limitationof negative design moments following Section 9.3.

Step 5
Carry out division of panels as in Section 9.3.1.
Step 6 Divide moments between column strips and middle strips as per Section
9.3.2.
Step 7 Determine cover to reinforcement(see Step 3
Step 8 Carry out design for flexure as per Step 4
of Section 3.3).
of Section 3.3.
Step 9 Distribute reinforcementas per Section 9.3.3.

Step 10 Checkpunching shear stress
Step 11
Check span/effective depth ratio

Follow Step 11 of Section 3.3 for slabs with drops. For slabs without drops
follow the same step but multiply le/d from Table 11.3 by 0.9.

Step 13 Spacing ofbars
Step 15 Calculate minimum reinforcement
Follow Step 9 and Step 15 of Section 3.3.
Step 16 Calculate flexural crack width
Step 17 Design ofconnections
Follow Chapter 11.
Design of Hat Slabs 413

9.5 WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 9.1
Flat slab construction for a sports hail

-600 x 400 columns
Staircase and
Lift Block
SK 9/16 Plan on first floor.
SK 9/17 Plan on roof.
414
Reinforced Concrete
1200
T
J2OO
[1100
8
"I
SK 9/18 Section through building.
Two-storeybuilding plan size: 15m x 30m

Column grid: Smx6m
Column size: 400 x 400
Height of building= 10 m overall
Topographyfactor, S1 = 1.0
Ground roughness factor, S2 = 0.95
Statistical factor for wind, 53 1.0
Basic wind speed =42m/s = V
Designwind speed= S1S2S3 V= 40 m/s
q=kV=1kN/m2
= +0.7 and 0.3
C=
C,1
0.3
(four faces equally permeable)
The above wind pressure coefficients are obtained from CP3: Chapter V
Wind loadsJ141
Live load on roof= 1.5kN/m2
Live load on floor= 5 kN/m
Floor slab has 2000 x 2000 drop at columns
Thickness of roof and floor slab = 200mm
Thicknessat drop of floor slab= 400mm
Continuousperimeter edge beam 400 wide X 800 deep
Centre-to-centreheight of floor = 4.5m
Step 1 Carry out analysis

Only one frame in the short directionof the buildingwill be analysed.
Column head has not been used.
Effective diameter of column,
h=
= 400 x 400 = 160000mm2

(4 x 160000'y
\
7t
= 451 mm <0.25l
=
l
0.25l =
5000mm
1250mm
()
0.25l

Drop of 2000mm in floor slab is greater than lI3 1667mm.
Drop will be effective in the distributionof moment.
Loading
Frames in short direction are 6m apart.

Roof slab
Gk = characteristic dead load
= 0.2 x 25 = 5kN/m2
Qk = 1.5kN/m2
LC1 = l.4Gk
+ i.Qk = 9.4kN/m2 = 56.4kNIm
on alternate spans
LC2 = 9.4kN/m2 and 5kNIm2
or LC2 = 56.4kNJm and 3OkN/m
on alternate spans
Floor slab
Gk = 5 kN/m2
at slab without
drop
= lOkN/m2 at slab with drop
(area 2m x 2m)
= 3OkN/m or 30 + 5 x 2 = 4OkN/m
Qk = 5kNIm2
= 3OkN/m
LC1 = l.4Gk + i.6Qk
LC2 = alternate spansloaded with LC and dead load only
Columns
Horizontal load on columns is due to wind load at the rate of 1 kN/m2

which is equivalentto 6kNIm on the column. The wind loading analysis
will be carried out separately and combined later with the vertical loading
because the stiffness of the slab to resist horizontal loading is half of that
to resist vertical loading.
Load cases with wind load Wk are as follows:
= l.4Gk + l.4W
= 1.2Gk + l.2Qk + l.2Wk
LC3
LC4
Frame analysis using a computer software

E = Young's modulus= 28 x 106 kN/m2
12 joints
14 members
Joints 1, 4, 7 and 10 rigidly fixed.

Column size 40() x 400
Slab size 6000x 200 (deep)
Load cases:
B1
dead
load
B2 to B7 live loadson members 9 to 14 respectively

B8 wind load
5000
5000
5000
12
,- Member
Numbers
0
0
U,
511_
0
0
U,
Joint
SK 9/19 Frame diagramfor
10
analysis.
3OkN/m
IIUIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIII
6
''''''''J.[U'''''1'
25
3
1O9
'ITI\lull!
1T
I1h
4OkN Fm
B6
B5
111111111
11111111]
()
B2
1111111 IllIlIllIlIli
SK 9/20 Dead load on frame (B1).
10
B7
!lll!lIlll IllIlIll! !l!lllllll!l!lllllllI 9kN/m
()
63
1.
12
i111IIlUh1H111lI
12
3OkN/m
f
-
- -ll!lllIIlIl!1lIIIlllI
IllllIlIIIlII11Ill!
3OkN/m
11
77
64
10
7-
SK 9/21 Basic live loads B2 to B8.
Combinations:
C1=1.4B1+1.6(B2+B3+B4+B5+B6+B7)
C2 = 1.4B1 + 1.6(B2 + B4 + 85 + B7)
C3
C4
= 1.4B + 1.6(B3 + B6)

= 1.4B + 1.6(B2 + B3 + B4)
of Flat Slabs
Design
417
Outputfrom analysis
Envelope of load cases (vertical loads)
Elastic analysis
Floor slab
Joint
2
5
Midspan
no redistribution
Member 9
Maximum BM
130.80
215.5
Shear
Combination
228.5
258.2
C2
C4
131.2
C2
Shear
239.0
239.0
Combination
Floor slab
Member 10
Joint
5
8
Midspan
Maximum BM
Roof slab
Joint
Member12
3
6
Midspan
Roof slab
Joint
6
9
Midspan
199.9
199.9
112.5
C'4
Maximum BM
67.8
Shear
130.0
Combination
129.0
153.5
C1
82.0
C2
Shear
141.0
141.0
Combination
Member 13
Maximum BM
121.3
121.3
C1
60.4
'\
C3
,4.,
'-.
'
I '
/I 'S
".
SI
SK 9/22 Combination C1
bending momentdiagram.
C4
".
-/
,"
'S
5
".
I
/
'\
,
j
"11
10/
Envelope of load cases (vertical + horizontal loads) (The analysis of horizontal load is carried out with half stiffness of slab)
Elastic analysis no redistribution
Combinations:
C5 = 1.4B1 + L4B
C6 = 1.2B+ 1.2(B1+ B3 + B4 + B5
+ Bh + B7) + 1.2B5
Floor slab
Joint
Member 9
Maximum BM
Shear
Combination
2
5
Midspan
121.9
185.9
215.2
Co
Floor slab
Joint
Member 10
Maximum BM
Shear
Combination
198.6
C6
176.0
176.0
Midspan
71.4
191.4
95.8
198.6
Co
Co
C6
C6
Roof slab
Member 12
Joint
3
6
Midspan
Maximum BM
57.0
Shear
112.2
128.9
Roof slab
Member13
Joint
6
9
Midspan
Maximum BM
Shear
108.1
108.1
119.8
119.8
108
67.1
45.4
Combination
C6
C6
Co
Combination
C6
C6
Co
Carry out redistributionof moment:

Maximum bending moment at joint 5 = 215.5 kNm
Assume 20% redistribution.
Set plastic moment capacity at joint 5 = 0.8 x 215.5 = 172.4 kNm

Similarly
maximum bending moment at joint 6 = 129kNm
Assume 20% redistribution.
2155kNm
En'Iope
kN
SK 9/23 Shear and momentenvelopefor member9.
Design
of Flat Slabs
kNm
419
9kNm
Envelopq
2390kN
SK 9/24 Shear and momentenvelope for member 10.
Set plastic moment capacity at joint 6 = 0.8 x 129 = 103.2 kNm

The following steps of reanalysis of frame are carried out:
1: For one combination at a time increase live load on span until

plastic moment is reached at a joint in a member. Plastic moment capacity
of members on first floor is 172.4kNm and member on roofis 103.2 kNm.
Step 2: Release joint whereplasticmoment is reached and increase loading
until plastic moment capacity is reached at another joint.
Step 3: Progressively release joints and increase live load until full complement of live load is on structure.
Step 4: Find cumulative effect of all incremental live load on structure.
Step
The following tables become useful if a non-linear finite element computer

package is not available.
Frame types:
= no member end releases

F2 = member in F1 nos 12 and 14 ends released at joints 6 and 9
F3 = memberin F2 nos 9 and 11 ends released at joints 5 and 8
F4 = member in F3 no. 13 ends released at joints 6 and 9
F5 = member in F4 no. 10 ends released at joints 5 and 8
F1
rPLac Hinges
74
SK 9/25 Frame type
F.
--
'p
10
91
,..7
.,.
,7
SK 9/26 Frame type F2.
10
420
Reinforced Concrete
rPLastic Hinges
,qPtastlc Hinges
_______9_lI
12
,1
1
;r
10
-
2
Ii
()
1
8 $
r7
10
B5
B6
B7
12
17
R2
Qi)
7
Plastic Hinges
Qq)
_9_
f6[
lkNIm
11
10
10
A3
Il11fllHfl iHUHUUfl
2
B
SK 9/30 Unit live load on frame.
Combination C-, = 1.4
x dead load
or 1.4B1
The method is illustrated for combinations C and C only.
C = 1.6(B + B + B + B,)
B, B, B = lkN/m
B, B,, B, = 0.3kN/m
Combination Frame
type
Memberend bendingmoments(kNm)
Member9
Joint 2 Joint 5
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
F1
F1
62.7
2.0
F2
2.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
F4
F6
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
2.3
2.3
3.1
3.1
3.1
102.5
3.7
3.6
0
0
0
2.7
2.6
0
0
0
Member 10
Member
12
Member 13
Joint 5 Joint 8 Joint 3 Joint 6 Joint 6 Joint 9

95.5
3.4
3.5
2.4
2.2
0
0.8
0.8
0
0
0
95.5
44.7
97.5
3.4
0.7
0.9
1.1
3.5
2.4
2.2
0
0.8
0.8
0
0
0
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0.8
0
0
0
0
91.6
1.0
91.6
0.5
0.8
0
0
0.2
0.5
0.8
0
0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
Design
C = 1 unit of live load combinationin combination

of B2, B and B4 and 9/3OkN/m of B5, B6 and B.
of Fiat Slabs
C1 i.e.
421
C = 1kN/m
Full compliment of B2, B3 and B4 is 3OkN/m and of B5, B6 and

9kN/m.
B-7
is
Plastic moment at joint 5 is fixed at 172kNm

Plastic moment at joint 6 is fixed at 103.2 kNm
Dead load moment at joint 6 = 97.5 kNm
Each unit of combination C1 produces 1.1 kNm at joint 6 for frame type
F1. Therefore
units of live load in combination C1 required to form first plastic hinges at
joint 6 and joint 9 in members 12 and 14
= 103.2
97.5
1.1
= 5 units, say
Frame type F2 has joints released at joints 6 and 9 for members 12 and 14.
After 5 units of combination C1 the bending moments at joints are as
follows:
Frame typeF1
Member 10
Member 12
Joint 2
Joint 5
Joint 5
Joint 3
Member 13
Joint 6
joint 6
Member
62.7 +
102.5+
95.5 +
44.7 +
97.5 +
91.6 +
5
5
x 2.0 = 72.7kNm
x 3.7 = 121.0 kNm
5 X 3.4 = 112.5 kNm

5 x 0.7 = 48.2kNm
5 x 1.1 = 103 kNm *plastic
5 x 1.0
96.6kNm
Unitsof live load in combination C1 to form second plastic hinges at joints

S and 8 in members 9 and 11
= 172
121
3.6
= 14 units of combination
C1
Total number of units of C1 to cause plastic hinges at joints 5 and 8 in

members 9 and 11 is 19.
After 19 units of combination Cl, the bending moments at joints are as
follows:
Frame type F2
Member 9
Member 10
Member 12
Member 13
Joint 2
Joint 5
Joint 5
Joint 3
Joint 6
Joint 6
72.7
+ 14 ><
2.1
= 102.lkNm
+ 14 x 3.6 = 171.4 kNm *plastic

112.5 + 14 x 3.5 = 161.5 kNm
48.2 + 14 x 0.9 = 60.8 kNm
= 103 kNm *plastic
plastic
96.6 + 14 x 0.5 = 103.6 kNm *plastic
121
Joint 5 of member 9 and joint 6 of member 13 have gone plastic simultaneously at 19 units of combination C1. Therefore frame type F? is not
considered.
After 24 unIts of combination C1, the bending moments at joints are as

follows:
Frame type F4
Member 9
Joint 2
Joint 5
Joint 5
Joint 3
Joint 6
Joint 6
Member 10
Member 12
Member 13
102.1 + 5 x 3.1 = 117.6 kNm

= 171.4 kNm *plastic
plastic
161.5 + 5 x 2.2 = 172.5 kNm *plastic
60.8 + 5 X 1.1 = 66.3 kNm
= 103 kNm *plastic
plastic
= 103.6 kNm *plastic
plastic
Frame type F5
After 30 units of combination C1, the bending moments at joints are as
follows:
Member 9
Joint 2
Joint 5
Joint 5
Joint 3
Joint 6
Joint 6
Member 10
Member 12
Member 13
117.6 + 6 x 3.1
66.3
= 136.2 kNm
= 171.4kNm
= 172.5 kNm
+ 6 x 1.1 = 72.9kNm
= 103.0 kNrn
= 103.6 kNm
Formula for calculating midspan bending moment and shear

C7 + 5 units of C (F1) + 14 units of C (F2) + 5 unitsof C (F4) + 6 units
of C (F5)
Member 9 combinationC1 (20% redistribution)
Midspan moment = 56.3 + 2.2 x 5 + 2.2 x 14 + 5 x 3.5 + 6 x 3.5 =
136.6 kNm
End shear, joint 2
= 111.1 + 3.7 x 5 + 3.7 x 14 + 4.6 x 5 + 4.6 x

6 = 232.OkN
End shear, joint 5 = 126.9 + 4.3 x 5 + 4.3 x 14 + 3.4 x 5 + 3.4 x 6 =

246.OkN
Similarly
Member 10
combinationC1 (20% redistribution)
Midspan moment = 115.7kNm

End shear = 239kN
Member 12 combinationC1 (20% redistribution)
End shear 3 = 134.9kN
End shear 6 = 147.lkN

Member13
combination C1 (20% redistribution)

