Frequency Domain Analysis

Normally been used when the testing input is sinusoidal

Does not require/depend on the model of systems, so this
approach is easier for high order or unknown systems.
Provide information about system sensitivity to noise

Frequency Response
If the input is R( j ) and the transfer function is
frequency response is
Y ( j ) M ( j ) R ( j )
Y ( j ) M ( j ) R ( j )
Y ( j ) M ( j ) R ( j )

M ( j ) ,

then the

Frequency domain specifications are normally expressed in form

of:
a) Resonant Peak, Mr
- Mr is the maximum M ( j )
- The value is proportional to OSmax
- The acceptable values are between 1.0 and 1.5

Magnitude versus normalized frequency

Mr

1
2 1 2

for

0.707

for

0.707

b) Resonant Frequency, r
- Frequency when the resonant peak occurs
- Analogous to the tmax in time response.

 r n 1 2 2

c) Bandwidth, BW
- Frequency at M ( j ) reduces to 70.7% or 3dB from the
value at 0 .
- Large BW gives fast time response but more sensitive to
noise

BW n 1 2 2 4 4 2 2

1/ 2

d) Cut off Rate, CR

- Apart from BW, CR is also used to determine the ability of
a system to reject noise
- A system could has the same BW but different CR
- A system is fast and also less sensitive to noise if both BW
and CR are large.

Bode Diagram/Plot

- Bode plot could be used to estimate the frequency

response of a system
- It may be constructed by exciting the system with sine
waves at different frequencies or could be sketched from
the transfer function.
- Could also be used to test system stability and estimate
the time response

A transfer function may be written in terms of factors that have

real and imaginary parts, in general form as:

The representation of H() as in the above eqn. is called the

standard form. In this particular case, H() has seven different
factors that can appear in various combinations in a transfer
function. These are:

1. Gain K
M ( j ) 20 log K dB

2. Pole and zero at origin

M ( j ) 20 log dB

90
0

tan 1

 A straight line passing trough 1 rads 1 at 0dB with a slope

of 20dB/decade for magnitude
A straight line at

90 o

with a slope of 0 for phase

3. Simple pole or zero

4.0 Quadratic pole or zero

Example 1

Sketch the Bode Plot for the following transfer function:

G ( j )

5(1 j 0.1 )

j
j 1 j 0.5 1 j 0.6

50 50

The basic elements of the above transfer function are:

1. A gain, K = 5
2. A pole at origin, j
1

3. A zero at c T 0.1 10
4. A pole at c T 0.5 2
5. A complex poles at n 50

Example 2
R(s)

G(s)

Y(s)

_
K ( s 3)

Where G (s) s(s 1)( s 2) .

Rewrite G(s) showing each term normalised to a low frequency
gain of unity. We have

3
s
K ( 1)
3
G( s) 2
s
s ( s 1)( 1)
2

Stability Analysis Based on Bode Plots

A system is stable if:
o
a) At M = 0 dB phase response 180 AND
o
b) At 180 magnitude response M < 0 dB
Gain Margin, Gm
Gm is the magnitude different of M ( j ) from 0 dB at phase cross
over frequency, p or when 180 o
Gm 0 M j p dB M j dB

180 o

A + or - Gm is the value of gain that can be increased or

reduced to reach marginally stable.
Phase Margin, m
m is the phase different from -180o at 0 dB magnitude or at gain
cross over frequency, g
m M jo (180 o ) 0 dB 180 o

A + or - m is the value of phase that can be increased or

reduced to reach marginally stable.

Example plot & Margins

Example 3
Determine the Gain and Phase Margins for the following system.
G s

300
( s 1)( s 10)( s 3)

R(s)

G(s)

Y(s)

If the open loop system stability is not so good, select a K to

improve the frequency response.

Solution
Express G(s) in standard form and change to G( j ),
G s
G ( j )

300
300

( s 1)( s 10)( s 3) 10 3(1 s )(1 0.1s )(1 13 s )

10
(1 j )(1 0.1 j )(1 13 j )

Plot each elements and superimpose to get G( j ) plot.

From the Bode Plots,

Gm 5dB

m 20

But for good stability,

Gm 10dB

m 35

Hence, K should be reduced, e.g 10dB down. This will reduce

Gm 15dB

m 65

Effect of Time Delay

The effect of time delay is to add

180 o

Td

to the phase plot

but has no effect on magnitude plot.

Example
Td

Ke s
G( s)
s s 1 s 2

From the Bode plots, the time delay reduces gain and phase
margins, i.e reduces system stability.

Nyquist Plot
Our discussion will be limited to minimum phase system
Nyquist plot is sketched based on

L( s ) G ( s ) H ( s ) ,

that is the loop

transfer function.
Sketching Procedures:
1. Set s j for L(s)
e.g.
k
s ( s 2)( s 10)
k
L ( j )
j ( j 2)( j 10)
L( s ) G ( s ) H ( s )

2. Set 0 to obtain low frequency characteristic at 0 ,

L ( j 0) 90o

3. Set to obtain high frequency characteristic at ,

L ( j 0) 0 270 o

4. Rationalize L(s) and set

frequency.
L ( j )

Im L( j ) 0

to obtain real axis crossing

k 12 2 j 20 2
12 2 j 20 2 12 2 j 20 2

k 12 2 j 20 2

2
144 4 2 20 2
k 12 2 j 20 2

2
2 144 2 20 2

Im L( j )

k 20 2

144 2 20 2

p 20 rad / sec

For 0 , the real axis crossing frequency is p

20 rad / sec

5. Substitute p in L( j ) that has been rationalized to obtain

the crossing point on the real axis.
L( j 20 )

6. Set

12k k

2880 240

Re L( j ) 0

to obtain imaginary axis crossing frequency

k 12
Re L ( j )
0

144 20

2 2

pi 0 rad / sec

, i.e the plot only cross at infinity.

