The science of geology seeks to understand these processes that

operate both on and below Earths surface and that are

responsible for shaping our ever changing planet.
Earths Formation and its Interior Structure
Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago during the birth of our
solar system. This date comes from meteorites and moon rocks.
For several hundred million years after the formation of the solar
system the planets were continuously bombarded by meteoric
debris thus the surface of the Earth probably remelted repeatedly
by the impacts of large asteroids. This early bombardment
continued until about 3.8 billion years ago.
During the next major phase of earths formation cooling and
differentiation of the Earths layers occurred. Dense materials
sank to the center, forming an iron-nickel rich core. Lighter
buoyant silicate-rich magma rose to the surface. The remaining
material between the core and the magma formed Earths
thickest layer, called the mantle,which is composed mainly of
iron, magnesium, calcium-rich silicate minerals (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Cross sectional view of Earth illustrating its

heterogeneous layers. (image from Beatty, J. K. and A. Chaikin,

eds. The New Solar System. Massachusetts: Sky Publishing, 3rd

Edition, 1990.)
Click to enlarge.
Eventually, the magma cooled to form a thin layer of
silica/aluminum-rich crust . Oceanic crust is composed of dense
basalt and gabbro. Continental crust is less dense and has a
granitic composition overall.
The division of the Earths interior into 3 distinct layers called
the core, mantle, and crust is based on chemical composition.
Earths interior is commonly further differentiated into 5 layers
based on physical properties (Figure 2). Starting from the
Earths surface, the interior is divided into
the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core,
and inner core. .

Figure 2: Illustrating the differentiation of Earths interior.

Click to enlarge.

The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is a fundamental concept describing dynamic
transitions of minerals and materials through three main rock
types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous.
Igneous rock forms from the crystallization of molten material
(magma) from the lithosphere. Igneous rock may be classified
as intrusive if the magma cools and solidifies underground.
When magma reaches Earths surface through a volcanic
eruption, the resulting rock is known as extrusive igneous rock.
Once exposed to atmospheric conditions at the surface of the
earth, weathering processes cause rocks to disintegrate or
decompose into loose sediment and dissolved ions. Sediment
can be transported by rivers, wave action, wind, gravity, or
glacial ice, be deposited, and become buried whereby the loose
grains may be compacted and cemented (lithified) and
converted into clastic sedimentary rock. Chemical sedimentary
rock is deposited by chemical precipitation of minerals held in
solution. Sedimentary rock may also be classified
as organic such as coal that forms from the compaction of plant
material.
If buried deep enough, rock can be subjected to high
temperature intense pressure causing it to change into the third
rock group called metamorphic rock. If metamorphic rock
undergoes additional heating or still higher pressure it may
completely melt and once again become magma, completing the
rock cycle.

Figure 3: Diagram depicting the recycling of rock material on

Earth (USGS image).
Click to enlarge.
As illustrated in the diagram to the right, other pathways exist in
the rock cycle. Over the course of Earths long history rocks
have been formed, changed, and reformed again and again.
Geologic Time
There are two types of geologic age determinations: relative age
and numerical age. Geologists in the late 18th and early 19th
century studied rock layers and the fossils in them to determine
relative age. It wasn't until well into the 20th century that
enough information had accumulated about the rate of
radioactive decay that the age of rocks and fossils in number of
years could be determined through radiometric age dating.
Relative age dating means to place events in a proper sequence
or order, without knowing the age in years. Deciphering a
sequence of geologic events is done by applying four
fundamental principles:
1) Law of Original Horizontality: Sedimentary rock layers, and
large lava flows, are initially deposited in a horizontal or nearly
horizontal orientation due to gravity (Figure 4). Therefore if

rock layers appear tilted to the horizon we can assume the rocks
have been moved into that position by some crustal disturbance
sometime after their deposition (Figure 5).

Figure 4 : Sedimentary
rocks in a quarry near
Decorah, IA
demonstrating the law
of original horizontality
AND the law of
superposition. These
rock layers have
remained in the same
orientation since the
sediment was first
deposited some 450
million years ago.
Darker shale-rich
layers near the base are
older than the lighter
carbonate layers
overlying them..
Click to enlarge.

Figure 5: Tilted
sedimentary layers like
these near Joggins
Nova Scotia indicate
crustal deformation
after the sediment was
deposited.
Click to enlarge.

2) Law of Superposition: In an undisturbed sequence of

sediments and lava flows, the layer above is younger than the
layer below (Figure 4).
3) Law of Lateral Continuity: Sediments and lava flows are
generally laterally continuous; if not then they are usually cut by
faults. Original sedimentary layers extend to the edges of a
depositional environment (such as a lake or ocean basin) until
they thin or taper off or until one type of sediment laterally
interfingers with another as the depositional environments
change.

4) Law of Cross-Cutting
Relationships:
Any sediment or lava flow
that is cut by a fault,
another igneous body, or an
erosional surface is older
than the cross-cutting
feature (Figure 6).

Figure 6: A light colored igneous

dike cutting across (slightly darker
colored) metamorphic rock layers
in New York Citys Central Park,
thus making the dike younger than
the rock it cuts through. Click to
enlarge.

Using basic geologic principles such as the four described

above, as well as the presence of distinctive fossils found in
sedimentary rock layers, geologists have devised a standard
geologic time scale. This is a worldwide relative time scale that

can be used to correlate rocks even on different continents

(Table 1).
Table 1. Abbreviated geologic time scale.
Eon
Phanero
zoic

Era

Period
Quaternary

Cenozoi
c
Tertiary

Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Paleozoi
Permian
c
Pennsylva
*
nian
Carbonife
Mississip
rous
pian
Devonian
Mesozoi
c

Epoch
Holoce
ne
Pleistoc
ene
Pliocen
e
Miocen
e
Oligoce
ne
Eocene
Paleoce
ne

Proteroz Precamb
oic
rian
Archean (informa
Hadean l name)

Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Vendian (or
Ediacaran)

*Outside of North America, the Pennsylvanian and

Mississippian Periods are known as the Carboniferous Period.
Present Activity Domains
Compendium of Activities of GSI
Annual Program of GSI
Surface Mapping
Systematic Geological Mapping
Specialised Thematic Mapping
Geochemical Mapping
Geophysical Mapping
Aero geophysical Mapping
Offshore Survey and Exploration
Systematic Survey of Exclusive Economic Zone and

beyond
Systematic Survey of Territorial Waters
Mineral Resource Survey
Coastal Environment Survey
Legal Continental Shelf Survey
Recognition and mapping of magnetic and gravity
anomalies in sea bed
Marine Geo-techniques
Mineral and Energy Resources Exploration
Energy Resources (Coal and Lignite)
Energy Resources Study (other than Coal and Lignite)
i.

Coal bed Methane

ii.

Gas Hydrates

iii.

Geothermal Energy

iv. Ocean thermal and Tidal energy

Ores and Minerals (Non-coal minerals/metals) comprising
i.

Base metals (copper, lead-zinc

ii.

Precious metals and minerals (gold, diamond,

platinum group metals etc.)

iii.

Strategic and rare metals and minerals (tin, tungsten,

REE etc.)

iv. Ferrous minerals (chromite, manganse etc.)

v. Fertiliser minerals (potash, phosphorite etc.)
vi.

Industrial minerals (limestone, dolomite etc.)

Engineering Geology and Geotechnical Investigations

Hydroelectric and Irrigation projects
Communication Projects
Gas and oil pipelines
Slope stability
Land subsidence
Sponsored Schemes
Water Resources Development projects like irrigations,
hydel power etc
Communication projects, particularly road/rail alignment
in mountain regions and bridges
Engineering constructions and miscellaneous projects

 Geotechnical evaluation of major river basins.

Geoenvironmental and Fragile Ecosystem
Land use capability
Urban Geology
Agro-geology including rapid top soil erosion
Geo-ecology
Desertification
Geo-environmental Studies include
Environmental resource appraisal
Studies on environmental impact, mitigation of effects of
urban development
Global change programme
Shallow Subsurface Geology
Regolith Geology
Shallow Subsurface Geology and Drilling up to 300 metres

 Drill Core Library and Documentation of cores

Geology of Water Resources
Glaciological Studies
Major Geo-hydrological Cycles
Water Quality Assessment
Response of water regimes of climate change
Problems of Seawater Incursion
Geological Hazards
Seismology, Seismotectonics and Seismic Microzonation
i.

Active Fault Studies

ii.

Seismic microzonation studies of major

urban/industrial complex

iii.

Observational seismology for earthquake monitoring

Landslides, Landslide Zonation and Avalanches

Floods and palaeo-floods, Coastal Zone Hazards
Studies on volcanism

 Studies on geological health-hazards (arsenic, fluoride in

ground water) and medical geology
Research & Development
Crustal Evolution
Metallogeny
Geodynamics of Indian Plate and its consequences
Climate change and responses of Environmental Systempast and future
Deep continental studies including deep drilling
Evolution of sedimentary basins through space and time
High resolution stratigraphy and Palaeo-biology
Geomorphology, Quaternary geology, neo-tectonics,
Palaeo-seismology
Meteorites and extra-terrestrial material
Geosciences instrumentation
Studies in Antarcticas
Information Services and Education
Development and dissemination of geo-scientific databases

 Map Compilation
R&D partnerships with academic institutions and
laboratories
Museums
Public Awareness and school education Programme
Publication
i.

Soft Copy Conversion of Reports and Maps

ii.

Map compilation and Printing

iii.

Publication

iv. Customisation of data packages

v. Participation in National Spatial Data Infrastructure
(NSDI)
vi.

Creation of Organizational Information Infrastructure

involving GSI Intranet and Enterprise Information
Portal

vii.

Curatorial Activity

viii.

Mass Communication

Commercial Activity
Technical Consultancy

 Business Development
Commercial ventures and partnerships in India and abroad
Human Resource Development
Departmental Training Programme
Extra Departmental Training
Training abroad for nucleating groups in challenging thrust
areas and priority areas
Training of outsiders in GSI
International Activities
Organization of International Symposium
Participation in IGCP
Bilateral Correlation Programme
Geo-scientific Study in Antarctica
Vigilance Administration
Property Statement Returns

 Addressal of Complaints
Review and Monitoring
Brief History of Geological Survey of India

1821 First Geological Map of parts of India was of

Hyderabad region by Dr H. W. Voysey
1840 Museum of Geology established in Calcutta in
three rooms of Asiatic Society of Bengal
1846 D. H. Williams of British Geological Survey
appointed geologic advisor to the East India Company
for the purpose of carrying out geological survey of
three coal bearing districts. He developed a number of
deposits in Raniganj, Jharia and Karanpura coal fields
1851 Thomas Oldham arrived in Calcutta on 4th
March and took charge of office on 5th March, 1851,
which marks the establishment of the Geological
Survey of India.
1854-55H. B. Medlicott establishes three fold
subdivision of the Vindhyans
1857 H. B. Medlicott surveys Himalayan Ranges
between Ravi and Ganges and lays down the
foundation of Himalayan Geology.

1858-60 Geological map of the Ranigunj coal fields

by W. L. Wilson published. This is the first geological
map of 1" = 1 Mile published by the Geological
Survey of India
1860 J. G. Medlicott recognises three principal
subdivisions of the coal bearing series and applied the
names Talcher, Damuda and Mahadevas.
1873 Ram Singh becomes the first Indian to join
Geological survey of india (as an apprentice)
1877 Geological Gallery in the new Indian Museum
was thrown open to public on January 1
1892 Geology Classes started in Presidency College,
Calcutta with T. H. Holland as the first part time
professor of Geology.
1911 Revised Geological Map of India in 1"= 32 Mile
scale was published under H. H. Hayden
1921-33 E. H. Pascoes "Manual of Geology of India"
published in four volumes
Some of the major memoirs published in the
period 1921-35
C. S. Foxs memoir on the Gondwana system and
the lower Gondwana coalfields of India
E. R. Gee: Geology and coal reserves of
Ranigunj Coalfields
J. B. Audens Vindhyan Sedimentaion in the Son
Valley

 H. C. Jones Iron Ore deposits of Bihar and

Orissa.
L. L. Fermors Mineral Resources of Central
Provinces of Bihar and Orissa.
D. N. Wadias Geology of Poonch State
(Kashmir) and Syntaxis of the Northwest
Himalaya
1951 M. S. Krishnan becomes the first Indian to be a
Director of the Geological survey of India
After independence, the country undertook programme of
planned development. Since then governmental policies and
priorities are going through paradigm shifts in response to the
market forces. GSI has been reciprocating to these changing
scenarios time and again in a prompt and apt manner.
2001 GSI celebrated 150 years of its dedicated service to the
nation
................and the Odyssey goes on......
Mineral and Energy Resources Exploration
Energy Resources
i.

Coal & Lignite

ii.

Coal bed Methane

iii.

Gas Hydrates

iv. Geothermal Energy

v. Ocean thermal and Tidal energy
Ores and Minerals (Non-coal minerals/metals)
i.

Base metals (copper, lead-zinc)

ii.

Precious metals and minerals (gold, diamond,

platinum group metals etc.)

iii.

Strategic and rare metals and minerals (tin, tungsten,

REE etc.)

iv. Ferrous minerals (chromite, manganse etc.)

v. Fertiliser minerals (potash, phosphorite etc.)
vi.

Industrial minerals (limestone, dolomite etc.)

Emphasis on prognostication of low volume high-value

minerals (gold, diamond, and platinum group of minerals) and
ores and minerals of high demand (base metal, iron ore, coal,
lignite etc.) have been prioritised keeping in view the thrust
accorded by the Government of India for the X Plan. With the
near exhaustion of surface proximal resources it has become
imperative to have multi-disciplinary approach for locating
concealed mineral deposits.

Multi-disciplinary approach to mineral exploration comprise

large scale and detailed mapping aided by interpretative
analysis of remotely sensed and aero geophysical data, ground
geophysical survey, geochemical prospecting and subsurface
exploration through pitting, trenching and followed by drilling.
Collection of baseline geo-environmental data has been made
mandatory for exploration of minerals, which would be of
immense help in carrying out EIA and EMP studies during
exploitation stage, thus ensuring a balance between
development and environmental protection. The resource
evaluation will be continued in P-I, P-II, E-I and E-II stages
and will be monitored in conformity with the exploration input
for G4, G3, G2 (Partly) stages of UNFC system respectively.
This ensures continuous flow of projects from a preliminary
stage to successive stages of detailed exploration while
providing a built in scope for review and decision making after
each stage of work through successor programmes.
Systematic updating of the database in the mineral resource
sector to provide reliable and relevant information on mineral
and other natural resources to the public and private sector
entrepreneurs to sustain investment in mineral sector.
Research activities in GSI can be broadly generalized under
the following categories.
Crustal Evolution
Metallogeny

 Geodynamics of Indian Plate and its consequences

Climate change and responses of Environmental Systempast and future
Deep continental studies including deep drilling
Evolution of sedimentary basins through space and time
High resolution stratigraphy and Palaeo-biology
Geomorphology, Quaternary geology, neo-tectonics,
Palaeo-seismology
Meteorites and extra-terrestrial material
Geosciences instrumentation
Studies in Antarctica
Concerted efforts have been initiated in the Geological
Survey of India to upgrade and modernize the various
laboratories with a view to provide international-standard
laboratory back-up and support to various ongoing field
investigations.
Petrology: Petrology laboratories take up individual research
projects pertaining to crustal evolution, metallogeny, health
hazard etc and also provide support to other research
projects of GSI.

Palaeontology: Palaeontology Divisions of the Central

Headquarters carried out research works focusing on the
early organic evolution, biostratigraphy and
palaeoenvironment of the Proterozoic era, study of the
terrestrial vertebrate community of the Early Triassic,
documentation of the faunal turnover and environment
shift across the Cretaceous - Tertiary and Eocene Oligocene boundaries and palynostratigraphy of the
subcrop Gondwana and Tertiary sediments.
Geochronology and Isotope Geology: The Geochronology
and Isotope Geology Division continued to provide
isotopic age data utilising Rb-Sr, U-Pb(zircon) and
Radiocarbon methodologies pertaining to research and
developmental work and as inputs to ongoing field
investigations of the Department. The Division recently
introduced studies on Sm - Nd isotopic systematics.
Photogeology and Remote Sensing: Photogeology and
Remote sensing studies employing state-of-the-art
technology have contributed in a very significant way for
various R & D and Application Projects carried out in GSI.
The sphere of activities of the PGRS laboratories
encompass mapping of inaccessible / sediment covered
terrains, Geoenvironmental impact analysis, change
detection studies etc.
Analytical Chemistry: Chemical labs provide very precise
and accurate analytical data for samples of various FSP and
other research projects of the department with the help of
classical as well as various sophisticated instrumental

techniques. A field season item Geochemical studies on

the impact of municipal garbage in solid waste dumping
area, Kolkata has been taken by the Central Chemical
Laboratory, Kolkata in this year.
Geophysics: The Geophysical divisions pursues studies
pertaining to crustal structure and neotectonic activity,
urban Geology and Seismic microzonation, subduction
tectonics, Seismic hazard and risk evaluation, basement
configuration from Bouguer anomaly etc.
Mineral Physics: These Laboratories in GSI are well
equipped with modern instruments to carry out physical
analysis of geological materials.
Curatorial: The Curatorial and Repository Units of the
Geological Survey of India shoulders the responsibility to
preserve the rocks, minerals, fossils and meteorites
collected during field surveys and through exchange and as
gift. These units regularly organizes exhibitions at different
forums, assist research workers, provide educational aid,
does consultancy services in setting up of
museums/exhibitions, etc. In addition these units also
maintain the repositories in different museum galleries.

What are geological, geochemical, or geophysical surveys?

(a) Geological surveys are surveys of the geology of mineral
deposits. These are done by, among other things, taking mineral

samples, mapping rock units, mapping structures, and mapping

mineralized zones.
(b) Geochemical surveys are surveys of the chemistry of mineral
deposits. They are done by, among other things, sampling soils,
waters, and bedrock to identify areas of anomalous mineral
values and quantities that may in turn identify mineral deposits.
(c) Geophysical surveys are surveys of the physical
characteristics of mineral deposits to measure physical
differences between rock types or physical discontinuities in
geological formations. These surveys include, among other
things, magnetic and electromagnetic surveys, gravity surveys,
seismic surveys, and multispectral surveys.
Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and
principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind
major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and
its oceans.[1]The realm of geochemistry extends beyond
the Earth, encompassing the entire Solar System[2] and
has made important contributions to the understanding of
a number of processes including mantle convection, the
formation of planets and the origins of graniteand basalt.
Chemical characteristics[edit]
The more common rock constituents are nearly
all oxides; chlorides, sulfides and fluorides are the only
important exceptions to this and their total amount in any
rock is usually much less than 1%. F. W. Clarke has
calculated that a little more than 47% of the Earth's crust
consists of oxygen. It occurs principally in combination as

oxides, of which the chief aresilica, alumina, iron oxides,

and various carbonates (calcium carbonate, magnesium
carbonate, sodium carbonate, and potassium carbonate).
The silica functions principally as an acid, forming
silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks
are of this nature. From a computation based on 1672
analyses of numerous kinds of rocks Clarke arrived at the
following as the average percentage composition of the
Earth's crust: SiO2=59.71, Al2O3=15.41, Fe2O3=2.63,
FeO=3.52, MgO=4.36, CaO=4.90, Na2O=3.55, K2O=2.80,
H2O=1.52, TiO2=0.60, P2O5=0.22, (total 99.22%). All the
other constituents occur only in very small quantities,
usually much less than 1%.
These oxides combine in a haphazard way. For
example, potash (potassium carbonate) and soda (sodium
carbonate) combine to produce feldspars. In some cases
they may take other forms, such as nepheline, leucite,
and muscovite, but in the great majority of instances they
are found as feldspar. Phosphoric acid with lime (calcium
carbonate) forms apatite. Titanium dioxide with ferrous
oxide gives rise to ilmenite. Part of the lime forms lime
feldspar. Magnesium carbonate and iron oxides with silica
crystallize as olivine or enstatite, or with alumina and lime
form the complex ferro-magnesian silicates of which
the pyroxenes,amphiboles, and biotites are the chief. Any
excess of silica above what is required to neutralize
the bases will separate out as quartz; excess of alumina
crystallizes as corundum. These must be regarded only as
general tendencies. It is possible, by rock analysis, to say
approximately what minerals the rock contains, but there
are numerous exceptions to any rule.

Mineral constitution[edit]
Except in acid or siliceous igneous rocks containing
greater than 66% of silica, known as felsic rocks, quartz is
not abundant in igneous rocks. In basic rocks (containing
20% of silica or less) it is rare for them to contain as much
silicon, these are referred to as mafic rocks.
Ifmagnesium and iron are above average while silica is
low, olivine may be expected; where silica is present in
greater quantity over ferro-magnesian minerals, such
as augite,hornblende, enstatite or biotite, occur rather than
olivine. Unless potash is high and silica relatively
low, leucite will not be present, for leucite does not occur
with free quartz.Nepheline, likewise, is usually found in
rocks with much soda and comparatively little silica. With
high alkalis, soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles may
be present. The lower the percentage of silica and alkali's,
the greater is the prevalence of plagioclase feldspar as
contracted with soda or potash feldspar.
Earth's crust is composed of 90% silicate minerals and
their abundance in the Earth is as follows: plagioclase
feldspar (39%), alkali feldspar (12%), quartz
(12%), pyroxene (11%),amphiboles (5%), micas (5%), clay
minerals (5%); the remaining silicate minerals make up
another 3% of Earth's crust. Only 8% of the Earth is
composed of non-silicate minerals such
as carbonates, oxides, and sulfides.[6]
The other determining factor, namely the physical
conditions attending consolidation, plays on the whole a
smaller part, yet is by no means negligible. Certain
minerals are practically confined to deep-seated intrusive

rocks, e.g., microcline, muscovite, diallage. Leucite is very

rare in plutonic masses; many minerals have special
peculiarities in microscopic character according to whether
they crystallized in depth or near the surface, e.g.,
hypersthene, orthoclase, quartz. There are some curious
instances of rocks having the same chemical composition,
but consisting of entirely different minerals, e.g., the
hornblendite of Gran, in Norway, which contains only
hornblende, has the same composition as some of the
camptonites of the same locality that contain feldspar and
hornblende of a different variety. In this connection we
may repeat what has been said above about the corrosion
of porphyritic minerals in igneous rocks. In rhyolites and
trachytes, early crystals of hornblende and biotite may be
found in great numbers partially converted into augite and
magnetite. Hornblende and biotite were stable under the
pressures and other conditions below the surface, but
unstable at higher levels. In the ground-mass of these
rocks, augite is almost universally present. But the plutonic
representatives of the same magma, granite and syenite
contain biotite and hornblende far more commonly than
augite.
Felsic, intermediate and mafic igneous rocks[edit]
Those rocks that contain the most silica, and on
crystallizing yield free quartz, form a group generally
designated the "felsic" rocks. Those again that contain
least silica and most magnesia and iron, so that quartz is
absent while olivine is usually abundant, form the "mafic"
group. The "intermediate" rocks include those
characterized by the general absence of both quartz and

olivine. An important subdivision of these contains a very

high percentage of alkalis, especially soda, and
consequently has minerals such
as nepheline and leucite not common in other rocks. It is
often separated from the others as the "alkali" or "soda"
rocks, and there is a corresponding series of mafic rocks.
Lastly a small sub-group rich in olivine and without
feldspar has been called the "ultramafic" rocks. They have
very low percentages of silica but much iron and
magnesia.
Except these last, practically all rocks contain felspars or
feldspathoid minerals. In the acid rocks the common
feldspars are orthoclase, perthite, microcline, and
oligoclaseall having much silica and alkalis. In the mafic
rocks labradorite, anorthite and bytownite prevail, being
rich in lime and poor in silica, potash and soda. Augite is
the most common ferro-magnesian in mafic rocks, but
biotite and hornblende are on the whole more frequent in
felsic rocks.