Processing

A challenge in the design of heat transfer equipment for the liquid food industry are the so-called
prepared food products, such as tomato products, soups and sauces and dessert products. In each
case the optimal heat processing equipment has to be chosen in order to retain particle integrity,
flavour and colour of the end product.
What follows here is a brief discussion of the parameters determining the proper choice of heat
exchanger for each specific duty and how to model heat exchanger performance.

Heat Transfer in the Food

Industry
Heat transfer and flow behaviour
modelling in heat exchangers
Dr. Ulf Bolmstedt, Company Specialist in Heat Transfer & Fluid Mechanics,Tetra Pak AB

non-Newtonian showing in many cases quite extraContinuous processing of liquid food products as
ordinary behaviour.
compared to in-container processing offers many ecoThe microbiological demands are basically to
nomic advantages to food processing companies. By
reach commercial sterility, i.e. the
minimising the products exposure to
end product must be free from
the adverse effects of high temperapathogens, free from toxins and free
tures, long processing times and high
from micro-organisms capable of
shear preparation methods, commultiplication under normal stormercial benefits can be realised in
improved product quality, reduced
age and distribution conditions.
processing costs, increased safety and
Depending on the rheological propincreased plant throughput.
erties of the product and the possible
A typical continuous processing
presence of particles the design and
line consists of a preparation subchoice of equipment can vary sigmodule, the actual processing module
nificantly from case to case. Various
and a filling machine. The prepaadditives, e.g. thickeners and staration sub-module is used mainly
bilisers, often also change the physical
for formulated food products, e.g.
and rheological properties of the
Fig.1:Time/temperature graph
vanilla puddings, salsa sauces, and
product.
for comparison of in-container
others.
and continuous processes.
Flow behaviour
In the design of heat exchangers
Continuous processing consideraand choice of heat exchanger configurations the
tions
flow behaviour of the product to be processed has
A challenge in the design of heat transfer equipto be taken into consideration. The flow behaviour
ment are the so-called prepared food products, such
will affect for instance the residence time distribuas tomato products, soups and sauces and dessert
tion and hence the design of heat exchangers and
products. These products are normally of high visholding cells to obtain the sufficient thermal treatcosity as well as of complex composition. Also, in
ment. The basic difference between laminar (streamline)
most cases the content of particles is significant.
With respect to rheology the products are typically
and turbulent flow is well known, as is the effect
Reprinted from New Food Volume 3 Issue 3, Autumn 2000
For more information please contact Russell Publishing Ltd.
Tel: +44 (0)20 7436 3642 Fax: +44 (0)20 7436 3610

Processing

on the velocity profile from heating

or cooling of the
product. As an
example can be
mentioned that the
maximum velocity in laminar flow,
originating from
Fig. 2: Velocity profiles for turbulent and laminar (streamline) flow the parabolic velocity profile, is
showing the ratio of maximum
theoretically twice
velocity to average velocity.
the mean velocity
and in turbulent flow around 10% higher than the
mean velocity. For viscous products, however, the
flow conditions are nearly always laminar. A tomato paste steriliser, for instance, operates at Reynolds
numbers around 1.
For non-Newtonian conditions, prevailing in liquid food processing, the velocity profiles are still more
complex. With decreasing flow behaviour index, i.e.
increasing degree of non-Newtonian
behaviour,the velocity profile increases in flatness. This means in practice
that the maximum velocity decreases from its Newtonian value of twice
the mean velocity, which affects the
design of especially holding cells.
Maintaining the factor 2 for the calculation of the necessary holding
cell length thus creates overcooking of the product.
Additives giving viscoelastic
properties, e.g. xanthan or gellan
gum, are sometimes used to enhance
the particle carrying properties for
Fig. 3: Plate type
a carrying fluid in continuous processing. The so-called yield value, which normally
is a measure of the products willingness to flow by
itself e.g. from a storage tank, is also a measure of

Fig. 4: Multitube type tubular heat

exchanger

the particle carrying abilities. A significant yield

value, typical of paste-like
products, also adds to the
flatness of the velocity profile and hence further
increases the deviation
from the parabolic shape.
Choice of heat exchanger
The choice of optimal
heat exchanger depends to
a great deal on the flow
conditions. Fluids with low
viscosities and no particles
are preferably treated in a
plate heat exchanger. For
fruit juices with pulp and
fibres of up to 5 mm length
Fig. 7: Scraped surface
special types of plates are
type heat exchanger.
available. In addition, even
with high viscosities the plate heat
exchanger can be utilised as long
as the pressures developed are not
too high.
For fruit juices with fibres of up
to 15 mm length a multitube tubular heat exchanger is preferably
used. Also, a fluid of moderate to
high viscosity with only small particles (<5 mm) will run through a
multitube heat exchanger without
problems. For juices with long
fibres, i.e. >15 mm in length, or
fruit pulp with a very high concentration of pulp and fibres, the
heat exchanger.
fibretube is the best choice. The
fibretube is a multitube with a specially designed
tube plate where the tube inlets are shaped to avoid
any risk of fibre blocking.

Fig. 5: Monotube type tubular heat

exchanger.

Fig. 6: Fibretube tube plate.

Processing

However, in case the fluid is significantly viscoelastic, i.e. exhibits a large yield value, often in
combination with a high viscosity, there is a risk of
maldistribution across the inner tubes of a multitube
heat exchanger. In the worst case the product flow
will stop in some of the tubes causing overcooking
of parts of the product and also cleaning problems.
Example of such a product is hot break tomato paste
or a stiff dessert pudding. In those cases the concentric tube is the best choice. The concentric tube
has only one product channel, which eliminates the
risk of maldistribution. At the same time the narrow
gap and the two service medium channels surrounding the product channel provide efficient heat transfer.
Finally, in case large particles are present the monotube is probably the optimal choice. The drawback
with a monotube compared to a concentric tube is
reduced thermal efficiency due to the thicker product
layer and the absence of the inner service medium
channel. However, the particles present in the product
will to a great extent work as internal mixers and
will hence promote heat transfer.
In case neither of the tubular types will be sufficient the scraped surface heat exchanger must be
employed. In principle, a scraped surface heat exchanger is a monotube equipped with a rotating internal
scraper. The scraper keeps the heating surface free
from any deposits and also promotes turbulence.
Hence this type of heat exchanger is ideal for products of very high viscosity, possibly also containing
large particles.
Viscosity measurements and modelling
Non-Newtonian properties are normally examined
and described by a viscometric or rheometric analysis. With a viscometric analysis a shear rate sweep is
performed on the product.Shown in a shear stress/shear
rate or an apparent viscosity/shear rate graph the
basic shearing rheological behaviour can be determined.
The results from a viscometric analysis can be fitted with the aid of a suitable model, depending on
product characteristics and intended use. Normally,
the so-called power law or Ostwald de Waele model
is employed for fitting of viscometric measurement
data. The main benefits of the power law model are
its simplicity and its applicability to most liquid food
products within the shear rate range of interest. The
simple application of the power law in a double log
graph provides a quick but still widely applicable way
of retrieving the necessary viscosity data parameters
for use in equipment design. In the power law case
the parameters are the consistency value K (Pasn) and
the power law index n (dimensionless), respectively.

The viscometric analysis provides the necessary

information for design of process equipment.
Normally the power law is used for description of
the behaviour of the product under shearing conditions and therefore the power law index n and
the consistency K are determined. Regarding liquid foods practice has shown that the power law
can be used to model most products within the
limited range of shear rates prevailing in most processing equipment.
The subject of viscosity can be further studied
in the previous issue of New Food magazine1.
Heat transfer correlations
Design models for heat exchangers are normally based on empirical correlations of the dimensionless
Nusselt, Prandtl and Reynolds numbers. The derived
equation is basically of the form Nu = (Re, Pr).
By using dimensionless numbers only a limited
number of experiments has to be performed in
which the product and heating/cooling medium
flow rates and the product physical properties are
varied in order to cover a large range of Reynolds
as well as of Prandtl numbers. The physical properties are changed preferably by changing the
temperatures of the fluids involved. Decreased
and increased temperatures can normally vary the
viscosity of the product significantly.
The definition of the Nusselt, Prandtl and
Reynolds numbers is as follows:
.dh

Nusselt number

Nu =

Prandtl number

Pr =

Reynolds number

.
Re = dh

cp.

where
individual heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
dh = hydraulic diameter
m

=
=

thermal conductivity of liquid

cp= specific heat of liquid

=

dynamic viscosity of liquid

v = velocity

W/mK
J/kgK
Pas
m/s

A comparison of tubular heat exchangers with

plate heat exchangers shows that the thermal
performance as read off in a typical Nu-Pr-Re
graph is better for the plate heat exchanger, mainly due to the complex corrugated pattern including
a large number of contact points in the product
channel.

Processing

There is, however, a penalty for the good heat

transfer in the form of higher friction factors at the
corresponding conditions. Also, due to the contact
points, the plate heat exchanger is less suitable for
particulate products.
From systematic laboratory tests and from experience of commercial plants it has been determined,
however, that to completely model the heat transfer of liquid food products some more parameters
have to be included. Such parameters are for instance particle content, particle shape and size as
well as type of particles. In addition, the softness
or hardness of the particles has to be taken into consideration.
At Tetra Pak extensive tests have been performed
in order to analyse the specific thermal behaviour
of a number of food products, e.g. fruit juice concentrates, tomato products, starch based puddings
and fruit pures. The results show the difference in
thermal behaviour between the products tested based
on the traditionally used correlations and hence also
show the need of more complex correlations taking
into account the detailed physical properties of real
food products.
To further strengthen the knowledge in heat transfer to industrial liquid food products Tetra Pak
worked together with the Campden & Chorleywood
Food Research Association (CCFRA) and British
food producers to develop and apply research tools
for process and product design. Laboratory tests as
well as full-scale tests were performed proving the
benefits of continuous thermal processing. The work
was carried out through two major LINK projects,
partly funded by the UK Government2.
Products studied were mainly sweet & sour sauces,
chutneys, curries and tomato salsas. A number of
economic and product quality benefits were determined, such as reduced energy and utility costs,

Fig. 9:The Nu-Pr-Re correlation as a result from tests

on real food products
reduced requirement for expensive flavour ingredients, firmer particle texture, brighter colour and
reduced overcooking. The heat exchangers used in
the projects were of tubular as well as of scraped
surface type in commercial design.
Simulation of particulate processes
Software for the simulation and optimisation of
particulate thermal continuous processes is available. The model, called TPCOSS, was developed in
collaboration with SIK, Gothenburg, and is based
on the MATLAB and the MS Excel software.
The results from a simulation are summarised in
tables or shown in a graph. The graph presents the
carrying liquid and particle temperatures, the sterilisation effect F0 value and the cooking value C as
functions of processing time.

Fig. 10: Graph showing temperatures and sterilisation

values as a function of processing time.

Fig. 8: Comparison of Nu-Pr-Re correlations for plate

and tubular heat exchangers.

With TPCOSS any desired particulate continuous process line can be simulated, regardless of
particle content, particle size, particle shape or particle relative velocity. Hence an optimisation of
time-temperature program as well as choice and

Processing

Simulations were made for rheological behaviour

from water to tomato paste, the latter including
models with as well as without yield value incorporated.
Conclusion
Continuous processing of liquid food products
offers many advantages to food processing companies regarding product quality, processing costs,
safety and plant throughput. In the design of heat
exchangers and choice of heat exchanger configuFig. 11: Concentric channel type heat exchanger.
rations the flow behaviour of the product to be
configuration of processing equipment can be perprocessed is of greatest importance.
formed in order to minimise the thermal load on
Modelling of heat exchanger performance requires
the food product at the required
accurate measurements under
rate of sterilisation.
controlled laboratory conditions on stable and well-known
CFD analysis
model products as well as on
In order to analyse the funcreal food products. In order
tion of specific construction
to achieve proper accuracy
details before the actual
and applicability to commanufacturing of expensive
mercially used equipment
tools and prototypes comspecial correlations have to
putational fluid dynamics
be developed and implemented
analysis is preferably perin design programs.
formed. The example shown
Computational Fluid
here concerns a new header
Dynamics has proven to be
to a concentric tubular heat
a useful tool in the design of
Fig. 12: Result from CFD analysis of concentric
exchanger.
certain construction details
channel heat exchanger header
The heat exchanger studof heat exchangers. One benFlow pattern from tomato paste data.
ied has a modular construction
efit is that costly manufacturing
with the header in either a
of tools and prototypes can
single or double design. With the double design the
be avoided. In addition, product quality and safeheating or cooling water at the outer service side is
ty will be secured at an early stage in the development
transferred from one module to another in series as
work.
is the product flow. The water flow at the inner service side is transferred via a normal bend connected
References
to the tubes.
1) Bolmstedt, U., New Food, 3(2), 2000, p. 15 - 21
The concentric tube design provides good heat trans2) Tucker, G. and Bolmstedt, U., Liquid Foods
fer due to the narrow product gap giving excellent
International, 3(3), 1999, p. 15-16
conditions for laminar heat transfer. In addition, the
two service side flow rates are balanced to give an even
Dr Ulf Bolmstedt joined Alfa Laval in 1975 to implethermal treatment of the product from the two sides.
ment dissertation work on computer software for
The design of the headers provides easy dismantling
simulation of evaporators. He continued with Alfa
for full inspection of the product channel.
Laval and Tetra Pak, to work with evaporators, heat
The main purpose of the CFD analysis was to
exchangers and rheology, mainly within liquid food
pinpoint any possible stagnation areas in the headapplications. He has published a number of articles
ers. Stagnation in the product flow will lead to
within these areas and holds patents, mainly within
overcooking of part of the product and hence to a
evaporation equipment. He currently holds a position
decrease in product quality and may also result in
within Tetra Pak as Company Specialist in Heat
cleaning problems. In order to create the proper
Transfer & Fluid Mechanics and at the Lund Institute
boundary conditions the modelling of the headers
of Technology as External Associate Professor.
included also a significant part of the annular product
channel.

Get More
out of heat transfer

Take advantage of Tetra Paks experience in heat transfer and

achieve high and uniform product quality at the lowest possible
operational cost.
Our broad and deep application knowledge allows us to
supply the optimal heat exchanger solution for your particular
needs. Consistent shelf life is secured with minimum influence
on product characteristics like taste, colour and nutritional
value. Long production times between CIP and energy saving
are other factors taken into consideration.
The design of the heat exchangers, with special focus on
hygiene and reliability based on decades of experience in the
food industry, ensures food safety and low maintenance costs.
Tetra Pak offers the widest range of heat exchangers including:
Tetra Plex plate heat exchangers
Tetra Spiraflo tubular heat exchangers
Contherm scraped surface heat exchangers
Choose Tetra Pak and get more out of heat transfer.

CODE 63548 EN1

Contact your nearest Tetra Pak company or visit www.tetrapak.com