End shear 6 = 141 kN
From computer output:
111.1
3.7
3.7
4.6
4.6
4.6
2.2
2.2
3.5
3.5
3.5
F2
F7
F4
F7
C
C
C
9
5
4.3
4.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
126.9
Shear
56.3
Fi
Midspan
moment
Member
F1
type
Frame
C7
Combination
2.6
2.8
5.0
1.5
42.7
1.6
Midspan
moment
Member
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
8
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
119.0
Shear
119.0
10
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
0.6
61.5
Midspan
moment
Member
Member midspan moments (kNm) and shears (kN) for various frame types under unit loading.
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.1
1.0
115.6
1.3
1.0
1.0
1.0
Shear
6
94.4
12
1.5
1.5
0.7
1.0
0.5
39.7
Midspan
moment
Member
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
105.0
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
Shear
105.0
13
424
Reinforced Concrete
1036kNm
729kNm
1O36kNm
909
727
1362
729 kNm
I
A
9O
Alfl5kNm
'1362kNm
A411lfIk
I!
SK 9/31 Bendingmomentdiagram
combination C1 (20%
redistribution).
Note: Only one combination C1 has been fully analysed to demonstrate the
procedure for redistribution of moments in a frame structure. In practice
all combinations of loads should be similarlyprocessed to get an envelope
of moments and shears. For all combinations of loads the plastic hinges
will form at the same moment,i.e. 172kNmat firstfloor level and 103.2 kNm
at roof level.
Step 2 Check moment connection to edge column

of slab
E
E
SK 9/32 Effective widthof slab for

moment transfer.
M, max = 0.15bd2f
b = C1 + = 400 + 400 = 800mm
d = 175 mm
assumed
= 40 N/mm2
M1, max = 0.15 X 800 X
= 147kNm >
1752 X 40
136.2 kNm (member 9, joint 2)
The column slab connection at the edge can transfer the applied moment
and no further redistribution is necessary. It is conservatively assumed in
this analysis that the depth of the slab at the column is 200mm, ignoring
the drop. The moment M1 max is greater than thedesignmoment obtained
from an equivalentframe analysis.
Design
Step 3
of Flat Slabs 425
Find bending moments at hI2 and at edge of drop

JOINT
1720kNm
1193
.1214 kNrn
22
MEMBER9
MEMBER 10
SK 9/33 Bendingmoments at
critical points combination C1
x400 Column
(20% redistribution).
Member
9 combinationC1 (20% redistribution)
Joint 5:
Bending moment = 172kNm

Shear = 246kN
Dead load: 1.4 x 40 = 56kN/m near support
Live load: 1.6 x 30 = 48kN/m near support
hI2 = 0.225m
Bending moment at h/2
= 172
=
Edge of drop =
246 x
0.22- +
(56 + 48)
0.2252
><
119.3 kNm
(top tension)
1000mm from centreline of column
172 246
+ x
x I + (56 48)
22kNm
(bottom tension)
+
232 x 0.225 + (56 48)
Bending moment at edge of drop =
Joint 2, similarly:
Bending moment at h/2 = 136.2
= 86.6 kNm
Bending moment at edge of drop
x 0.2252
(top tension)
= 43.8 kNm (bottom tension)
Member 10 combination C1 (20% redistribution)
426
Reinforced Concrete
Joint 5:
Bending moment at h/2 = 121.4 kNm (top tension)

Bending moment at edge of drop = 14.5 kNm (bottom tension)
Member 12
combination C1 (20% redistribution)
Joint 3:
Bending moment at hI2
= 72.9 134.9 X 0.225 + (1.4 x 30 + 1.6 x 9) x 0.2252 = .OkNm

Joint 6:
Bending moment at h/2 = 71.3kNm (top tension)
Member 13 combination C1 (20% redistribution)
Joint 6:
Bending moment at hI2 = 73.3kNm (top tension)
Step 4 Check limitation of negative design moment
0
C/20225
25 kNm
1443kNm
1193 kNm
866 kNi
CoImn
Column
JOINT 5
JOINT 2
SK 9/34 Member9 combination C1 (20% redistribution):limitation of negative

design moment.
\81\
Th2
3/
n = loading per unit area on slab.

Average n on span on first floor = 1.4 x 5 + 1.6 x 5 = l5kN/m2
where
1 = 5.Om
12
= 6.Om
x
(15
6.0) (s.o
= 264.6kNm
h = 0.225m
2x
(floor slab)
0.225)2

Average n on span on roof = 1.4 x 5 + 1.6
2
M'
(9.4_x_6.O' (5.0 x_0.2252
/\
x 1.5 = 9.4kN/m2
= 165.8kNm (roofslab)
Check negative moment limitation
Member 9
Joint 2 at h/2 = M2 = 86.6kNm (see Step 3)

Joint 5 at h/2 = M5 = 119.3 kNm
Midspan moment = 136.6kNm (see Step 1)
Average of M2 and M5 plus midspan moment
= 0.5 (86.6 + 119.3) + 136.6

= 239.6 kNm < M' = 264.6 kNm
The negative moments will have to be increased by (264.6 239.6) =

25.0 kNm
Revised negative moments:
Joint 2: 86.6 + 25.0 = 111.6 kNm
Joint 5: 119.3 + 25.0 = 144.3 kNm
Member 10
Joint 5 at hI2 = M5 = 121.4 kNm

Midspan moment = 115.7 kNm
Average of negative and positive = 121.4 + 115.7 = 237.lkNm < M' =
264.6kNm
The negative moments will have to be increased by (264.6
237.1)
27.5kNm
Joint 5: 121.4 + 27.5 = 148.9 kNm

Member 12
Joint 3 at h/2 = M3 = 44.0kNm
Joint 6 at hI2 M6 = 71.3 kNm
Midspan moment = 90.9 kNm
Averageofnegative and positive= 0.5 (44.0+ 71.3) + 90.9 = 148.55kNm <
M' = 165.8 kNm
The negative moments will have to be increased by (165.8

17.2 kNm

Joint 3: 44.0 + 17.2 = 61.2 kNm
Joint 6: 71.3 + 17.2 = 88.5 kNm
Member 13
Joint 6 at h!2 = M6 = 73.3kNm

148.6)
Average of negative and positive = 73.3 + 72.7
146 kNm
< M' =
165.8 kNm
The negative moments will have to be increased by (165.8 146) =

19.8 kNm

Joint 6: 73.3 + 19.8 = 93,lkNm
Step 5 Carry out division ofpanels
SK 9/35 Plan of floor slab division of strips.
Firstfloor slab
Size of drop = 2000mm
l = 5000
= 1667mm < 2000mm
= 2000mm
With drop middle strip = 5000 2000 = 3000mm (yy)
= 6000 2000 = 4000mm (xx)
and
Middle strip in a slab without drop = 6000 1/2 = 6000
Column strip
2500
3500mm
Proportion of middle strip with drop and without drop =

Roof slab
4000
1.14
Design
_____
of Flat Slabs 429
2500 lumn Strip

3500 Middle Strip
_____ -
- 2500 Column
Strip
3500 Middle Strip
Th.-I
-
SK 9/36 Planof roof slab
division of
- 2500 Coktnn
Strip
strips.
5000 =
Column strip = 1 =
2500mm
i
Middle strip
= 6000 2500 = 3500 mm

= 5000 2500 = 2500mm
(xx)
(yy)
Step 6 Divide moments between column strip and middle strip
For slabs without drops,

Negative moments
Positive moments
75% column strip

25% middle strip
55% column strip
45% middle strip
Floor slab: design moments

Member
9: negative moments
Joint 2: 111.6 kNm (see Step 4)

Middle strip moments
Joint 2: 111.6 x 0.25
x 1.14 (see Step 4) = 31.8kNm (top tension)

Edge of drop = 43.8 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 12.5 kNm (top tension)
Joint 5: 144.3 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 41.1 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop = 22.0 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 6.3kNm (top tension)
Column strip moments

Joint 2: 111.6 31.8 = 79.8kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 43.8 12.5 = 31.3kNm (top tension)
Joint 5: 144.3 41.1 = 103.2 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 22 6.3 = 15.7 kNm (top tension)
Member 9: positivemoments
Design midspan moment = 136.6 kNm (bottom tension)

Midspan:
136.6
X 0.45
X 1.14
= 70.lkNm (bottom tension)

Midspan: 136.6 70.1 = 66.5kNm (bottom tension)
Member 10: negative moments
Joint 5: 148.9 X 0.25 X 1.14 = 42.4 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 14.5 x 0.25 x 1.14 = 4.lkNm (top tension)

Joint 5: 148.9 42.4 = 106.3 kNm (top tension)
Edge of drop: 14.5 4.1 = 10.4 kNm (top tension)
Member 10: positive moments
Design midspan moment = 115.7kNm (bottom tension)
Midspan:
115.7
x 0.45 x
1.14 = 59.4kNm (bottom tension)

Midspan:
115.7
59.4 = 56.3 kNm
(bottom tension)
Note: Similarly calculatemoments in column strips and middlestrips in roof slab.

Step 8 Design forflexure
The increased slab thickness at drops may be considered for the determination of reinforcementprovided all reinforcementis properly anchored.
Check reinforcementalso at edge of drop.
Note:
In this examplethe reinforcementis found for the flat slab spanningin the
short direction only. Exactly the same method of analysis and design
should be used to find the reinforcementin the long direction.

Step 9
Detailing of reinforcement
Two-thirds of the negative support reinforcement in the column strip

should be placed in half the width of the column strip centred over the
column.
Step 10 Calculate punchingshear and shear stress
Punching shear atfloor slab

Check joint 5.
2155 kNm
MEMBER9
SK 9/37 Moment transfer to

column for punchingshear
calculation.
JOINT 5
MEMBER 10
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
ELASTIC ANALYSIS NO REOISTRIBUTIQN
LOADING CONDITION C4
Perimeter to check Punching

Shear in 200 slab
Perimeter to check
Punching Shear
in '.00 slab
in slab
SK 9/38 Punching shear perimeters plan of floor slab.
432
Reinforced Concrete
Use results of elastic analysis of frame before redistribution.
Maximum column moment at
joint 5 = 215.5
199.9
M1 = 15.6 kNni
= 15.6 kNm
A 30% reduction is allowedif frame analysis is carried out.

M = 0.7 x 15.6 = 10.9kNm
= 258.2 + 239.0 = 497.2kN
V1
Punching shear perimeter at 1.5d from face of column.
d = 400 30 = 370mm
1.5d = 1.5 x 370 = 555 mm
x = 400 + 2 x 555 = 1510mm = 1.510m
/
/
1.5M \
1.5 x 10.9
t)497211+
Vff=Vl( 1+
\ 497.2 x 1.510
Vx I
= 508kN
Maximum shear stress at column perimeter (U. = 4 x 400)
Veff
U0d
508 X 10
4x400x370 =0.86Nfm2<5N/m2
stress
Shear
'=
OK
Veff
Ud
U = 4 x 1510 = 6040
V
= 508x
i0 = 0.23N/mm2 <
v
370
for minimumpercentage of
reinforcement
No shear reinforcementis required in slab with drop.

For slab outside drop consider that loaded area is perimeter of drop.
Vff = 508kN (load on the area of drop)
= 508 4 x 22
= 420kN
Perimeter of slab at 1.5d (d = 170mm)
= 4 x (2000 + 3 x 170) = 10040 mm
Shear stress, v =
420
x iO
10040 x 170
= 0.25N/mm2 < v for minimum percentage of
reinforcement
No shear reinforcement is required at internal columns offloor slab.

Similarly check for an external column and a corner column.

Rules for calculation ofperimeters ofexternaland corner columns
[15d
_.x_1_Cx
J15d
x
15d
P= 2C+ C1 +6d
P2(x+C)+C1+
EDGE COLUMN ON
EDGE OF SLAB
EDGE COLUMN INSIDE
6d
SLAB
IJ
C1f5d
15d
P= +C+3d
15d
P= lesser of :OR
2(x+C) +C1+6d
2(C+ C1)12d
CORNER COLUMN ON
ON EDGE OF SLAB
EDGE COLUMN INSIDE
SLAB
Cl
x and y 15d
P= C+C7+x+y+3d
CORNER COLUMN INSIDE
LA
d = Average effective
depth of slab
x and y > 15d

P= lesser of
C+ C1+ x+y+3d
OR 2(C+C1)+12d
CORNER COLUMN INSIDE
LA
SK 9/39 Punchingshearperimeters for flat slab.
The illustrations show the differentcolumn configurations with respectto a

free edge and the correspondingperimetersfor the calculationof punching
shear stresses.
When the column face is more than 1.5d away from a free edge of slab,
then there are two alternative perimeters possible as illustrated.Take the
least of these two alternativesfor the calculation of punchingshear stress.
Punching shear at roofslab
Check joint 3 edge column.
V = l3OkN
Theframe action considered is in thexxdirectionas explainedin Section
9.3.5.
Veff = 1.25V
= 1.25
162.5kN
>( 130
d = 170 mm assumed
= 1.5 x 170 = 255 mm
1.5d
Shear stress at column perimeter (U0 = 3

Veff =
=
U0d
162.5 X 10
1200 x 170
= 0.8N/mm2 < 5 N/mm2
Shear stress at 1.5d = v =

U = [2
x 400 = 1200)
OK
Vf
x (400 + 255)] + (400 + 510)
= 2220
162.5
x i03
v2220xi70
= 0.43 N/mm2
Assume minimum percentage of tensile reinforcementin slab.
v, = 0.48N/mm2for Grade 40 concrete and an effective depth of 170 mm.

No shear reinforcementis necessary.
be carried out for the flat slab
in
the
direction
and
the
worst
result should be used.
long
spanning
Note: The punching shear check should also

Step 11
Check span/effective depth ratio

Follow Step 11 of Section 3.3


Step 15 Cakulate minimum reinforcement
Follow Step 9 and Step 15 of Section 3.3.
Design
of Flat Slabs
435
Step 16 Calculate flexural crack width

Step 17 Design of connections
Follow Chapter 11
9.6 TABLES AND GRAPHS FOR CHAPTER 9

How to use Tables 9.1 to 9.6
d
L10I
Intermediate floor.Typical
sectici n
rE5=267]
77
First floor Typical section
[ocj
First floor. Typical section
lx
13
10
15
I.,,
----
:----
07
os
03
A-S
lx
03 050-7
ly
1-3 1-5
Plan showing points for which coefficients are in tables 91 to 96

SK 9/40 Sketches to be used in conjunction with Tables 9.1 9.6.
C4
___J L__
o.o1y O.3ly O.SLy O7Ly
SK 9/41 Zones of stiffness

correction factors to be applied to
points of interest.
.3L 151y
C3
Points to note:
(1) The flat slab systemshould have at least 3 spans in the direction and
3 spans in the t,, direction.

(2) The coefficients are valid for equal spans in the 1. and l, direction.
They may be used up to a maximum variation of 20% in the span
lengths.
(3) The tables can be used only for uniformly distributed loads with all
spans loaded simultaneously with the maximum load.
(4) To accountfor the possible increase in momentdue to variation of live
loads in different panels of the flat slab, no redistributionof moments
should be carried out.
(5) For horizontal loading a separate frame analysisshould be carried out
and the appropriate moments will be combined with the vertical load
moments. In general, flat slab construction should be fully braced and
the horizontal load should be carried entirely by a shear-wall system.
(6) The coefficients are applicableto a corner panel, an edge panel with a
free edge in the 1, direction, an edge panel with a free edge in the
direction and an internal panel.
(7) The moment triad (M1, M and M) obtained by this method of
analysis should be combined using the WoodArmer method as
described in Section 1.12.
Sign conventionfor bending

moments (+ ye in directions
Bending moment
abouty-axis
=M,
shown)
Bending moment
about x-axis
Unit width of element
Note: A positive moment denotes hogging. This sign convention is opposite to the WoodArmer
convention. Reverse the signs of the moments before carryingout WoodArmer combination as per
Section 1.12.

Step-by-stepanalysis procedure
Step 1: Determine value of (see SK9/40 and find 1j1).
Step 2: Assume d is the thicknessof slab and h is the dimension of a side of
a square column.
Step 3: From available L, as shown in SK9/40, determine S = cxd3LIh4.
Step 4: Select a point of interest from SK9140 or SK9/41 where the
moments have to be found. Correspondingto the zone of influence, find
appropriatestiffness connectionfactor K dependingon S from Graphs 9.1
to 9.18.
Step 5: Find moment coefficients from Tables 9.1 to 9.3 corresponding to
and the location of the point of interest.
Step 6: Find the ultimate uniformly distributed load on the flat slab =
nkN/m2.
Step 7: Find moment triads:
1/l
M == nCK11kNm/m
M
nCK1kNm/m
= nCA.VKXV1kNm/m
Step 8: Carry out WoodArmer combination.

Step 9: Find column reactions corresponding to 1,/1, (see SK9/41 for
column locations).
Step 10: The moments obtained using these coefficients are in kNm/m.
as in Section 9.3.4. Multiply the moment
Find the effective width
obtained by analysis at edge and corner columns with the effective width
to find the slab-to-column connection moment. This transfer moment
should be less than Mtmax as defined in Section 9.3.4.
Reaction at column C = nCi11

Reactionat column C7 = nC21,j, etc.
Note:
If in the zone of KA (as shown in SK9/41) the point of interest is located,

then to find M use stiffness correction factor KAX correspondingto S and
1/1,, as in Graph 19.1. Similarly if the point of interest lies in the zone of
KF then to find M use KFX as in Graph 9.16.
The benefits of using these tables and graphs are that the analysis can be
done very quickly and the necessity of carrying out the two analyses for
the two orthogonal directions may be avoided. These tables can also be
used for the analyses of raft foundation where the loading n may be
assumed to be uniformly distributed over an inverted flat slab. The total
loads from a structure will be assumeduniformly distributed at the underside of the raft.
Step 11: Calculate total column moments using Table 9.7 and divide the
total moment between the columns at the junction depending on their
relative stiffness. The stiffer the column, the more moment it will carry.
The stiffness of a column may be calculatedas Ill where I is the moment of
inertia and / is the effective height.
C
C,
C,,
+0.02633
0.00159
0.03301
0.02496
0.00400
0.01420
0.01954
+0.04690
0.00744
0.01265
0.02620
0.01954
0.00744
+0.15656
+0.15656
0.04291
0.01476
0.03647
0.04247
0.00338
0.07560
+0.01521
0.00159
0.00395
0.05718
0.05718
0.07603
0.01157
0.00562
0.01103
0.07014
+0.02704
0.00619
0.05749
0.03218
0.01214
0.05245
0.06063
0.002 62
0.05423
0.05423
0.00744
0.06515
0.01059
0.01419
0.02030
+0.05482
+0.11571
0.03189
0.01049
0.04132
0.02524
0.00157
0.07603
0.005 62
0.01059
0.06515
0.01419
+0.06370
+0.06370
0.01277
l.O!
0.7!
0.5!
0.3/p.
C1=0.194355 C2=0.45153
01,,
0.02776
0.01048
0.00619
+0.11571
+0.05482
0.03189
0.01214
0.04132
0.01049
0.00262
C1=0.45153
C4=1.15263
0.02030
0.00296
0.01103
+0.02704
0.032 18
0.05749
0.06063
0.05245
0.02524
0.03300
0.05370
0.01667
0.05739
0.001 59
0.00395
0.00113
0.07014
0.00100
0.01322
0.06249
0.(X)338
+0.01521
0.07560
0.02993
0.06357
0.04987
0.01184
0.00541
0.02794
0.05697
0.01476
0.00819
0.01790
0.06357
0.02993
0.03647
+0.04247
0.00380
0.02941
0.02941
0.00819
0.04358
0.00757
0.00757
+0.04690
0.02620
0.01265
0.06249
0.01322
0.05739
0.01667
0.01048
0.02776
l.31,
0.02844
0.00554
0.00113
0.00380
0.00159
0.00400
0.00100
0.00296
0.00541
C,,,,
C,,
C,,
C,,,,
C,,
C,,
C,,
C,,
C,,
C,,,,
C,,
C,
C,,
C,
C,,
0.02230
0.02230
0.00554
0.02844
0.04358
+0.02633
0.05370
0.03300
0.01184
0.04987
0.02496
0.03301
l.5/
C
0.05697
0.02794
Moment
coefficient,
1.5!,,
1.31,,
0.31,,
0!,,
1.0!,,
0.5!,,
(lIl = 1.0).
0.7/,,
Location
of point of
interest
Table 9.1 Bending moment coefficients for design of flat slabs
0.08390
0.05595
0.00148
+0.01542
0.00573
0.08230
0.03575
0.01360
0.07664
0.06117
0.00316
0.01399
0.04465
0.02831
C1=0.195075
0/,,
0.08934
0.01134
0.01902
0.01457
+0.09004
+0.06476
0.01871
0.03097
0.05444
0.01106
0.01417
0.04249
0.057 30
0.03994
0.05809
0.005 02
0.02085
0.04080
0.03032
0.00776
C4=!.15344
0.00641
0.10261
0.01169
0.002 99
0.051 11
0.08693
0.01624
0.00337
0.05003
0.03408
0.03764
0.01332
0.00474
0.03473
0.03295
0.71k
(I/! = 1.2).
0.09097
0.01716
0.00108
C2=0.44811 C,=0.453375
0.06907
0.07796
0.05432
0.009 63
0.3l
0.09065
0.03378
0.00421
0.09512
+0.07262
+0.12706
0.04229
0.013 65
+0.00164
0.00158
0.08348
0.02082
0.012 11
0.01414
0.03235
0.022 11
0.01604
0.081 82
0.007 10
0.10176
0.00347
0.00608
0.08586
0.02828
0.07980
0.03557
0.01657
0.05758
0.51k
0.31k
0/
O.Sly
0.7/,,
1.01
1.3i
l.5l
Location
of point of
interest
Table 9.2 Bending moment coefficients for design of fiat slabs
0.03657
+0.05945
+0.152(X)
0.07482
0.009 35
+0.05316
0.08095
0.002 36
+0.03919
0.03656
0.012 13
+0.07160
+0.19583
+0.18274
0.05087
0.01089
0.07768
0.01930
0.00236
0.04754
+0.05340
1.01k
0.02540
0.03380
0.01081
0.01330
0.02017
0.05576
0.00431
0.01588
0.06046
0.01747
0.01733
0.02569
+0.03907
0.00707
0.02621
0.01604
0.01256
0.00593
0.00466
0.00898
0.02534
1.31k
0.00656
0.06265
0.01176
0.00331
0.05069
0.045 58
0.00115
0.053 11
0.04109
0.00432
0.04690
0.02623
+0.01480
0.00145
0.05675
0.00383
0.04371
0.00543
0.00123
0.03784
0.01780
1.51k
C,,
Cx
Cx
C,,
C,,
C,
Cx
C,
C,
Moment
coefficient,
0.03332
+0.23834
+0.20889
+0.00397
0.00527
0.11078
0.03997
0.014 18
0.01723
0.04721
0.7l
0.00741
0.117 53
0.01189
0.02358
0.01377
+0. 121 67
+0.06593
0.03124
0.133 60
0.01158
0.01071
0.01606
0.07295
0.00382
0.11820
0.04976
0.10580
0.05462
0.00842
0.03596
+0.06438
0.04237
0.02947
0.04028
0.01080
+0. 19234
0.06868
0.01135
0.01473
0.01305
0.01612
0.02520
0.05361
0.07905
0.05479
0.05667
+0.08586
0.00318
0.08560
0.00739
0.07779
0.01135
0.00343
0.06155
0.04740
0.00116
0.05780
0.04970
0.02048
0.05789
0.(X)483
+0.07003
0.05103
0.06281
0.005 75
0.11551
0.05539
0.001 70
0.10476
0.06227
0.003 55
0.02056
0.08747
0.00422
0.01867
0.01662
0.06343
0.02823
0.02227
0.02342
0.02532
0.03513
0.054 10
0.03142
+0.10672
0.057 55
+0.00431
0.00125
0.07210
0.121 86
0.03854
0.004 11
C1=0.19683 C2=0.445545 C,=0.45477 C4=1.1529
01,,
O.3l,
0.5!
0.03003
0.12354
+0.09384
+0.13729
0.05628
l.Ol,
+0.02551
0.00717
0.06459
0.13173
0.01129
0.001 70
0.01742
+0.03142
0.00649
0.01609
0.01479
0.01615
0.00296
0.01222
l.3l
0.00335
0.06200
0.00687
0.01923
0.00486
+0.11466
0.05114
0.01445
0.00113
0.01037
0.00498
0.02248
0.00369
0.00639
0.05713
0.01520
0.01469
0.02241
0.050 18
0.(X)320
+0.08741
0.11941
0.03062
0.0010()
0.04705
0.03282
1.51k
1.3l
1.0!
0.7l.
(l/l = 1.4).
0.12362
0.02280
0.10961
0.03952
0.02136
0.06491
0.5l
of flat slabs
0.113 18
0.02623
0.3l
0l
design
0.01752
0.03625
1.51
Location
of point of
interest
Table 9.3 Bending moment coefficients for
G,
C,
C
C,
C
C
C
C
C,
C',,
Moment
coefficient,
0.00602
0.06902
0.05576
0.1)1759
0.00211
0.157 13
0.00373
0.15162
0.05566
0.00182
0.00493
0.14273
0.04471
0.01397
0.13655
0.06388
0.00383
0.01988
0.04901
0.03044
0.02479
0.00954
0.7l
0.00110
0.08087
0.04433
0.01871
0.02697
0.05511
0.00504
0.03182
0.05125
0.03231
0.02162
+0.10749
0.08934
0.00408
+0.12493
0.06494
0.06185
C=0.45576 C4=
1.15173
0.00830
0.02810
0.05131
=0.443385
0.04046
0.011 39
0.14962
0.01231
+0.15859
+0.06699
C2
0.08415
0.01145
0.00267
0.01251
0.01189
0.16914
0.15419
0.04868
0.02243
0.03267
0.04757
0.01061
+0.23712
+0.06950
0.04891
0.01559
0.01727
0.08263
C,
0.07773
0.04713
0.025 16
+0.14768
0.06914
0.03274
0.13751
0.05520
0.04392
0.03091
0.00102
0.00799
0.09590
0.01082
0.00346
0.00386
0.08271
0.03077
C,
C,
C.,
C
C
+0.02416
0.00578
0.09017
0.00511
0.041 16
C,
C,,
C
C
C,
+0.28462
+0.23486
0.06314
+0.01704
0.00649
0.08020
0.00261
Moment
coefficient,
0.01489
0.08306
0.00969
0.00091
0.07938
0.01475
1.51k
0.01912
0.01496
0.01737
0.07649
C1=0.199125
0/
0.3l
0.51w
-
0.09266
0.16570
0.02353
0.15531
0.00727
+0.11858
+0.14626
0.07490
l.Ol
0.00236
0.01375
0.01601
0.01167
0.02746
0.00439
+0.15746
0.06652
0.02163
0.16010
0.02981
0.14612
0.03265
1.3!,
0.00478
0.00411
0.02028
0.03924
0.00484
0.00083
0.00367
0.00638
0.02244
0.01984
0.05106
+0.12785
0.06172
0.03274
0.15690
0.03496
0.14272
0.04461
1.51y
0.02596
0.07131
1.31,.
1.01.
0.31,
0.71k
0.51..
(l/I = 1.6).
0!.
Location
of point of
interest
Table 9.4 Bending moment coefficients for design of flat slabs
0.00063
0.20370
0.03510
0.00247
0.209 19
0.01121
0.00914
0.00350
0.18209
0.03986
0.01078
0.19028
0.01830
0.00489
0. 17800
0.04986
0.013 13
0.17182
0.06594
0.00403
0.17285
0.05607
0.01458
0.18539
0.01273
0.03292
0.02210
0.04120
0.01976
+0.14687
+0.15402
0.09911
0.021 83
0.05007
0.02965
0.02840
0.09718
0.01047
0.01716
0.07944
0.00908
+0.20072
+0.06785
0.08002
0.00396
0.19464
0.04804
0.19196
0.05675
0.001 84
0.00344
0.04970
0. 19642
0.00171
0.20023
0.03792
0.19796
0.04105
0.17890
0.05063
0.03010
0.07652
0.00608
0.51k
0.3l
01.
1.8).
0.04472
0.10093
0.01143
0.01906
0.08511
0.54680
0.08093
0.06072
0.005 89
0.03425
0.021 59
0.085 82
0.00631
+0.00888
0.09695
0.08364
0.01791
0.01311
0.00442
0.07854
0.03279
0.7l
C1=0.20178 C2=0.441495 C,=0.45639 C4=1.15038
0!,,
O.3l
0.51,,
0.71,,
1.01,,
1.3!,,
1.5!,,
Location
of point of
interest
Table 9.5 Bending moment coefficients for design of flat slabs (1jL =
+0.28659
+0.07473
0.05597
0.02196
0.03522
0.05594
0.01029
0.01615
0.04005
0.04887
+0.17018
0.08544
0.00503
0.03531
0.05232
0.01792
0.03982
0.025 23
+0.01736
0.00498
0.04997
0.01293
0.03750
0.00447
0.00516
0.09204
+0.15136
0.02708
0.02818
+0.19437
0.06783
+0.33505
+0.26064
0.02388
0.00829
+0.20582
0.00511
0.00431
0.03203
0.01774
+0.17436
0.05001
1.31
1.01k
0.00844
0.11731
0.01027
0.00350
0.10347
0.041 77
0.00099
0.10074
0.045 52
0.00337
10488
0.03368
0.
0.00081
0.11126
0.01359
0.10677
0.01368
0.00181
0.00066
0.10420
0.01633
1.51k
C1,,
C,,
C1
C1
C,,
C1,,
C1
C1
C1
C
C
Cs,,
C1
C1
Moment
coefficient,
0.00326
0.22093
0.04764
0.(X)981
0.00553
0.02266
0.01707
0.00275
0.00537
0. 12976
0.01002
0.057 19
0.01703
0.22465
0.03847
0.081 66
0.00549
+0.24789
+0.06845
0.11841
0.3!,
= 0.204 615
0.25366
0.01109
0.21163
0.01505
0.5/,
C2 = 0.43974
0.04900
0.011 31
0.11907
0.02071
0.05350
+0.34090
+0.08006
0.06341
0.02705
0.08741
+0.22144
0.00635
0.00588
0. 102 99
0.09363
+0.20147
0.03292
0.02278
+0.24672
+0.38991
+0.28634
0.07181
0.02901
0.00105
+0.25960
0.03730
0.06557
0.009 91
0.01663
0.04992
0.04657
0.00488
0.04540
0.04968
0.01656
0.05017
0.02554
0.00436
0.05993
0.01105
0.01064
0.04825
0.00502
0.00368
0.016 14
0.00621
0.04331
0.04700
1.3!
+0.22671
1.0!,
0.09883
0.05954
0.02000
0.10405
0.03591
+0.00116
0.00633
0.11492
0.01098
0.10237
0.02007
0.00386
0.09727
0.03300
0.7/,
C4 = 1.14903
0.00446
0.239 36
0.04790
0.23636
0.05857
0.001 78
C3 = 0.45666
0.013 16
0.21043
0.06837
0.004 18
0.03105
0.10089
0.011 21
01,
0.01179
0.02777
0.00331
0.21636
0.05533
0.23968
0.05573
0.24572
0.04607
0.2283()
0.02909
0.24390
0.04682
0.001 13
0.00044
0.24238
0.04855
0.51,
+0.17869
+0.16068
().()42 10
0.21798
0.05733
0.3/i
0.03352
0.08045
0/,
0.02187
0.05039
0.7!,
1.0/v
1.31
l.S/,
interest
of point of
Location
Table 9.6 Bending moment coefficients for design of flat slabs (lxii, = 2.0).
0.00882
0.14215
0.00979
0.12932
0.03984
0.00361
0.12677
0.04482
0.000 90
0.00283
0.13005
0.03688
0.13551
0.02132
0.001 02
0.00107
0.13312
0.01861
0.00041
0.13147
0.01960
l.5/
C
C,,
C,
Ck
Cr
(iv
C,,
(1,
(iv,
C,
C,
(ivy
C'
C
c
c,
C,
Moment
coefficient,
____
-.
Lx
Lx
L=average storey height
PLAN OF FLAT SLAB
SECTION TI1ROU(I1 SLAB
SK 9/42 Column number identification.

Table 9.7 Bending moment coefficientfor design of columns in flat slab construction.
lj1,
1.2
1.6
1.4
1.8
Moment
coefficients
Column
no.
1
0.01175
0.01345
0.01717
0.01916
0.02123
0.01175
0.00244
0.02280
0.01792
0.00233
0.03271
0.02594 0.03603
0.00224 0.00218
0.04525 0.06073
0.02765 0.03301 0.03885
0.04836
0.00216
0.07939
0.06307
0.00218
0.10147
0.00441
0.01040
0.04513
0.01445
0.05184
0.019 19
0.00418 0.00454
0.00506
0.00571
0.02031
0.02667
2
2
3
3
4
4
0.02280
0.00244
0.00376
0.00393
0.00376
0.00659
0.01526
0.00706
0.01028
Column total moment =
0.01484
XR
C.
C,
C,
x1xi
ii = load per unit area on slab.

See Graphs 9.199.26 for factors and R.
where
Note: Dividetotal moment in columnto top and bottom column in proportion to

their stiffness.
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
S= ad L/h
for M,. Stiffness correction

coefficients for Zone A, curves for //1 = 1 and 2.
Graph 9.1
10
0.6
07
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
ad L/h
Graph 9.2 KA. for M. Stiffness correction

coefficients for Zone A, curves for IJI. = 1 and 2.
10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Stzd3L/h4
6
7
Stiffness correction
KA for
coefficients for Zone A, curves for 1./l = 1, 1.2, 1.4,
1.6, 1.8 and 2.
Graph 9.3
10
'C
05
0.7
09
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
Sad3L/h4
Graph 9.4 KB,, for M,,. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Zone B, curves for l,/l, = 1 and 2.
10
0.992
0 994
0.996
0.998
1.002
1.004
1.006
1.008
1.01
Sad L/h
1.8
1.6
1.4
10
ttiti
I I II I I I I 2 V
Graph 9.5 KBY for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Zone B, curves for 1/1 = 1, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.
06
0.7
08
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
S=ad LIh
Graph 9.6 KBX for
coefficients for Zone B, curves for I/IV 1, 1.2, 1.4,
1.6, 1.8 and 2.
10
1.8
1.6
1 .4
1.2
rt
10
ad3 L /
0.9
0.9
0.92
0.92
0.94
0.94
0.96
0.96
0.98
0.98
1.02
1.04
1.04
1.02
1.06
1.06
for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

Graph 9.7
for Zone C, curves for 1.r11 = 1 and 2.
4
S
ad3L!h4
for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

Graph 9.8
for Zone C, curves for 1I1 = 1 and 2.
10
CD
CD
-I
CD
CD
CD
-t
CD
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1,1
H.
Sad3L/h
H:_
//j7
/\
I I
....
1.6
for
coefficients for Zone C, curves for 1.r/1V = 1, 1.4, 1.6
and 2.
Graph 9.9
10
008
0.992
0.994
0.996
0.998
.002
1.004
1.006
1.01
1,012
Sad 3L/h4
KD. for M. Stiffness correction

coefficients for Zone D, curves for 1jl = 1 and 2.
Graph 9.10
10
cf
cD
('1
0
a,
rl
C
I-
-l
r'i
0
0
0
Axa)4
I-
,-.
-j
0
('1
AO
Design
of Flat Slabs
451
C
V
0
-J
H
U,
0
0
I',
0
0)
0)
0)
00!
0
0)
o
0
0)
0
0)
o
0)
U,
C
V
I-
Ii
t
4-
-J
U)
V
C,
.(.)
0
CC)
0
0
CC)
CC)
'-
o0)
o
0)
0)
X3
U)
0
0)
00)
o
U)
00)
N
0,
N
I-
2
-j
C.,
N
N
0
N
.-
.-
N
0
0,
CC
NJ
(I
-J
0
C.,
N
V
0
Cd,
.0
0
0
Cd,
Cd,
0,
CC
0,
CC
Cd,
a,
U,
I0
IOC
05
0.95
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1.3
ad3 LI h4
Graph 9.17 KF for M. Stiffness correction

coefficients for Zone F, curves for 1/1= 1, 1.2, 1.4,
1.6, 1.8 and 2.
10
0.96
0.97
0.98
'0.99
1.01
1.02
ad3LII
Graph 9.18 KF for
= 1, 1.2, 1.4,
coefficients for Zone F, curves for
1.6, 1.8 and 2.
10
0.7
0.8
0.9
>.
1.1
1.2
1.3
Sad3LJh4
I
8
10
Graph 9.19 R for Mt.. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Column 1.
o-
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
IxIly
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
N105
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1.3
Sad3L/h4
10
Graph 9.20 R for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Column 1.
1.4
h- 2
1.8
-- 1.6
1.2
Ix/ly
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.2
13
1.4
1.5
1.6
Sad 3L/h4
8
10
Graph 9.21 R, for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Column 2.
lxi II,
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.1
0.7
0.8
09
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
10
Stiffness correction coefficients
S=ad 3L/h4
Graph 9.22 R for M1.

for Column 2.
1.8
-- 2
1.8
1.4
1.2
-.-D
Ix/ly
1.
0.8
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
for Column 3.
8
10
Stiffness correction coefficients
S.ad3L/h4
Grph 9.23 R for M,,..
h-- 2
0.65
0.75
0.85
10
b-- 2
a-- 1.8
---- 1.4
- 1.6
0.95
a-- 1.2
b--- 1.8
1.05
Ix,Iy
0-- 1.6
-- 1.4
0 1.2
-1
Ix/Jy
1.15
1.25
1.35
Graph 9.24 R for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Column 3.
0.5
10
Sad3L/h4
05
0.7
0.7
1.1
0.9
-- 2
a- 1.8
--c.--- 1.6
-'-- 1.4
S=ad3L/h4
10
- 2
*- 1.8
o- 1.6
'---.--'--- 1.4
1
o- 1.2
1.3
0.9
1.1
1.3
Ix/lY
1.5
1.5
- 1
1.2
1.7
1.7
Graph 9.26 R1 for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Column 4.
'XI ly
1.9
1,9
Graph 9.25 R% for M. Stiffness correction coefficients

for Column 4.
Page blank
in original
Chapter 10
Design of Connections
NOTATION
10.0
a
C
D
lb
f,
fbu
F,
F
H
K
I
Distance between two rows of bars resisting bending moment

Embedmentof pile into pile cap
Diameter or width of pile
Ultimate anchoragebond stress
Design ultimate bond stress
Ultimate force in a bar or a group of bars
Tie force (kN)
Design ultimate horizontal load on pile
Coefficient to determine transmission length of prestressingtendons
Anchoragebond length
Greatest distance between vertical load-bearingelements in direction
of a tie
I,
4
M
n
fl()
0
r
PC
Floor to ceiling height (m)

Transmission length of prestressingtendons
Applied bending moment on concrete section of pile
Number of reinforcementbars in each row
Number of stories in a building
Perimeterof a bar of reinforcementin tension
Design concrete shear stress
Depth of lever arm
to determine design ultimate bond stress

Diameter of bar
Diameter of one bar or equivalent diameter of a group of bars
Coefficient
4e
10.1
INTRODUCTION
To make a complete building or structure, the elements described and

designedin the previouschapters will have to be connected together and
also tied together to give horizontal stability. This chapter describes the
principles of design of these connections and the ties.
459
There are basically two types of connections: rigid and free. The rigid
connectionswill have full moment and other internal force transfer capability. The connectionsclassed as free do not offer resistance to rotation to
membersat the connection.These connectionsshould be capable of transferring shear and axial loads.
10.2 CONTENTS: TYPE OF CONNECTIONS
The following connections have been described in this chapter:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Requirementof buildingties as per Codes of Practice.

Pile-to-foundation/pilecap connection.
Column-to-foundationconnection.
Wall-to-foundation connection.
(5) Column-to-column connection.

(6) Wall-to-waIl connection.
(7) Column-to-beam connection.
(8) Wall-to-beamconnection.
(9) Wall-to-slab connection.
(10) Column-to-wall connection.
(11) Slab-to-beam connection.
Thetheoryofanchorageand bond length requirementsis describedinitially.

10.3 ANCHORAGE AND BOND
Localbond stress is dependent on shear, i.e. the rate of change of bending

moment at any section.
Local bond stress =
V
zo
V = shear at section
z = lever arm of bending moment
= summationof perimeter of bars in tension.
The local bond stress at ultimate state need not be checked provided there
is adequate anchorage of the bars in tension on both sides of a section.
Theultimate anchoragebond stress is assumedconstant over the anchorage
length of a bar.
where
=
where
fb = ultimate anchorage bond stress

F == ultimate force in bar or group of bars bundled togetherarea
diameterofone bar or equivalentdiameter of a bar, the
of which equals the total area of the bundle of bars
I = anchorage bond length.
Design of Connections 461
---- -
aa
aE
La..
aa
La
La
Es
a..
a..
a..
a..
fla
SK 10/1 Development of bond

stress in concrete.
The design ultimate bond stress depends on the characteristicstrength of

the concrete and is given by the following formula:
Vf
Values of 3.
Plain bars
Type 1: deformed
Type 2: deformed
Fabric
In tension
In compression
0.28
0.35
0.40
0.50
0.65
0.50
0.63
0.81
A partial safety factor 'm = 1.4 is included.
Thefabric reinforcetnent should be according to clause 3.12.8.5of BS 8110:

Part 1: 19851']
10.3.1
Basic rules of anchorage and laps

Anchorage
of links
The link is to pass round another bar of equal or greater dimension

through an angle of90 and continuefor a minimum length of 8 x diameter,
or through an angle of 180 and continue for a minimum length of
4 x diameter.
ofcolumn starter bars

Column starter bars in compression need not be checked for anchorage.
They shouldbe taken down to the level ofthe bottom layerofreinforcement
Anchorage
in the foundation.
Column starter bars in tension should be checked for anchorage.
SK 10/3 A
SK 10/2 A 90 bend.
1800 bend.
Laps andjoints
LAP LENGfH
0i
200 IF
AND 02
AND
> 20
C< 1.50,
OR,1502
SK 10/4 Detailingrulesat lap of

column bars.
SK 10/5 Lapping of bars.

Laps and joints should be staggered. Welded joints should not be used for
cyclic loading. Minimum lap length is 15 times bar size or 300 mm. Links
to be used at laps of bars in beams and columns at a maximum spacing of
200mm where both bars at a lap exceed 20mm diameter and the cover is
less than 1.5 times the diameter of the smaller bar.
10.3.2
Design of tension laps
CI
Ci AND C2<2+
SK 10/6 Case 1
anchorage length.
SK 10/7 Case2 anchorage length.
D <75 OR 6$
SK 10/8 Case 3
anchorage length.
C1
AND C2 <2+
AND/OR
SK 10/9 Case 4
D<75 OR 6+
anchorage length.
464
ReinforcedConcrete
Lap length = tension anchorage length normally
= 1.4 x tension anchorage length for Cases 1, 2 and 3

=2 x tension anchorage length for Case 4
Case I
Bars lapped are at the top of a section and cover is less than 2 times the
size of lapped bars.
Case 2
Bars lapped are at a corner of a section and cover to either face is less than
2 times the size of lapped bar.
Case 3
The distance between adjacent laps is less than 75mm or 6 times bar
diameter, whichever is the greater.
Case 4
Corner bars at the top of a section with less than 2 times diameter of bar
cover to either face.
Lapped bars at the top of a section with distance between them less than
75mm or 6 times bar diameter.
10.3.3
Design
of compression laps
Lap length = 1.25 x compression anchorage length of smaller bar at lap
Effective anchorage length
ofa hook or a bend
T.P
240
T.P.
1
20
SK 10/10 Effective anchorage

bond lengths.
Design
180 hook
Effective anchorage length
or
of Connections
465
= 8r(244)) + 1 44)
= actual length of bar from tangent point
whichever is larger
90 bend
Effective anchorage length = 4r( 124)) + I 44)
= actual length of bar from tangent point
or
whichever is larger
10.3.4 Curtailment and anchorage of bars

Minimum anchorage length = d or
124)
In tension zone of a flexural member, take a bar to:
a full tension anchoragelengthbeyond a point where it is not required,
ora point where theshear capacity of thesection is twice the shear force at
the point, or
a point
where the availablebars continuingbeyond provide a moment
of resistance twice the bending moment at the point.
The curtailment of bars should be staggered.

Anchorage
(1)
ofbars at a simply supported end
An effective anchorage length of 124) beyond centreline of support.

Hook or bend should not begin before centreline. Effective anchorage
lengths of a hook or a bend may be considered.
SK 10/11 Required effective

anchorageat simply supportedend
where centreline of support is less
than or equal to d/2 away from
face of support.

anchorageat simply supportedend
where centreline of support is
more than d/2 away from face of
support.
L=
EFFECTIVE ANCHORAGE LENGTH

120
(2)
Aneffectiveanchoragelength of 124 beyond d/2 from face of support.

Hook or bend should not begin before d/2 from face of support.
Effective anchorage lengths of a hook or a bend may be considered.
W/3 AND 30

anchorageat end of slab where
shear stress is less than 0.5V.
(3) For slabs, if shear stress at face of support is less than half v, then
project a straight length of bar beyond centreline of support equal to
one third of support width or 30mm, whichever is greater.
Anchorage bond lengths in multiples of bar sizes for Type 2 deformed bars
=460N/mm2).
(f
f,
Grades of concrete
(N/mm2)
C25 C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
Tension anchorage and lap 40
32
Compression anchorage
40
Compression lap
37
29
37
34
32
30
27
34
26
24
30
32
28
22
28
Design
of Connections 467
Anchorage bond lengths in multiples of bar sizes for plain grade 250N/mm2
bars
Grades of concrete
(N/mm2)
C25 C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
Tension anchorage and lap 39
32
Compression anchorage
39
Compression lap
36
29
36
33
27
33
31
25
31
29
23
29
27
22
27
Note: The tension anchoragebond lengths will be multipliedby either 1.4 or 2.0,
depending on the location of the bar as described in Section 10.3.2.
10.4 BUILDING TIES
The following ties will be considered:
Peripheral ties.
Internal ties.
Horizontal column and wall ties.
Vertical ties.
Ties are continuousfullyanchored and properly lapped welded or mechanically connected tension reinforcement.
The reinforcement required to act as continuous ties is additional to
other designed reinforcement. Available excess design reinforcement if
properly tied and continuous and capable of carrying the prescribed tie
forces may be considered.
10.4.1
Peripheral ties
A continuous tie should be provided at each floor level and roof level
within 1.2m of edge of building or within perimeter wall. This tie should
be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to FkN.
F = 20 + 4n0 or 60 whichever is less
where
n0
= number of storeys in the structure.
Required area of steel for peripheral tie = A1 = 0
F1
This means that the maximum areaof steel for peripheral tie at each floor
and rooflevel is given by:
60x103 =
150mm2
0.87
x 460
or two 10mm dia. bars
(f = 460 N/mm2) fully lapped and anchored.
Ft
F
Ft
>-
Lx U,
D
>LU
Lx
0 LU
UJ
U,
SK 10/14
forces.
Typical frame elevation showing
tie
SK 10/15 Typical floor plan showingties
required.
10.4.2
Internal ties
These ties are at floor and roof levels in two orthogonal directions and
anchored to peripheral ties or columns or perimeter walls.
The spacings of these ties will not be greater than 1.51r,where lr is greatest
INTERNAL TIES (xDIRECTION)
INTERNAL TIES (yDIRECTION)
CDL
CDL
CDL
CDL
Sx
5y
1
1
.S
.S
Lx
Ly
SK 10/16 Typical floor plan

showingties required.
Design
distance
of Connections 469
between centres of vertical load-bearingelements in directionof
tie.
The ties should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the greater
of:
O.O267(g.
+ qk)1FI
or
(g, + q) is the sum ofthe average characteristicdead and imposed

floor loads (kNfm2).
where
10.4.3
Horizontal column and wall ties
PERIPHERAL TIE
'1NTERNAL
TIE
TO
PERIPHERAL TIE
ANCHORED
SK 10/17 Anchorage
of ties.
If peripheraltie is located in wall, then internal ties should be anchored to

peripheral tie. No other wall tie is required.
Each external column should be tied back horizontally at each floor or
rooflevel. The tie force will be the greater of (a) or (b) below.
1
CONTINUOUS
PERIPHERAL TIE
CONTINUOUS
PERIPHERAL TIE
,,
U-BAR
EXTERNAL COLUMNS
HORIZONTAL TLE
BACK TO FLOOR
SK 10/18 Externalcolumn
tie back.
elevation showing
U-BAR
HORIZONTAL TIE
SK 10/19 Corner column

tie back.
plan view showing
(a) 2F or (1I2.5) F if less, where 4, = floor-to-ceiling height (m)

(b) 3% of total design ultimate axial load carried by column
If peripheral tie is not located in wall, then every metre of wall should be
tied back at each floor or rooflevel. The tie force will be either(a) or (b),
as above.
The corner columnwill have horizontalties at each floor level or rooflevel
in each of two directions, capable of developing a tie force equal to either
(a) or (b), as above.

Vertical ties
10.4.4
Each columnand each wall should be tied continuously from the lowest to
the highest level. The tie force in tension will be the maximum design
ultimate dead and live load imposed on column or wall from any one
storey.
10.5
CONNECTIONS
The most commonly occurringstructural connectionsare illustratedin this
section with guidanceon the preferred detailing methods.
Pile-to-pile cap/foundation raft/ground beam
10.5.1
10.5.1.1 Bored and cast in-situ concrete pile
w
L
cD U
Q
-Jw
LU
ui
cC
L LD
>
LU
C
CD
Z
C ZD
C
F
F)
cD
LU
p iii5iiii o
BORED IN-SITU P1LE

CASE 1
Case 1
Mainly vertical loads.
Small horizontal load.
No bending moment in pile at connection.

No tension loads in pile.
SK 10/20 Pile-to-foundation
connection.
471
Pile embedment C into pile cap,or raft, or ground beam, up to bottom

layer of reinforcement.
Check bearing stress on concrete (pile and pile cap) due to horizontal load.
Bearing stress =
where
O.6f
H = design ultimate horizontal load on pile

D = diameteror width of pile
C = embedment of pile into pile cap.
Check anchorageofpile reinforcement.
I = compression anchorage length

-BENT MRS INTROOUCEO
IN GREEN CONCRETE
uJ
o U-U-
(.)
H-OZ
U- 0
C.)
C)C)
.) Z
W
C)
C.)
BORED IN-SITU PILE
IN-SITU PILE
CASE 2A
CASE 2B
SK 10/22 Pile-to-foundationconnection.
SK 10/21 Pile-to-foundation connection.
-BARS
connection.
BOREDIN-SITU PILE
CASE 2C
472
Reinforced Concrete
Case 2
Vertical compression load.

Vertical tension load.
Piles in swelling clay.
Bending moment in pile at connection.
Horizontal load on pile.
Check bearingstress on concrete as in Case 1.
Check anchorage ofpile reinforcement.
Ii = compression anchorage length
= tension anchorage length (the effective anchorage length of the bend
12
may be considered)
If bearing stress is higher thanallowed, thenembedment may be increased
by adopting solution in Case 2C.
10.5.1.2 Precast reinforced concrete pile
Case 1 (same condition as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 1)
z
JL
Umz
"flu
L0
L
z
V)
DI.C)
PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE

CASE 1 AND CASE 2A
connection.
Reinforcement to be exposed by breaking out a length equal to I above

pile cut off.
= compression anchorage length

Check bearing stress, as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 1.
Reinforcement to be exposed by breaking out a length equal to I above

pile cut off.
I = tension anchorage length
PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE
connection.
CASE 2B

Ifbearingstress is higherthan allowed thenembedmentC maybe increased
by adopting solution in Case 2B.
10.5.1.3 Precastprestressed concrete pile
_r
--
z
Q
uJ
J
o_________
C-)
__
connection.

/ = transmission
vfcu
PRECASTPRESTRESSED PILE
CASE 1
length
of prestressing tendons
474
Reinforced Concrete
TOP HAT REINFORCEMENT
TO RESIST PILE
VERTICAL
REACTION IF ALLOWABLE
PUNCHING SHEAR STRESS FOR
DEPTH d' IS EXCEEDED
ELEVATION
PCA$T PRESTRESSED
CASE - 2
PILE
connection.
= nominal diameter of tendon

K1 = 600 for plain or indented wire
= 400 for crimpedwire with wave height not less than0.15mm
= 240 for 7-wire strand or super-strand
= 360 for 7-wire drawn strand.
The top-hat reinforcementdetailingat pile connectionmay be adopted for
where
large vertical load and significant bending moment in pile.

10.5.1.4 Steel H-pile or steel tubular pile
Case 1 (same conditions as in Section 10.5.1.1, Case 1)

Check bearing stress, as in Section 10.5.1.1Case 1, using width of flange
or depth of section, whichever is smaller.
Checkbearing stress on concrete on top of mild steel plate usingmaximum
ultimate vertical load on pile.

MILD STEEL PLATE
STEEL HPILE OR
CIRCULAR STEEL TUBE
SK 10/28 Connection of steel pile

to foundation.
CASE
Case 2 (same conditions as in Section 10.51.1, Case 2)

Check bearing stress, as in Section 10.5.1.1 Case 1, using width of flange
or depth of section, whichever is smaller.
Check bearingstress on concrete on top of mild steel plate usingmaximum
ultimate vertical load on pile.
BARS WELDED TO
MILD STEEL PLATE
STEEL H-PILE OR
CIRCULAR STEEL TUBE
SK 10/29 Momentconnection of
steel pile to foundation.
I=
CASE 2
tension anchorage length of the type of bar used (the effective

anchorage length of a hook or a bend may be used)
= diameter of bar =
1.21(
\afn
M = maximum ultimate bending moment in pile at connection
a = distance between bars perpendicular to axis of rotation or moment,
or distance between two rows.

n = number of bars in each row

Note: During the driving operation it is difficult to control the orientation of the
flanges of H-piles to match the axis of bending moment. In practice, the
anchoringbars should be used in such a fashion that the bending moment
capacity of these anchor bars are equal in both the orthogonal directions.
Themildsteelplate shouldbe checkedfor strengthto transfer theanchoring
tension of the bars to the web of the H-pile.
SK 10/30 Plan of circular pile

showinglocation of anchorbars for
moment connection as in Case 2.
For a circular steel pile using 6 no. anchorbar on a circle of diameter D

which is diameter of circular pile, diameter of each anchor bar is given by:
= O.92(
\Df
10.5.2 Column-to-foundation/pilecap/raft
Case 1: Column bars always in compression
CASE
SK 10/31 Connection of column to

foundation no tensionin bars.
477
No check necessary for anchoragebond length.

The column bars should be taken down to bottom reinforcementmat of
foundation.
Case 2: Significant tension in column bars due tofoundationfixity bending
moment and/or direct axial tension load
SK 10/32 Connection of column to

foundation significanttension in
CASE 2
bars.
1= tension anchoragelength (effective anchoragelength of a bend may be

used)
10.5.3
Wall-to-foundation/pile
cap/raft
Case 1 (same condition as in Section 10.5.2, Case 1)

Use same principle as in 10.5.2, Case 1.
Case 2 (same condition as in Section 10.5.2, Case 2)
Use same principleas in Section 10.5.2, Case 2.
10.5.4
Column-to-columnconnection
Case 1: Column bars always in compression
I = compression lap length
i+2
IL
S2OO IF
AND +2>20
AND C < 15$ OR 1542
SK 10/33 Column-to-column
connection.
Thelinks at the lapwill be at a maximum spacingof 200mm if barslapped

are greater than 20mm in diameter and cover is less than 1.5 times bar
diameter.
Case 2: Significant tension in column bars due to bendingmoment or axial
tension
= tensionanchorage length if cover is at least 2 times diameter of lapped

bars
= 1.4 x tension anchoragelength for corner bars where cover to either

face is less than 2 times diameter of lapped bars
= 1.4 X tension anchorage length if adjacentlaps are less than 75mm or

6 times bar diameter away
10.5.5
Wall-to-wall connection
UBAR
SK 10/35 Type
SK 10/34 Type
1 plan of wall
'
I plan of wall at intersection.
at corner.
px-\ po--o
VERTICAL U-BARS
LAPPED WITH HORIZONTAL
BARS IN THE LAYER UNDER
L
L
SK 10/36 Type 2
plan of wall at corner.
SK 10/37 Type 3
plan of wall
at corner.
and Type 2 connections are efficient for significant reversible

bending moment at connection. If horizontal bars are designed to carry
significant tension at junction, then lap length is given by:
Type 1
/ = tension anchorage lap length
Type 3 connectionmay be used where nominal horizontal reinforcementis

required to prevent cracking and to contain vertical reinforcement. The
lap length is given by:
= 15 times bar diameter or 300mm, whichever is greater

Note:
If the loading causes the corner of the wall to open up then Type 2
connection becomes most efficient. Moreover, with Type 2 detailing the
horizontal bars could be of different diameters at the inside and the
outside faces.
10.5.6 Column-to-beam connection

10.5.6.1 External columns
Case
1: Beam assumedsimply supported
SK 10/38 Connectionof beam to

column Case 1.
= tension lap length

See Section 10.3.2 for design of tension lap length.
Case 2: Beam assumedfixed to column
1 = length required by design calculations
0.15
span
> tension lap
length
r = radius of bend (special radius may be necessary)
Check bearing stress inside bend (see Step 22 of Section 2.3).
= tension lap length (see Section 10.3.2)

13 = tension anchorage length (to be checked if available within depth)
12
Design
of Connections
481
SK 10/39 Connection of beam to

column
Case 2.
Case 3: Beam assumed fixed to column (no reversal ofmoment)
SK 10/40 Connection
column Case 3.
of beam to
OF COLUMN
If 13 in Case 2 is less than tension anchoragelength, use detail in Case 3.
= tension anchorage length

r = radius of bend

12
= length required by design calculations

length
13 = 12 x bar diameter of effective anchorage

14 = tension lap length (see Section 10.3.2)
0.15 span
tension lap
482
Reinforced Concrete
Case 4: Beam assumedfixed to column (ductile connection for reversible
moment)
5O
L2
:r.1 rJ
SK 10/41 Ductile column/beam
connection Case 4.
Where bending moments at connectionare very large and reversible,e.g.

at knee of a portal frame, use detail in Case 4.
= designed length 0.15 span

13 = tension anchorage length
12
tension lap length
May be provided with a hook at end to get full effective anchoragelength.
r = radius of bend

= tension anchoragelength
15
A = same area of steel as beam design bottom steel at column
14
10.5.6.2 Internal columns

Connectionuses straight splice bars at intersection.
Splice bars for secondary beam may be placed inside splice bars of main
beam.

tension anchorage length
12 = designed length
Design
L,
of Connections
483
SO
Hi
J 2
SPLICE BARS FOR

SECONDARY BEAMS
SK 10/42 Internal column

beams from both orthogonal
directions.
10.5.7
1LL
LMAIN BEAM
SPLICE BARS
FOR MAIN BEAM
J]
Wall-to-beam connection
The same principles apply as in Section 10.5.6.
10.5.8
Wall-to-slabconnection
SK 10/43 Connection of slab to

wall. (Slab assumed simply
supported.)
10.5.8.1
Slab simply supported on wall
= 4 x thickness of slab or 600mm or 0.1 x span. whichever
greatest
U-bars are same diameter as bottom bars.

12 = tension lap or 500mm, whichever is greater
10.5.8.2 Slab restrainedby wall-moment connection
is the
484
Reinforced Concrete
Case 1: Small diameter bars

wall Case 1 (Slab rigidly
connected to wall.)
li = the greatestofdesignedlength, tensionanchoragelength, 4 x thickness

of slab, 600mm, or 0.1 x span
12
= tension anchorage length allowing for bends

Check bearing stress inside bend.
13
Case 2: Large diameter bars

wall Case 2 (Slab rigidly
connected to wall.)
1 = same as in Case 1
12
= tension anchorage length allowing for a bend

Check bearing stress inside bend.
13

Note:
10.5.9
Case 2 detail is used when tension anchorage length cannot be accommodated within bend of U-bar in Case 1.
Column-to-wallconnection
Case 1: No significant tension in column bars
CKER
SK 10/46 Wall-to-column
connection.
= compression lap length
12
= compression anchorage length
Case 2: Significant tension
in column bars
= tension lap length (see Section 10.3.2 for design of lap length)
10.5.10
Slab-to-beam connection
The same principles apply as in Section 10.5.8.1.
Page blank
in original
Chapter
11
General Figures, Tables and Charts
487
i:':
mr E5/E
/11/
'0
/,
v'
08
REINFORCEMENTRATIO
04
= Fbd3
100=A/bd
.6
0020_____
0030
0.0. C
0050
0066
v.u,U
Li
LJ
LL
00 10
002C
n.n
//
_____ _____
,b
/
/
/9/
1.2
/bd
16
REINFORCEMENT RATIO 100 As
////
mEs/E
:::_____
t/VbL
0070
Fig. 11.1 Coefficient for moment of inertia of cracked sections with (a) equal
reinforcement on opposite faces and (b) tension reinforcementonly.
General Figures,Tables and Charts 489
"C
"C
C)
I-
ICC
C)
('C
C)
C)
I-
C)
C
C
C)
C
CC
C)
C
C)
C
CC
CL
pq/SyQQ
Reinforced Concrete
490
U,
U,
I-.
C
4)
U,
4)
4)
0
C)
C
U,
0)
1
0
U,
4)
General Figures, Tables and Charts 491
ct
V
V
V
C
C
C
ci,
CC
V
pq/Sy001
II-
In
62.8
78.5
100.5
25
32
157.1
125.7
804.2
1256.6
1963.5
50.3
20
40
50
490.9
31.4
37.7
113.1
201.1
314.2
78.5
50.3
10
12
16
28.3
(mm2)
Area
18.8
25.1
Perimeter
(mm)
6
8
Diameter
(mm)
9.864
15.413
6.313
2.466
3.854
0.222
0.395
0.616
0.888
1.579
Weight
(kg/rn)
6544
10722
2681
4189
1046
1508
670
377
75mm
12566
4909
8042
503
785
1131
2011
3142
283
100mm
15708
10052
3926
6433
2513
402
628
904
1608
226
125 mm
13090
8377
3272
5361
2094
335
523
754
1340
188
150mm
1571
2454
4021
6283
9817
141
251
392
565
1005
200mm
1963
3216
5026
7854
113
201
314
452
804
1256
250mm
Area of steel reinforcement for different spacings (mm2/m)
9818
4022
6284
2262
566
1006
1570
50mm
Table 11.1 Area of steelreinforcementfor variousspacings.
2680
4188
6545
1636
94
167
261
377
670
1047
300mm
CD
CD
-t
Tj
CD
CD
Table 11.2 Sectionalproperties.
lzO5CBt.O5Cb(h-h1)
C Coefficientin fable 2-2
txj bh3)j(B-b)j
(h/2
.2(Bb)h1
h1 12)2
hB3.(h_2h1 )b3
(I.-2hf) b
izCBt1.O.5Cb3(h_2hj)
CCoeffucient in table 2-2
4A
A1 Area of ctosed cell on
of wall.
of
side
of
closed
cell on
B1Length each
rihickness of each sideof closedcellon
lxx
Iyy B3h1.(H2hj)e
.2Bh(x-B12)2
.(H2h1 )(x12)2
(H-2h1)
> b,
lz =cet4 .C(H-2h1)b
C Cotfficuent
in table 2-2
Genera! Figures, Tab!es and Charts 495

Table 11.3 Basic span/effective depth ratios for rectangular and flanged
beams.
Support conditions Rectangular section Flanged beam with
b/b
Cantilever
Simply supported
Continuous
7
20
0.3
5.6
16.0
Chart 11.4 Modification factor for compression reinforcement.
16
14
L)
12
05
15
25
35
45
100 4s/(bd
Cc =
Modification factor for Compression Reinforcement
Chart 11.5 Modification factor for tension reinforcement.
350
04
02
0
2
N/mm2
M /(bd2)
Cf
Modification factor for Tension Reinforcement

Table 11.6 Nominal cover (mm) to all reinforcement including links to meet
durability requirements.
Condition of exposure
Lowest grades of concrete (N/mm2)
Mild: protected against

aggressive environment
Moderate: sheltered from rain
and freezing, subject to
condensation, or, continuously
under water
Severe: subject to alternate
wetting and drying and freezing

Very severe: subject to sea water
spray, deicing salts, etc.
Extreme: exposed to abrasive
action by machinery or vehicles
or water-carrying solids with
pH 4.5
30
35
40
45
50
25
20
20
20
20
35
30
25
20
40
30
25
50
40
30
60
50
Table 11.7 Nominal cover (mm) to all reinforcement including links to meet
specified periods of fire resistance.
Fire
resistance
(hours)
Beams
Simply
Continuous
supported
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
20
20
20
40
60
70
Columns
Slabs
Simply
Continuous
supported
20
20
20
30
40
50
20
20
25
35
45
55
20
20
20
20
25
35
45
20
20
25
25
25
Note: cover in excess of 40mm may require additional measure to reduce risk
of spalling
Table11.8 Rectangularcolumns
.I --d
I
= 30N/mm2, k = 0.95.
cidood cicicicid cicicicid cicicicici ciciciod Ocicicid ciddod cidddd
1.
!!
,-cio ciddod ddddd ddddd cicicicid cicicicid cid000 cicicicid cidOO
-'.-dd
cicici cicicicid cicicicid cicicicid cicicicid cicicicici cicicicid cicicicid
!!
!!
-.-Odci dddoci docicid cicicicici ddciod cicicicid

!L
cOO cicicicici
ddod oddod ddodd cicicicici oodo
.-dood odddo Oddcici cicicicid
ci
!!! n!!! !!
Best available copy)
53+
ci
ci
General Figures,Tabies arid Charts

Table 11.8 (contd)
499
=30N/mm2,k = 0.90.
1 I '-00 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000

I
00 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
""
Iu
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
000 00000 00000
uI
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
"" !! !!!
'000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!!
00000 00000 00000
!!
!! 9!
!!
00000 00000 00000 00000
5! n!!!
""
.-o000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
,-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
Table 11.9 Rectangularcolumns
= 30N/mm2,k
0.85.
oo
!! !!
I
OO
dDd
oooo OdQ
ood
nfl!
!!
i.
oo
""
ooo OOo od dodO
!!
!!!!
!! !!!E !! !!H HH
3!
H!!!
H!U !H!

Table 11.9 (contd)
= 30N/mm2,k = 0.80.
doo od dodd
dOo
!!!
!! !!!
-g.
oooo
!!
""
!!
odo
dod
OdOO
!!
!! !!! !! !!!
!!!U
dOd
!ffl
Table 11.10 Rectangula columns
= 35N/mm2, k = 0.95.
!!
.--0 doooo 0ooo oo0o 00000 0000 00000 00000 00000
t
q
00 0 0 0000 0 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 0000 00 0 0 0 0 0000
00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0d 00
00 0 0
!!!
0 000 00 0 0 0 00 00 000 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
"
00
00
00 0 0 0
00 00 00 000 00 00 0 0 00 00 0 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 00
iNr -.-.- .-000
!!
00 0 o 00 0 0 0 00 a0 00 000 00 00 0 0 00 00 000 00 00 00 0
0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
0 00 00000 00000 00000
U!
M$
000eo 00000 oo000 ooo-
-.-N ?8
ggg8J
do-?

Table 11.10 (contd)
= 35 N/mm,k = 0.90.
ci -oa aooao 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0a 0 0
U1
000 0a a a a a a0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0a a0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
00000 0aa00
'.'- 000
a aa oa a0 a a a0 aa a 0 00 0 a a a 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
0 0a a0 0a a 0 0a 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0
00 00000
&
ggg
I&
c 00 00 00 00 0
2
i
.E
0 00 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0
'w- oo
--.-.- 00000 00000
c
2
.-oo
daooa ooooo
--OOOOO
oo.-
.-aOOO
V---
'l
00000
?8 '''' 8888
Table 11.11 Rectangular columns f=35N/mm2,k =0.85.
uu
-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
"".
I
DO.3
000 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
uu
!!
000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!!
000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
-oooo 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
.
2
q
!!
!U
.4
i,N4
,-.-
..-.-.- .ddo ooooo
-oo0o 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!.
""
-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000 000eo oodo.-
R8 ?$8 88 8888S
dwi

Table 11.11 (contd)
= 35N/mm2, k = 0.80.
!!
000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
'0000
t
I$
0
!!
00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ao,oo
2
0 000
0000
0 0000 0000 0 00000 000 00 00000 00 000 0 0000 00 000
'iu .-.-
!!
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
- 00000
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
u1
-..-
ood
o '"J
00000 00000
0 0 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0
i2
!r?
0 0 00
,-.-,-oo oooo od000 00000
00 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
u.-.- -.-.- othoo OOOOO OOOO 00000 0OOO
dooo ooooo
OOOO OOOO
E8
28 8888$
Table 11.12 Rectangular columns
0 0 0 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 a
oa aa 00a a0 a0 0
''-00
000
u1
0 00 00 00 000 00 00 0 0 a0 0 0
-o
-.-.-
!!
""
a 0a aa a a 000 aa aa a aa a a a a aa a a
sg
_aa
!!
00000 aaoaa 00000 Cacao coCoa 00000 00000 00
"
00 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 00a 00 00 0a 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 aa
""
&
0
L
a aa a a
0 000 0
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
&
f, = 40N/mm2, k = 0.95.
.-0000 Cacao COCOa 00000 00000 00
'-Oaac 00000 CaCao aaa
!!
!!!!
!!
!U

Table 11.12 (contd)
f=4ON/mm2, k= 0.90.
-oo ooooo 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00000 00000
o 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 000 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 0
tZr;
.-.--.-o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 0
--
0OO,
11
!!!!
- .-.--.- -oooo
&
--000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
1 .---.-.--
i.
2?
00 00e00
0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 000 0 0 0000 0 0 0 0 0 000 00 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 000

2?
w u' .t fl fl
fl n en Pi ('1
!!
0000 00000 00000 00000 000
2?2?
odoo ooo 00000
000
0 000 0
('1
gn
0 0 0 00 00 00 0
el
28 ?8 88888
eJeielen enenenen 0eoe..2?

!!
I '-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
= 4ONIrnm2, k = 0.85.
0 00 00 0 00 00 00 0 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 00 o0 0 0 00 0 0
0 000 0 0 000 0 0 000 0 0000 0 0 000 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0 000
mi
!!
0 00 00 0 00 00 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 0 00 00 0
ma
!! !!
H!
!!
.-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!il
!!!
!! ","
""
0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!!
!!
!!!! !!!!
'-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 000
n!!!

Table 11.13 (contd)
f=4ON/mm2, k=O.80,
0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
00000 00000 00000
ooooo 00000 ooooo 00000 00000
0 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0
1.
4Jr'1.-
2
0 0 00
00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 00 0 0
0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
U!
&
0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
!!
0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0
0000 00000 00000 000 00 00000 00000 0000 0 0000 0 00000
&
2
?mwrw u,*te,n
nNr4e4
!!
00 00000 0000e e0000
,,
60000 66600 66600 o600o 00606
0000
0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00
P4 p4 P4 P4
in en en en in
88888
w
vS
,-. 0 0
0 000 0
= 45 N/mm, k 0.95.
!!
0 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 00 00 000 00 00 0
!!! !!
!!
0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 0
0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 00
""
mm
00 0 0 00 00 00 000 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 00 00 000 00 00 0
!
-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 0
'-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000
'-0000 00000 00000 00
,.1.-
ooaoa
eo d
?8 ?8 88888

Table 11.14 (contd)
f=45N/mm2, k=O.90.
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
t
000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
;2
0OO 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
00 00
ooi-
me).,
0000
ri
"
0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
0
J
uj
0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
0
&
$2
E1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.
z
e,e.
0 000 00 000 00 000 000 00
27; S1!
.eie.Iel.,
0000
d dd
*i
00000 00000 00000
-.--- 00000 00000 00000

0
-.-.-,-.- ,
S8
ei.,eie) e)e)e) 88888
= 45N/mm2, k =0.85.
dOO OdOO OO
!!
cdd doo ooo
-OO
oOO
OOO dOO OOO
-oo ooo ooo
ooo
!!!
!U !! U!
!!
&
.J
!!!
&
&
i
2
22
I.-
""
;
Oo
..-.-.-. .ooo odoo 000
g8
2gS 000
00000 00000 0000
01
rI N n
8881!
.6.6
p..

Table 11.15 (contd)
= 45 N/mm2, k = 0.80.
0000 0 0000 0 0000 0
0000 0
00 000
0 00 00 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
00 00 0 0 00 00
000
-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
.dooo
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 00 00
&
!!
!!!
j
,---,- .- odd
r- w in In * en en ci ci N ci N
0d 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0
ci
!!!! !!!
i
2
01 01
(0 0
n!!!
(fl ci ci
!! !!
gn
0000 00000 00000 00 00
!U
Table 11.16 Rectangularcolumns
= 50N/mm2, k = 0.95.
!!
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!!
0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 00000 000 0 0 00 0 00 0 0000 0 0 0
;2
r1 ?
.-.-
.-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
a!!!
000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 0000
uu
-0000 00000 00000 00000 0000
0000 00000 00000
thO4
U;;
0
'5
!U!!
!!

11.16 (contd)
f=5ON/mm2,
k=O.90.
00 0 0 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
u
0o0
J4
'.-
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
..-
0.0
mg
-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
O00
0 00 0
0000
00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0
!!
!! !!
00
zn;2
F.,.w0S,
flnnnN
00 00000
00000 00000 00000
C..
00 00 00 000 0 000 0 000 00

CC.IC.IC
a o ao0 00 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 0
!!!!!
g8 r
e4
ci ci cm
mmmci.
f,
50N/mm2, k = 0.85.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00000 00000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0000 0 0 0 000
-000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
uu
"000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
.- .--e0
!!
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
!!
""
-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
. -0000
L
Ig
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000
cifl.
00000 cooco 00000
,nnr.e4o.
..
,-0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 000
dd
;aood
-.d.
-oaod o
88 ?8
888.88

Table 11.17 (contd)
= 50 N/mm2, k = 0.80.
HH
00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 00 00
&
!!
flN
O)O)
IWflU' 1fl*flfl
flr,NNr4
000
0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
!H
0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0
&
O)CON. WM!flflfl
00000 00000 00000
00 00 0 0 000 0000 0 0000 0 000 00 000 00
0000 00000
_a
518
ReinforcedConcrete
Table 11.18 Circular columns
!!
t
t
= 30N/mm2, k = 0.90.
&
'.-'-
!! !!!! !!!
!!!
t
I
2!
a,
ri
NN
a a a o aa aa d e a00 d0 00

Table 11.18 (contd)
f=3ON/mm2, k=O.80.
0 000
9l
!!
0000
0000
&
!!!!!
00
C
&:
00
I
2
00000 000
0.
0--0
88S

o o0 00 00
&
= 30N/mm2,
0.70.
0--'-.
o 0 0 00 00
&
0 0 0 00 0
00 0 00 0
L
n!!!
!! !!! !! !!
!! !! !! !!! !!!
!!!
,.-000 00000
iz
!!!!!
o00
00000 0000.
i'
000000000
ooeOO 00000
8888 88a8

Table 11.19 (contd)
f3ON/mm2, k=O.6O.
00000
in in ,. P di di in in 0
p,
en
en
en en en
en
00000 00000
(o"
00 00
oe-re'
)000,co
1! !!
di in
10 CD
in
in in
,dicoN.di
!! !!! !!
0 00 00
&
dir.CDinin
0 0 00
0000000000
nnrenn t4C4r1
ce
01 01
CD
fl en en en
00000 000O- CCN
e.J
ri
0d
0 0 od 00 0d d0 0 0 00 00
0inin10
8$8
522
Reinforced Concrete
Table
11.20
Circular columns
= 35N/mm, k 0.90.
I 00
&
.
.
% I
&
o0 0
&
000
000
!!
!!E !!!
!!!
.
:
00006 d6od
SB8 8888

Table 11.20 (contd)
= 35 N/mm2, k = 0.80.
00 00 0
!!! !!!! !!
!!! !!!! !!!! !!

z
o0 0
&
000
&
00
&
00
ci ci ci
0 0a a 0 0 0 0
(N
(N N N ((I (N (N (N (N
a a a o a aa a a a a a a oa aa
4 n 4 in a a
in
in in a, a,
888S
Table
11.21
Circular columns
f=35N/mm2,k=O.70.
&
ooo
l.
'-g
&
!!
CC
CCCCC 0
t
Z
?oi
0 CC
1
;
%
!! !!U

Table 11.21 (contd)
f=35 N/mm2, k=O.6O.
000000000000
00000 00000 0
!! !!!!
&
!!!!!
!!!
&
2
%
0
N
22 gg
00000 00
2
%
00 0 0 0
!!
&
00000 00000 00000
00000 dooo
ooo
$88B8
= 40N/mm2, k = 0.90.
00
&
oo
&
oo
00
!!! !!!
!!!
IL
.-.-.--
-.-.e 00000
p!!!
i
daoao
ooo
Q8 88
8B8.$

Table 11.22 (contd)
f=4ON/mm2, k=O.80.
0000
&
0 00 0
!!!! !!!
!!!! !!!!
!!
0000
!! !!!!
&
00
0
dodo oood.
fl fl
01
olo.o.olo,
000 00 000 00 000 00 000
88
oioio, oooo
o0000 0
o 00 0 0
= 40N/mm2, k = 0.70.
-.-'-
&
0'"
!!
!!
!!!
o 00 0
2
.-.-
&
0000'-
,-,-aoa oo000

Table 11.23 (contd)
f=4ON/mm2, k=O.60.
00000 00000 0
a
L
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
flN- a-r
.nn
W(OIOIflfl
flfl
,-
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
gg
0 00 00 00 0
gE
gggg
gg
-.-.-
&
g!
0 00 00 00
00 0 0 0
ggg
0 00 0
-
netnM,w

= 45N/mm2, k = 0.90.
:000
!!!!!
t
I
!!! !!! !! !!
000W-,-.-
00
,l
9l
!
.t
00
!!!!
!! !! !! !!
!! !!U !U
44

Table 11.24 (contd)
f=45N/mm2, k=O.80.
fl
t
C
&
NN
00 00
o0 0
o0 0 0
N
rJJ -00
&
IN,.-
,-000 00000
oodo o000
Table
11.25
Circular columns f=45N/mm2, k=O.70.
!!! !!!
;?.
000
!!!
!!!
!! !!!
0000
o00
I
%
i
z
0000
88
8S8.8

Table 11.25 (contd)
f11=45 N/mm2, k=O.6O.
u1
0 0 0 00 aa 00
g;2
0 0 0 00 aa 0
F- U,
00000
U, F- F- tO (9 (9 (0 (0
't
N N N N Ct N N
t.
U,F-tO(DU(
(0(9N
NNN
NNCJN
o a aa0
!! !! !!
QO OOOO OOOO
F.9(NC
0 0 0 00 00 0
94 t4 N
N 94
CU
N N (9
U, (0 (0
(0 F- F- U, U,
00000
534
Reinforced Concrete
= 50 N/mm2, k = 0.90.
od
.6
%fl1
i ;g
iSfl gs;
t
I
e4
I
%
oa
zgfg
;fl
1u
UU
;
.6oi.6p.t.
nn
sso,o
.6c,oMig3
.o ini nsn
iei.
nn
wt4riei $rie$NN
!il
!!
!!
!! !!!! !! !! !!!
il9
!!!!
U!
!!
5!! !!! !!!
!!!
!! !!!
oa
n!!!
n!!!

Table 11.26 (contd)
= 50N/mm2, k = 0.80.
!!
!!!! !!!! !!!!! !!!
!!
&
0
tL
---
0
&
'l
0
I!.
00
&
00000
oooo
!!! !!
-.-o
536
Reinforced Concrete
= 50N/mm2, k = 0.70.
E1
UH
$!$ i.ini
sogo
""
St
ivi I?ifl; ;42
oooo c
&
o---,-,-,!!
8E$
4Z1
Ufl1 H
&
$;
t5;:3
sns
,d.ii en4eici
!!!! !!!!! !!!
!!! !!!! !!!! !!!
!! !!
flU
flfl flH
o,-,--,-,-.?
C42
H H!! H!U
%
ng
$r.2
!!!
Ne4r4e4e4
e,er4
!!!!! !!!! !!!?!

rp,d Ifli4 rSrir1 2?? W8t flfl
,-..dd
ireic.3e4
flE OP LE
aoao
o6 r.i6d igin-
3;22
fl0p.qj rS$!
qj.4j
rZ'dciri
2fl!
2
te.i c'it4e4...
2Sfl
;$flfl
c4nl. S? .-dS ddSth
!!
coo ocooc
Ufl1
thoood 66o66
flfl

Table 11.27 (contd)
; 00000
50N/mm2, k
0.60.
00000
00000 0000
0
&
..oon0
z
0 0 00 0
0 00 0
0 0 00 0
00
!-.-.-.-
z
0 0 00 0 0
2
00000
0"
i2
0000
00000
000
J4
Index
active pressure coefficient, 232

additional moments
braced column, 157
circularcolumn, 162
unbracedcolumn, 157, 170
anchorage,
bond length, 205, 466,
bond stress, 205, 460
effective lengths, 465
length,463
angle of friction, S, 233, 298
angle ofinternal friction, (p, 229
areas ofsteel reinforcement, 493
beam element, 368, 386
beam,
balanced design, 7
continuous,48
cover to reinforcement, 51, 66, 74
curtailmentofbars, 61, 71, 81,93
deflection, 59, 70, 80, 92
design for shear, 55, 68, 78, 90
doublyreinforced rectangular,8
effective shear force, 13
effective span,43, 67
effective width of compression flange, 43, 74,
361
flanged, alternative approach,Ii

flanged, design for flexure, 54, 75, 77, 89
load combination, 47
loadsfrom slab, 105
minimum compressive reinforcement, 58, 80
minimum tension reinforcement, 57, 79
momentof resistance, 7
rectangular, design for flexure, 52, 67, 76
reinforcement in side face, 58, 69
sections, 5
serviceability limit state,35
shear reinforcement, 56
simplified detailing rules, 100
singly reinforced, flanged, 9
singly reinforced, rectangular, 5
slenderness ratio, 51, 67, 89
spacing ofbars, 61, 71, 81, 93
stressstrain diagram, 6, 7, 8
torsionalreinforcement, 63, 94
538
transverse reinforcement in flange, 58, 80, 92

variable depth, 13
bearing capacity,
allowable, 227, 252, 283
ofc- soil,227
ofcohesionless soil,227, 283
ofcohesive soil,227, 278
factors,227, 252, 267, 289, 354
horizontal,232, 284
presumed allowable, 228, 239, 250, 265
ultimate,227, 251, 267, 278
bearing lengthofnibs, 198
bearing pressure, 219, 222, 225, 232, 253, 269, 272
bearing stress,
inside bend,61, 196, 204
massconcrete, 249
bearing widthof nibs, 198, 209
bending stress, massconcrete, 249, 282
loss ofcontact, 235
multiple column,238
rectangular pad foundation,234
biaxial bending and tension, 183
containment,191
crack width, 191
shearreinforcement, 190
shearstress, 189
bond stress, 460
C-p soil, bearing capacity of, 227

cantilever wall, 360
centroidofstressedarea, 37, 38
circularcolumn,
biaxial moment, 162
shear stress, 162
short supporting cont. beams
short withmoment, 162
short withno moment, 161
162
slender, 162
slenderness of, 161
circularpad foundation,238
circularpile, 317, 321
shearcapacity,321, 351
class ofexposure, 242

cohesionless soil,bearing capacityof, 227, 283
cohesive soil,bearingcapacity of, 227, 278
Index 539
cohesive strengthofsoil, 229
column,
analysis of, 154
axial load and moment, 21
axial load capacity, 19
balanced failure, 22. 166
braced, 154
charts, 498537
circular section. 29, 161
compression failure, 26
containmentof reinforcement, 164, 168. 172,
180
cover to reinforcement, 156, 165. 169, 177

crack width, 164, 168, 173
effective height, 153
end conditions, 153
interaction curve, 21, 187
load combinations, 154
maximum reinforcement, 163. 168, 172, 180
minimum reinforcement, 163, 168, 172, 180
rectangular section, 21, 155
redistribution ofmoments. 155
serviceability limitstate, 36
shearreinforcement, 160, 163
shearstress, 159, 162
slender, 20, 157, 162, 164
slenderness of rectangular. 155, 165, 169
strip, 407, 428
symmetrically reinforced rectangular, 28
tension failure, 25
torsionalrigidity, 152
ultimate limit state, 19
unbraced, 154
uniaxial bending and tension, 176
column head, 404
effective diameter. 405, 414
effective dimension, 404
compressibility, constantof, 230
concrete,
cube strength, 3
initial elastic modulus, 4
stressstrain relationship. 4
ultimate strain, 4
ultimate stress, 4
conepenetrationresistance, 297
conepenetrationtest, 229
coneresistance, 230
connection,
column to beam, 480
column to column, 477
column to foundation, 476
column to wall, 485
ductile beam to column, 482
pile to pile cap. 470, 471, 472, 473
slab to beam, 485
wall to beam, 482
wall to foundation, 477
wall to slab, 483
wall to wall, 479

consolidation settlement, 229. 269
corbel,
alternative geometry, 194
bearing stresson concrete. 194
design of, 194,200
geometry. 194,201
internal forces, 195, 201
maximumtensionreinforcement,196, 204
minimum tension reinforcement, 196. 204
shear reinforcement. 196. 204
shear stress, 196,203
spacing of bars, 197, 206
strut and tie diagram, 31, 195, 201
ultimatelimit state. 31
corner column, flat slab, 411
cover to reinforcement, 51, 66, 74. 88, 123
crack width,
beams, 63, 71, 82, 96
biaxial bending and tension. 191
corbels, 206
fiexural, 17
slab, 118, 128
wall, 401
critical sections, pile cap. 305. 313, 343, 344
deep beam, 378
deflection. 17. 59. 70, 80, 92

design concrete shear stress, 489, 490, 491, 492
differential settlement. 220, 269
drop, 403
edgecolumn, fiat slab. 410. 424
effective stress in soil, 299

effective vertical stress, 298
elasto-plastic unit resistance. 130
end conditions, walls, 359
end-bearing resistance. 296
envelope,
moment, 50. 87, 418
shear, 50, 87, 418
equivalent beam elements. 368. 386
equivalent torsionalelement, 369. 387
factor ofsafety, 232. 281, 287

finiteelement analysis. 308, 334
fire resistance, 497
flange, effective width of, 43, 74. 361, 392
flat slab,
charts,438-457
column head, 404
column strip, 407, 428
connection to column, 409, 424
crack width,412
curtailmentofbars, 412
design of, 406, 430
detailing of reinforcement, 409
540
Index
flat slab (cont.)
division ofpanels, 407, 428

drop, 403
early thermal cracking. 412
effective shear, 410
effective width, 405, 409, 424
equivalent frame analysis, 405, 415
load combination, 405
middle strip, 407, 428
minimum reinforcement, 412
momentenvelope, 418
momenttransfercapacity, 410
negative momentlimitation, 406, 426
punchingshear, 411, 431
redistribution of moment, 410. 418, 420
shear envelope, 418
spacing of bars, 412
span/effective depth, 412
stiffness correction factors,436
flexural tensile stress, 319
foundation,
horizontal movement, 231, 280, 285
load combination, 225, 252
loss of contact, 233, 235
massconcrete, 218, 249, 277, 282, 287
settlement, 225, 228, 230, 249, 263, 269
side bearing, 277, 283
globalanalysis, 368, 370, 389

grillage analysis, 307
groundbeam, 219, 220, 221, 224
holding downbolt, 239, 265
horizontal bearingcapacity, 232, 284
horizontalcolumn tie, 469
horizontal movement offoundation, 231, 280, 285
inaccuracies, allowance for, 198, 213
internal column, flat slab, 411
internal tie, 468
lap length,462
laps,
compression, 464
tension, 463
lever arm, 6, 8, 11
links,anchorageof, 461
loads,
accidental, 49
concentrated on slab, 106
exceptional, 49
on beams from slab, 105
local analysis, 369, 370, 390
local bond stress, 460
losses in prestress, 319
massconcretefoundation, 218, 249, 277, 282, 287

material,
characteristic strength, 3
factors,3
mean strength, 3
stressstrain relationship, 4
mean vertical stressin soil,290
middle strip, 407, 428
modification factor,
compression reinforcement, 496
tension reinforcement, 496
modulus of elasticity, 45
concrete, long-term, 45
concrete, short-term,45
steel reinforcement, 45
modulus of pile material, 299
modulus of rigidity, 367
modulus of soil, 299
modulus ofsubgradereaction,231, 234, 279, 284,
299
momentenvelope, 50, 87, 418

momentof inertia,44
cracked section, 44, 86
grossconcretesection,44
uncracked transformed section, 44
neutral axis, 6, 8, 10, 12, 18, 24, 29, 34, 36, 38

nib,
bearing length, 198, 209
bearing width, 198, 209
continuous, 199
design of, 197,208
effective bearinglength, 198
effective length, 200
extra vertical reinforcement, 199, 211
geometry, 198, 209
isolated loads, 199
line load, 200
minimum reinforcement, 199, 210
projection of, 198
shear, 199, 211
ultimateloads on, 197

nominalcover, 497
overburdenpressure, 227, 230

pad foundation, 219, 222, 223
approximatesize, 239, 250, 265
bearing and sliding, 241, 254, 273
bending moment, 242, 255, 256, 273
circular, 238
crack width, 247, 248, 262
critical sections, 241, 256, 275
detailing rules,243, 244
distribution of reinforcement, 243, 259
earlythermalcracking, 246, 261
effective depth, 240
equivalent eccentricity, 240
minimum cover, 242, 258
Index 541
pad foundation (coin.)
minimum reinforcement, 246. 248, 261
minimum thickness, 240, 251, 265
punchingshear, 245, 249, 260
rectangular,234
shear, 242, 255, 257, 273
shearperimeter, 245, 260
shearstress, 244, 249, 260
spacing ofreinforcement, 246, 261
passive pressure coefficient, 232
passive resistance, 231, 285
peripheral tie, 467
pile,
additional moment, 317
allowable group capacity, 302
allowable load, 298, 333
approximate numberof, 310, 335
bored and cast in-situ, 470
boundary conditions, 300
circular, 317, 350
containmentofreinforcement, 325, 352
degrees offreedom, 300
effective length, 315
fixed head, 300
free head, 300
group capacity, 301, 339
group end-bearing capacity, 302, 339
group frictioncapacity, 301, 339
horizontal stiffness, 335
lateral load, 300, 333
maximum reinforcement, 325
minimum prestress, 325
minimum reinforcement, 325, 351
point resistance, 296, 329
precastprestressed, 473
precast reinforced concrete, 472
prestressed concrete, 318, 323
rectangular, 314
reinforcement. 315, 350
skin friction, 296, 331
slenderness, 317
spacing of, 301
steel circular pile, 476
steel H-pile, 474
types of, 310
volume displacement, 297
with biaxial moment, 316
with no moment, 316, 318
withuniaxial moment, 316, 318
pile cap,
bending moments, 305, 343
critical section for bending moment, 305, 343
critical section for shear, 313, 344
critical sections, 305, 313, 343, 344
curtailment of bars, 325, 352
design of, 312, 344
enhancement ofdesign shearstress. 313, 348
flexible, 306
minimum reinforcement, 325. 352
punchingshear, 314, 349
punchingshear perimeter, 315, 349
rigid. 302
shear, 313, 344, 347
spacing ofbars, 325, 353
pile efficiency, 354
pile fixity moments, 306. 346
pile group torsion,304
pile load combinations, 309. 337
plainwall,
braced, 360. 383
in-plane shear. 384
unbraced, 360, 384
plastichinges. 421
Poisson's ratio, 47
prestressed concrete pile, 318. 323
prestressed pile,
links, 325
shearcapacity. 323
punchingshear,
modification due to holes, 15
pad foundation, 245, 249. 260
perimeter, 411, 431, 433
pile cap. 315, 349
reinforcement. 113, 114
slabs, 112
rectangular column,
bending and tension. 176
biaxial bending. 158, 164. 166
modification of shearstrength, 160, 172
shearcracking. 160. 172
shear stress, l59, 168. 171
short, supportmg continuous beams. 156
short with no moment. 56
short with uniaxial moment. 156
slender, 157, 164, l65. 169
rectangular pad foundation, 234
rectangular pile. 3l6, 320
shearcapacity. 320
redistribution ofmoments. 7.48,49. 107,418, 420
reinforced wall,
design of, 373, 394
in-plane shear, 379. 397
out-of-plane shear, 380
rigorousmethod, 373. 393
short and squat. 378
simple method, 376

stockybraced, 373
reinforcement,
bearing stressinside bend.61, 196. 204
containment in wall, 384. 400
containment ofcompressive, 60. 81
longitudinal for torsion.63, 96
maximum areas, 60
542 Index
reinforcement (cont.)
maximum in wall, 384
minimum compression, 58, 80
minimum in waIl, 384, 400
minimum tension, 57, 79, 116, 125, 196
orthogonalin slab, 33
side face of beams, 58, 69
skew in slab, 33
transverse for torsion, 63, 95
transverse in flange, 58, 80, 92
relative density of sand. 298
residual prestress, 319
restraintfactor, 117,247
sectional properties, 494
service stress, reinforcement, 60, 92
settlement, foundations,225, 228, 230, 249, 263,
269
sheararea, 47, 364, 386
shearcentre, 86
shear envelope, 50, 87, 418
shear flow, 12, 367, 368
shearlag, 363
shear modulus, 46
additionaltensile reinforcement,
circular pile, 322
concrete strut, 16
prestressed pile, 324
rectangular pile, 320
trussanalogy, 14
wall,380, 398
shear stress,
biaxial bendingand tension, 189
design concrete, 14
massconcrete, 249, 281
torsional, 62, 93
shear stress and tension, 179
shear wall, 362
analysis of, 374
cantilever, 363, 378
closed cell, 365
combination of loading, 371, 390
continuous,363
effective breadthratio, 363, 392
globalanalysis, 368, 370, 389
in-planeshear, 379, 397
irregularclosed cell. 366
local analysis, 369, 370, 390
modelling, 368
multiple cell, 367, 388
open cell, 365
out-of-plane shear, 380
shear flow, 367, 368, 388
single closed cell, 366
torsionalstiffness, 365, 386
side frictionresistance, 298
16
sign convention, 226, 271, 305

skin resistance, 297
slab,
analysis, 104
concentrated loads, 106
coverto reinforcement 107
design for flexure, 108, 124
earlythermal cracking, 117, 127
effective span, 103
elastic resistance, 130
elasto-plastic resistance, 130
finiteelement method, 105
finitedifference method, 105
lacingshear reinforcement, 112
minimum tension reinforcement, 116, 125
momentofinertia, 103
punchingshear, 112
punchingshear perimeter,
115
redistribution of moment, 107

shearstress, 110, 125
simplified detailing rules, 116, 126, 145
spacing ofbars in tension, 116, 127
span/effective depth ratio, 116, 126
supportshears, 131
torsionalreinforcement, 116
two-way charts, I326
ultimateunit resistance, 14650
yield-line method, 105, 122
slab panel,
momenttriad, 33
orthogonalreinforcement, 33
skew reinforcement, 33
slenderness ratio, 371
sliding and bearing,combined, 241, 254, 273
sliding resistance, 231, 254, 272
soil cohesion, 227
soil mechanics, essentials of, 226
soil pressure diagrams,233, 282, 288
spacing of bars,
spalling, allowance for, 198,213
span/effective depth ratio, 495
springstiffness, horizontal (soil), 299, 334
SPT,299, 329
standarddeviation, 3
steel beam theory, 178, 184, 186
steel reinforcement,
elastic modulus, 5
stressstrain relationship, 5
yield strength,3
sulphates,
concentration of, 242, 312
surchargeon backfill, 218, 219, 221
tension and shear stress, 179
thermal cracking, 117
Index 543
thermalcracking (cont.)
minimum reinforcement, 118
thermalexpansion, coefficient of, 47
tie force, 467, 469
ties,
horizontal, 469
internal, 468
peripheral, 467
vertical, 469
torsion, 367
membrane analogy, 18
on pile group, 304
ultimate limit state, 18, 87

torsionalelement, 369, 387
torsionalreinforcement, 63, 95, 96
torsionalstiffness, 45, 365, 386
non-rectangular section, 46
rectangular section, 45
transmission length, 320
triaxial test, 299
trussanalogy, 14
twist ofcell, 367
unconfined compressive strength. 281, 297, 299,
302
uniaxial bending and compression, 36

uniaxial bending and tension, 39, 176
uniaxial bending stresses. 35
vertical tie, 469
volume compressibility, coefficient of, 228, 230,
299
wall,
additional moments, 372, 392
braced, 357, 358
cantilever, 360
containment of reinforcement, 384, 400
crack width,401
deflection, 372, 392
earlythermal cracking, 385, 400
effective heights, 358
effective width of flange, 361. 392
end conditions, 359
in-planeforces. 370
maximum reinforcement, 384
minimum reinforcement, 384. 400
out-of-plane bending, 396, 399
out-of-plane forces. 371, 383
plain, 357, 360, 383
plain slender braced, 383
plain stocky braced, 383
plain unbraced. 384
reinforced, 357, 358
shear reinforcement, 380, 398
slender, 358, 383
slenderness, 371, 391
stocky, 358, 383
unbraced,357, 358
Wood-Armercombination, 32, 309, 369, 437
yield-line tables, 146-50
yield-lines, location of. 137-44
S.S. Ray BE(Cal), CEng, FICE is Chief

Design Engineer with Taywood
Engineering Ltd, part of the Taylor
WoodrowGroup. He has been concerned

with the analysis, design and construction
of almost all types of civil engineering

structures and hasworked in a number of
consultancy practices both in the UK and
abroad. He is a member of several BSI
codesub-committees and is author of

numerous papers in scientific journals.
Coverillustrations showprojects designed and built

by the TaylorWoodrow Group of companies.
Other books of interest

Multi-Storey PrecastConcrete
FramedStructures
Kim S. Elliott
0-632-034 1 5-7
StructuralDetails in Concrete
M. Y. H. Bangash
0-632-02853-X
Structural Foundation Designers'

Manual
Curtins
0-632-02025-3
Steel Designers' Manual

Fifth Edition
Steel Construction Institute

0-632-03877-2 (paperback)
0-632-02488-7 (hardback)
In preparation
Structural Steelwork
Analysis and Design
S. S. Ray
0-632-03857-8
ISBN 0632037245
II
llI
1110100
9 Oil780632
037247O >
BlackweH
Science
c3C

SSRay - Reinforced Concrete

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SSRay - Reinforced Concrete

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S.S.

This book covers the analysis and design

the code formulae have been clearly

Thetext is backed up by numerous

The step-by-step approach will ensure

all design requirements are logically

standardised approach is established

a simplified procedure for checking

Blackwell Science Ltd

Marston Book Services Ltd

25 John Street, London WC1N 2BL

Massachusetts 02142, USA

Other Editorial Offices:

238 Main Street

Fax: 617 492-5263)

Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag GmbH

Science Pty Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

A catalogue record for this book is available

First published 1995

Set by Setrite Typesetters, Hong Kong

from the British Library

Reinforced concrete: analysis and

Dedicatedto my father Professor K. C. Ray

Chapter 1 Theory ofReinforced Concrete

Ultimate limitstate columns

WoodArmer combination of momenttriads

Chapter 2 Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams

Chapter 3 Design of Reinforced ConcreteSlabs

for one-wayelements, and support shears

Example 4.4: Design of a member with biaxial moment

Chapter 5 Design ofCorbelsand Nibs

Example5.1: Designof a corbel

Chapter 6 Design of Pad Foundations

Chapter 7 Design ofPiled Foundations

Chapter 8 Design of Walls

Chapter 9 Design of FlatSlabs

Chapter 10 Design of Connections

10.3.1 Basic rules of anchorageand laps

Chapter 11 GeneralFigures,Tablesand Charts

to practising engineers, students and teachers in the field of reinforced

My intention has been to illustrate the designprinciples at each stage by

to reproduce some of the essential tables from the codes of

ConsultingEngineers, New York for granting permission to reproducethe

British Standards Institution (1985) Structural use of concrete. Parts 1, 2

and 3. BSI, London, BS811O.

British Standards Institution (1986) Foundations. BSI, London, BS8004.

British StandardsInstitution(1979) Codeofpracticefor design ofcomposite

Tomlinson, M.J. (1982) Foundation Design and Construction, 3rd edn.

Bowles, J.E. (1982) Foundation Analysis

and Design, 3rd edn. McGraw-

& F.N. Spon, London.

US Army Armament Research and Development Centre (1987) Structures

Reynolds, C.E. & Steedman, J.C. (1988) Reinforced Concrete Designer's

Theory of Reinforced Concrete

Deflectionof column due to slenderness

Modulus of elasticity of steel

Service stress in concrete

Mean strength of material from test results

Characteristicyield strength of steel

Angle of inclination to horizontal of shear reinforcement

Thecriteria which govern the design of a structure for a particularpurpose

Good value for money

the overall geometry of the