7. Substitute pi in L( j ) that has been rationalized to obtain
the crossing point on the imaginary axis.
- From (2) at 0 , L( j 0)

The closed loop system is stable if the Nyquist plot does not
encircle point (-1, j0)

Therefore, for this example the system will remain stable until k
is increased to 240. The value of k that can be increased to reach
marginally stable is called Gain Margin,
1
L ( j )

Gm

Example: Improper system

Determine the value of k such that the system will be stable,
Char. Eqn. = ks 3 (2k 1) s 2 (2k 5)s 1 0
ks 3 2ks 2 2ks s 2 5s 1 0

L ( j )

G ( s ) H ( s ) L( s )

kj 2 2 2 j
(1 2 ) 5 j

ks ( s 2 2 s 2)
s 2 5s 1

L( j 0) 090 o
L( j) 90 o

Rationalize
L ( j )

Set

k 2 5 2 2 2 1 2 j 10 2 (2 2 )(1 2 )
(1 2 ) 2 25 2

Im L( j ) 0

4 7 2 2 0

The solution is 0 and other solutions are complex. So there is

only one crossing point at origin.

Since there is no real axis crossing point except at origin, the

system is stable for all finite values of k.
The Nyquist plot for

1
s 2 5s 1

L( s ) k s 3 2 s 2 2 s

The system is also stable for all finite values of k.

Gain Margin and Phase Margin
Gain Margin: Gain that can be added such that the Nyquist plot
passes through point (-1, j0)
Gm

1
L ( j p )

20 log

1
dB
L( j p )

20 log L( j p ) dB

Phase Margin:The angle that the Nyquist plot can be rotated

such that it passes through point (-1, j0).
m L( j g ) (180o )

Effect of Adding Poles and Zeros

Lets

L( s )

k
1 T1s

Where T1 = positive real constant

Therefore, the system is stable for all finite value of k.

Addition of Poles at s = 0
Generally adding p poles at s = 0 cause:
L ( j ) ( p i )90
L ( j ) 0 p 90
L ( j ) 0
L ( j ) 0

i 90

= the original phase at

Examples

Hence the system that has more than one pole at s = 0 (or system
of type 2 or higher) most likely to be unstable or difficult to be
stabilized.

Addition of Poles at s 1 T
Generally, the effect is:
L( j ) ( p i )90

where p = number of added poles

There is no effect on L( j ) at and 0 .
Examples

Therefore, addition of these poles will reduce the system stability

but much better than addition of poles at s = 0.

Addition of Stable Zeros

Generally the effect is:
L( j ) ( z i )90

where z = number of added zeros

There is no effect at 0 .
Examples

Stable when,
0k

Stable when,

T1 T2
T1T2

0k

T1 T2
T1T2 Td (T1 T2 )

where Td = 1/z.
Hence, the addition of stable zeros will increase system stability.

Effect of Time Delay

Let L( s) L1 ( s)eT s , that is the addition of e T s to L1 ( s) .
Generally the effect is the phase of L1 ( j ) will be rotated by Td
at all frequencies in clockwise direction. There is no effect on
magnitude.
d

Examples

Hence, as the value of Td increases the system becomes more

unstable.
Example:
For K 8 , show the Nyquist plot and its respective gain and phase margin
+

5K
s 4s 7
2

1
s3
Open loop transfer function

GOL ( s )

5K
( s 3)( s 2 4 s 7)

Frequency response

G ( j )

G ( j )

5K
( j 3)(7 j 4)
2

5K
( 21 7 ) j (19 2 )
2

5K
( 21 7 2 ) j (19 2 )

( 21 7 2 ) j (19 2 ) ( 21 7 2 ) j (19 2 )

Magnitude Frequency response

5K
G ( j )
2 2
( 21 7 ) 2 (19 2 ) 2
Phase Frequency Response

(19 2 )

2
(21 7 )
(i) At, 0 ,

tan 1

G ( j 0)

(ii)

At

G ( j )

(iii)

3
5(8)
270 90
0 and ( j ) tan 1
2

Real crossing, when (19 2 ) 0 .

(iv)

0
5(8)

1.9 and ( j 0) tan 1 0

21
21

19 rad .s 1 then G ( j 19 )

( 21 7 19) 2 0

Imaginary crossing, when 21 7 2 0

3 rad .s 1 then

G( j 3)

5(8)

5(8)
0 3(19 3) 2

nr=40;
dr1=[ 1 3];
dr2=[1 4 7];
dr=conv(dr1,dr2);
nyquist(nr,dr)

1.44

0.36 .

1 GM G ( j )
G ( j )

180

180

G ( j 19 ) 0.36

GM 20 log G ( j )

180

20 log(0.36) 8.87 dB

If K=10 and K=30, the Nyquist Plot will be: