52

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hy study rocks? You have already learned that some rocks and minerals have great economic value. In addition, all Earth processes depend in some way on the properties of these
basic Earth materials. Events such as volcanic eruptions, mountain building, weathering,
erosion, and even earthquakes involve rocks and minerals. Consequently, a basic knowledge of Earth
materials is essential to understanding most geologic phenomena.
Every rock contains clues about the environment in which it formed. For example, some rocks are
composed entirely of small shell fragments. This tells Earth scientists that the rock likely originated in a
shallow marine environment. Other rocks contain clues that indicate they formed from a volcanic
eruption or deep in the Earth during mountain building (; " .1 = v ). Thus, rocks contain a wealth of
information about events that have occurred over 'Earths long history.
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FOCUS om CONCEPTS

To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
0 What is the rock cycle and why is it important?
re What are the three groups of rocks and the geologic processes involved in the formation of each?
How does magma differ from lava?
What two criteria are used to classify igneous rocks?
How does the rate of cooling inuence the crystal size of minerals in igneous rocks?
ifs What are the names and environments of formation for some common detrital and chemical sedimentary rocks?
ti; What processes change sediment into sedimentary rock?
What are two characteristics of sedimentary rocks?
What are metamorphic rocks, and how do they form?
ii; What are the agents of metamorphism?
(T) What are the names, textures, and environments of formation for some common metamorphic rocks?

Earth as a System:
The Rock Cycle
U!

95-?"":uZ-1OI.

Earth Materials
B The Rock Cycle
I'l"'|

where it erupts as lava. Eventually, molten rock cools and

solidies, a process called crystallization or solidication. Molten
rock may solidify either beneath the surface or, following a
volcanic eruption, at the surface. In either situation, the resulting

rocks are called igneous rocks.

If igneous rocks are exposed at the surface, they undergo

weathering, in which the daily influences of the atmosphere

Earth as a system is illustrated most vividly when we examine

slowly disintegrate and decompose rocks. The loose materials

the rock cycle. The rock cycle allows us to see many of the

that result are often moved downslope by gravity, and then

picked up and transported by one or more erosional agents-

interactions among the many components and processes of the

Earth system
It helps us understand the origin of

running water, glaciers, wind, or waves. Eventually, these parti-

The Basic Cycle

cles and dissolved substances, called sediment, are deposited.

Although most sediment ultimately comes to rest in the ocean,
other sites of deposition include river oodplains, desert basins,
swamps, and sand dunes.
Next, the sediments undergo litliifzTca.tion., a term meaning
conversion into rock. Sediment is usually lithified into
seclirnentmy rock when compacted by the weight of overlying

We begin our discussion of the rock cycle with molten rock, called
magma, which forms by melting that occurs primarily within

materials or when cemented as percolating groundwater fills the

pores with mineral matter.

igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks and how they are

connected. In addition, the rock cycle demonstrates that any rock

type, under the right circumstances, can be transformed into any

other type.

Earths crust and upper mantle. Once formed, a magma body

If the resulting sedimentary rock becomes deeply buried or is

often rises toward the surface because it is less dense than the
surrounding rock. Occasionally magma reaches Earths surface

involved in the dynamics of mountain building, it will be subjected to great pressures and intense heat. The sedimentary rock

_ _Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle

53

/ =.t.J

i=IGiJ'.i'iE
Rocks contain information about the processes that produce them. This large exposure of igneous rocks, located in the Sierra
Nevada of California, was once a molten mass found deep within Earth. (Photo by Brian Bailey/Getty Images)

may react to the changing environment by turning into the third

rock type, metamorphic rock. If metamorphic rock is subjected to
still higher temperatures, it may melt, creating magma, and the
cycle begins again.
Although rocks may appear to be stable, unchanging
masses, the rock cycle shows they are not. The changes, however, take time-sometimes millions or even billions of years. In
addition, the rock cycle operates continuously around the
globe, but in different stages depending on the location. Today,
new magma is forming under the island of Hawaii, whereas the
rocks that comprise the Colorado Rockies are slowly being worn
down by weathering and erosion. Some of this weathered debris
will eventually be carried to the Gulf of Mexico, where it will
add to the already substantial mass of sediment that has accumulated there.

Alternative Paths
Rocks do not necessarily go through the cycle in the order that
was just described. Other paths are also possible. For example,
igneous rocks, rather than being exposed to weathering
and erosion at Earth's surface, may remain deeply buried.
Eventually, these masses may be subjected to the strong
compressional forces and high temperature associated with
mountain building. When this occurs, they are transformed
directly into metamorphic rocks.

Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, as well as sediment, do

not always remain buried. Rather, overlying layers may be eroded
away, exposing the once buried rock. When this happens, the
material is attacked by weathering processes and turned into new
raw materials for sedimentary rocks.
In a similar manner, igneous rocks that formed at depth can
be uplifted, weathered, and turned into sedimentary rocks. Alternatively, igneous rocks may remain at depth where the high temperatures and forces associated with mountain building may
metamorphose or even melt them. Over time, rocks may be transformed into any other rock type, or even into a different form of
its original type. There are many paths that rocks may take through
the rock cycle.

Vllhat drives the rock cycle? Earths internal heat is responsible for the processes that form igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Weathering and the transport ofweathered material are external
processes, powered by energy from the Sun. External processes
produce sedimentary rocks.

co1\rcr:1='r cnscx 3.1

Q Sketch and label a basic rock cycle. Make sure your sketch
includes alternative paths.
Q Use the rock cycle to explain the statement One rock is the
raw material for another.

54

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

pg

ROCK CYCLE

When magma or lava

cools and solidifies,

igneous rock forms.

Lava

Igneous
Rock
- -:_< Lt?-1*
=3 'iZ'?_l.><

Magma

Weathering breaks
down rock that is
transported and
deposited as

Magma forms when

rock melts deep

sediment.

beneath Earth's
surface.

ansponatjgn, and deposition

{\i\Qi

Metamorphic
Rock

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When sedimentary
rock is buried deep
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Sediment is
compacted and cemented
=-Q

to form sedimentary rock.

Sedimentary
Rock

FIGURE 3.2 The rock cycle. Viewed over long spans, rocks are constantly forming, changing, and reforming. The rock cycle helps
us understand the origin of the three basic rock groups. Arrows represent processes that link each group to the others.

f-<i.

"

Igneous Rocks: Formed by Fire"

Igneous Rocks:
Formed by F1re"

55

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Earth Materials
9 Igneous Rocks

---

I:"="

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In the discussion of the rock cycle, we pointed out that

igneous rocks form as magma cools and crystallizes.
But what is magma and what is its source? Magma is
molten rock generated by partial melting of rocks in
Earths mantle and in the lower crust in smaller
amounts. This molten material consists mainly of the
elements found in silicate minerals. Silicon and
oxygen are the main constituents in magma, with
lesser amounts of aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,

potassium, magnesium, and others. Magma also

contains some gases, particularly water vapor, which
are confined within the magma body by the weight
(pressure) of the overlying rocks.

ijiiiiieti

Fluid basaltic lava emitted from Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano. (Photo by Joe

Carini/Photolibrary)

Once formed e magma body eueyeney ees toward the emfeee

because it is less dense than the surrounding rocks. Occasionally
molten reek Feeehee the Suffeeer Where it is eeued lave
Sometimes, lava is emitted as fountains produced when escaping
gases propel molten rock skyward. On other occasions, magma is
explosively ejected from vents, producing a spectacular eruption

atoms are systematically added to these centers of crystal growth.

when the Crystals growlerge enough for their edoes to meet, their
growth ceases for lack of space. Eventually, all of the liquid is
transformed into e Solid mess ofinteooloog olystele
The rote of Cooling Strongly inuences orystel Size If e magma
oools Very Slowly it allows atoms to miemte over greet disteooee Coo_

Such as the 1980 empeen ofMount St Helene However meet erup'

tions are not violent; rather, volcanoes more often emit quiet out-

sequently, slow cooling results in theformation oflarge crystals. On the

other hood, ifooojl-no ooours rapidly the atoms lose their motion end

peuringe efleve
Igneous reeks that form when molten reek solidies at the
surface are classified as extrusive or volcanic (after the Roman
re god Vulcan). Extrusive igneous rocks are abundant in western
portions of the Americas, including the volcanic cones of the Cascade Range and the extensive lava ows ofthe Columbia Plateau.
In addition, many oceanic islands, including the Hawaiian
Islands, are composed almost entirely of volcanic igneous rocks.
Most magma, however, loses its mobility before

quickly combine. This results in a large number of tiny crystals that

all compete for the available atoms. Therefore, rapid cooling results in
.,efo,.mooon_ ofo solid moss ofsmo mte,.g,.own eoomlo
If e geologist encounters igneous rook Containing Crystals large
enough to be Seen with the unaided eye) it means it formed from
molten rook which Cooled Slowly at depth But if the Crystals can
be Seen oleero, only with e microscope the geologist knows that
the magma Cooled quickly, at or nee]. Eerthrs Surfeee_

reaching the surface and eventually crystallizes deep

below the Surface Igneous rocks thatform at depth

are termed intrusive or plutonic (after Pluto, the god

of the lower world in classical mythology). Intrusive
igneous rocks remain at depth unless portions of the

Mount Rushmore National Memorial, located in the Black Hills of South

Dakota, is carved from the intrusive igneous rock granite. This massive igneous body
cooled very slowly at depth and has since been uplifted and the overlying rocks
stripped away by erosion. (Photo by Barbara A. Harvey/Shutterstock)

crust are uplifted and the overlying rocks stripped

'

away by erosion. Exposures of intrusive igneous

rocks occur in many places, including Mount Washington, New Hampshire; Stone Mountain, Georgia;
Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills of South Dakota;

and Yosemite National Park, California (i.=.igtrre 3.15%).

From Magma to Crystalline Rock

Magma is a very hot, thick uid that contains solids
(mineral crystals) and gases. The liquid portion of a

magma body is composed of atoms that move about

freely. As magma cools, random movements slow,
and atoms begin to arrange themselves into orderly
patternsa process called crjystallization. As cooling

continues, numerous small crystals develop and

-r

56

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

What Can Igneous Textures

Tell Us?

Students Sometimes Ask. ..

Texture describes the overall appearance of an igneous rock,

based on the size and arrangement of its interlocking crystals.
Texture is an important property because it allows geologists
to make inferences about a rocks origin based on careful
observations of crystal size and other characteristics. You learned
that rapid cooling produces small crystals, whereas very slow
cooling produces much larger crystals. As you might expect, the
rate of cooling is slow in magma chambers lying deep within the
crust, whereas a thin layer of lava extruded upon Earths surface
may chill to form solid rock in a matter of hours. Small molten
blobs ejected from a volcano during a violent eruption can solidify
in mid- air.
Igneous rocks that form rapidly at the surface or as small
masses within the upper crust have a fine-grained texture, with
the individual crystals too small to be seen with the unaided eye
(Figiare i-2333). Common in many fine-grained igneous rocks are
voids, called vesicles, left by gas bubbles that formed as the lava
solidified (Figure 3.6). Rocks containing these voids are said to
display a vesicular texture.
When large masses of magma solidify far below the surface,
they form igneous rocks that exhibit a coarse-grained texture.
These coarse- grained rocks have the appearance of a mass of
intergrown crystals, roughly equal in size and large enough that

Are lava and magma the same thing?

No, but their composition might
be similar. Both are terms that
describe molten or liquid rock:
Magma exists beneath Earth's
surface, and lava is molten rock
that has reached the surface.

Thats the reason they can be

similar in composition: Lava is
produced from magma, but it
generally has lost materials that
escape as a gas, such as water
vapor.

If the molten material is quenched almost instantly, there is

insufficient time for the atoms to arrange themselves into a crystalline network. Solids produced in this manner consist of randomly distributed atoms. Such rocks are called glass and are quite
similar to ordinary manufactured glass. Instant quenching
sometimes occurs during violent volcanic eruptions that produce
tiny shards of glass called volcanic ash.
In addition to the rate of cooling, the composition of a magma
and the amount of dissolved gases inuence crystallization.
Because magmas differ in each of these aspects, the physical
appearance and mineral composition of igneous rocks vary
widely. Nevertheless, it is possible to classify igneous rocks based
on their texture and mineral composition.

FIGURE1 3.5 Igneous rock textures. A. During a volcanic eruption in which silica-rich lava is ejected into the atmosphere, a frothy
glass called pumice may form. B. Igneous rocks that form at or near Earths surface cool quickly and often exhibit a fine-grained
texture. C. A porphyritic texture results when magma that already contains some large crystals migrates to a new location where the
rate of cooling increases. The resulting rock consists of large crystals embedded within a matrix of smaller crystals. D. Coarse-grained
igneous rocks form when magma slowly crystallizes at depth. (Photos courtesy of E. J. Tarbuck)
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Igneous Rocks: Formed by Fire"

57

Students Sometimes Ask...

.-"/'

,.-:11!

You mentioned that Native Americans used obsidian for

making arrowheads and cutting tools. Is this the only
material they used?
No. Native Americans used
whatever materials were locally
available to make tools, including
any hard, compact rock material
that could be shaped. This
includes materials such as the
metamorphic rocks slate and
quartzite and sedimentary

Scoria is a volcanic rock that is vesicular. Vesicles form

as gas bubbles escape near the top of a lava ow. (Photo courtesy of
E. J. Tarbuck)

individual minerals can be identified with the unaided eye. Granite is a classic example (Figure 3.5D).

A large mass of magma located at depth may require tens of

thousands, even millions, of years to solidify. Because materials
crystallize under different environmental conditions (temperature, pressure), it is possible for crystals of one mineral to become
quite large before others even start to form. Should molten rock
containing some large crystals move to a different environmentfor example, by erupting at the surface-the remaining molten
portion of the lava would cool more quickly. The resulting rock,
which will have large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller
crystals, is said to have a porphyritic texture (Figure 3.5C).
During some volcanic eruptions, molten rock is ejected into
the atmosphere, where it is quenched quickly. Rapid cooling may
generate rock having a glassy texture (Figure 3.5A). Glass results
when unordered atoms are frozen in place before they are able
to unite into an orderly crystalline structure. In addition, magmas containing large amounts of silica (SiO2) are more likely to
form rocks that exhibit a glassy texture than those with a low silica content.
Obsidian, a common type of natural glass, is similar in
appearance to a dark chunk of manufactured glass
Another volcanic rock that usually exhibits a glassy texture is
pumice. Often found with obsidian, pumice forms when large
amounts of gas escape from molten rock to generate a gray, frothy
mass
In some samples, the vesicles are quite noticeable, whereas in others, the pumice resembles fine shards of
intertwined glass. Because of the large volume of air-filled voids,
many samples of pumice will oat in water (Figure 3.8).

Igneous Compositions
Igneous rocks are composed mainly of silicate minerals. Chemical
analysis shows that silicon and oxygen-usually expressed as the
silica (SiO2) content of a magmaare by far the most abundant

deposits made of silica called

jasper, chert, opal, int, and even
jade. Some of these deposits
have a limited geographic
distribution and can now help
anthropologists reconstruct trade
routes between different groups
of Indians.

constituents of igneous rocks. These two elements, plus ions of

aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe), make up roughly 98 percent by
weight of most magmas. In addition, magma contains small
amounts of many other elements, including titanium and
manganese, and trace amounts of much rarer elements such as
gold, silver, and uranium.
i
As magma cools and solidifies, these elements combine to
form two major groups of silicate minerals. The dark silicates are
rich in iron and/or magnesium and are relatively low in silica
(S102). Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica are the
common dark silicate minerals of Earths crust. By contrast, the
light silicates contain greater amounts of potassium, sodium, and
calcium and are richer in silica than dark silicates. Light silicates
include quartz, muscovite mica, and the most abundant mineral
group, thefeldspars. Feldspars make up at least 40 percent of most
igneous rocks. Thus, in addition to feldspar, igneous rocks contain
some combination of the other light and/or dark silicates listed
earlier.
Obsidian, a natural glass, was used by Native
Americans for making arrowheads and cutting tools. (Photo by
E. J. Tarbuck; inset photo by Jeffrey Scovil)

58

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

i-

and potassium feldspar. Igneous rocks in which these are the

dominant minerals have a granitic composition. Geologists also
refer to granitic rocks as being felsic, a term derived fromfeldspar
and silica (quartz). In addition to quartz and feldspar, most granitic
rocks contain about 10 percent dark silicate minerals, usually biotite
mica and amphibole. Granitic rocks are rich in silica (about 70
percent) and are major constituents of the continental crust.
Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms where
large masses of magma slowly solidify at depth. During episodes
of mountain building, granite and related crystalline rocks may
be uplifted, where the processes of weathering and erosion strip
away the overlying crust. Areas where large quantities of granite
are exposed at the surface include Pikes Peak in the Rockies,
Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills, Stone Mountain in Georgia,
and Yosemite National Park in the Sierra Nevada (i.="i5.g:ili.Ti"'";- iiii).
Granite is perhaps the best-known igneous rock
in part because of its natural beauty, which is enhanced when
polished, and partly because of its abundance. Slabs of polished
granite are commonly used for tombstones, monuments, and
countertops.
Rliyolite is the extrusive equivalent of granite and, likewise, is
composed essentially of light-colored silicates (Figure 3.11). This
fact accounts for its color, which is usually buff to pink or light gray.
Rhyolite is ne-grained and frequently contains glass fragments and
voids, indicating rapid cooling in a surface environment. In contrast to granite, which is widely distributed as large intrusive masses,
rhyolite deposits are less common and generally less voluminous.
Yellowstone Park is one well-known. exception where extensive lava
ows and thick ash deposits of rhyolitic composition a.re found.

is

.5);

1.1 --1.,
. .3

'

J.

,.
,"--'~
. <70.
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mu

~i'~.

ii-if;
".'-if

-1

-:'fa-1.;-e . 3

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it"~;..ii;;
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iiifii
fit: Pumice, a glassy rock, is very lightweight because it
contains numerous vesicles. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck; inset photo by Chip Clark)

Classifying Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are classified by their texture and mineral
composition. The texture of an igneous rock is mainly a result of
its cooling history, whereas its mineral composition is largely a
consequence of the chemical makeup of the parent magma and
the environment of crystallization.
Despite their great compositional diversity, igneous rocks can
be divided into broad groups according to their proportions of
light and dark minerals. A general classication scheme based on
texture and mineral composition is provided in iit;;iit*e 3.i.
Granitic (Felsic) Rocks Near one end of the continuum are
rocks composed almost entirely of light-colored silicatesquartz

i?jiiIiiii.%i 3.53 Classification of the major groups of igneous rocks based on their mineral composition and texture. Coarse-grained rocks are
plutonic, solidifying deep underground. Fine-grained rocks are volcanic, or solidify as shallow, thin plutons. Ultramafic rocks are dark, dense
rocks, composed almost entirely of minerals containing iron and magnesium. Although relatively rare on Earths surface, these rocks are
believed to be major constituents of the upper mantle.
, . . tr-~ _-.-..__
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Granitic
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Quartz.
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Dominant
Minerals

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Porphyritic precedes any of the above names whenever there are

appreciable phenocrysts

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Pumice (frothy glass)

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RockColor
(based on % of dark minerals)
'

25% to 45%
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0% to 25%
_
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45% to 85%

- i
.
85% to 100%

Igneous Rocks Formed by Fire

i.=ti}Uli ii. .5 iii Half Dome and the surrounding rock in Cahfornias Yosemite National Park IS granite The rock formed from
magma that crystallized deep beneath the surface

iiiiii-iii: - i

(Photo by Enrique R Aguirre/Photolibrary, inset photo by E J Tarbuck)

Common igneous rocks (Photos byE J Tarbuck)

Texture

Composition
_m

ctr

ram IO
(Felsic)

___m

n_

?-

-. J

-__|I.

JIIl-

" =-=;._s

~ ~ ..--e ...=>

%*~- =*

"3 3 ==~=-= _

'"/9

xii;

n1-

F;

Course
grained

(1

vi.

9'
itAxv-..,

.0 \-"

~(
-.

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Eaj
1-

-(_

-.?

--s_

___

\.*=*4

"r_.,.....,.

l3"

st,~ $5.. re-i'~"

1_<-is

Hr

5:5
so /=4,,-

I;~-_;_

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"er Q3*2t*s* 5*
QA

L ta Q at

- 0-.=:' " ' rt A

In

)1: T?we -S *-
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_ _._J-nun

<-ed.

\-b:!'

grained
1|

in- ,

M if

iii

_~

Gabbro

- \

.-

it:

Granite

(Extrusive)

__

0-;
1 oi E
ti!
-a%1?;-rtr
"7&'

dirt

3%? '-1-f

5f

;\;
1:
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iii?
it
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if I

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n
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4 ~._*"_$;15:*%%>.i
-f _,-___.._..&_
r 1%
:5-35%: eegage iii?-eig iii

- -..
..-< I]- A1: - .3I 31%;;-we
- -sai
go

.,,_r,o
is

=~
:=;a
" '*
__r" _ -<2

if Rhyolite K ' 8 I

-.-_,

______

Andesite

60

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

Basaltic (Mac) Rocks Rocks that contain substantial dark

silicate minerals and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar (but no
quartz) are said to have a basaltic composition (Figure 3.1 1).
Basaltic rocks contain a high percentage of dark silicate minerals,
so geologists also refer to them as mafic (from magnesium and
ferrum, the Latin name for iron). Because of their iron content,
basaltic rocks are typically darker and denser than granitic rocks.
Basalt, the most common extrusive igneous rock, is a very dark
green to black, ne-grained volcanic rock composed primarily of
pyroxene, olivine, and plagioclase feldspar. Many volcanic islands,
such as the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland, are composed mainly
FIGURE 3312 Basaltic lava owing from Kilauea volcano, Hawaii.
(Photo by Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS)

...E\ .

..-,:_

.n

.__. .

_-3 .,(

_ .

_-_ _,

ofbasalt (Fiijilift
Ftuthermore, the upper layers ofthe oceanic
crust consist of basalt. In the United States, large portions of central Oregon and Washington were the sites of extensive basaltic
outpourings.
The coarse-grained, intrusive equivalent of basalt is gabbro
(Figure 3.11). Although gabbro is not commonly exposed at the
surface, it makes up a significant percentage ofthe oceanic crust.

Andesitic (Intermediate) Rocks As you can see in Figure 3.1 1,

rocks with a composition between granitic and basaltic rocks are
said to have an andesitic composition, after the common volcanic rock andesite, or intermediate composition. Andesitic
rocks contain a mixture of both light- and darl<- colored minerals,
mainly amphibole and plagioclase feldspar. This important category of igneous rocks is associated
with volcanic activity typically conned to continental margins. When
magma of intermediate composition crystallizes at depth, it forms
the coarse-grained rock called
diorite (Figure 3.1 1).

_: J

1 I-2s;

:4.

'

-'

Ultramac Rocks Another important igneous rock, peridotite, contains

mostly the dark-colored minerals
olivine and pyroxene and thus, falls
on the opposite side of the compositional spectrum from granitic rocks
(Figure 3.11). Because peridotite is
composed almost entirely of dark
silicate minerals, its chemical composition is referred to as ultramac.
Although ultramac rocks are rare at
Earths surface, peridotite is believed
to be the main constituent of the
upper mantle.

;
r

Q.

'5

._|
s

9..

How Different
Igneous Rocks Form
Because a large variety of igneous
rocks exist, it is logical to assume that
an equally large variety of magmas
also exist. However, geologists have
observed that a single volcano may
extrude lavas exhibiting quite different compositions. Data of this type
led them to examine the possibility
that magma might change (evolve)
and thus become the parent to a
variety of igneous rocks. To explore
this idea, a pioneering investigation
into the crystallization of magma
was carried out by N. L. Bowen in the
rst quarter of the 20th century.

Bowen's Reaction Series In a

laboratory setting, Bowen demonstrated that magma, with its diverse

Igneous Rocks: Formed by Fire"

Temperature
Regimes

- Series
Bowen's Reaction

61

A
.1,

c,,%';",ff-$2?
r

. . . .-wq,-.

High temperature I
(~1200C)

31

if

fi

Dar

Us

1
\.

it
i:5

se

li

i'"i*'i,__
*3?-iirlrii-1.~=f-1"-:3
T2 TI *,.
v_ \--\-\->-<_s.

49.9/O

Coo
ngmagma

=.- --is <- -: =1?-:~_:*;'-1. :::i.-.:_- ear -:1 - -- E I

:-"4 ->15EQYFI;;;5_:>ia2::::e:;%:>1:;*:i::ir111::

52>?-=--
='~.=;'1.~;;= :::.:>_ .12
' =1 .
5 ii
;i";Yi1?'ii.-=;z.=~-r-z"~.:~?1.:2=:=~.~:: :1:-a':;:':I _.
1
i=;_;:;I'- -1 1;: I ~ Q3-3 *; rt-. -1 ;.;.=-':;=;. - _
ii
_ =;.>.=z-_";*;'l-=12-it-*:?f.;? '4-5;3;3; -1;-.
i-12:5: _ :31: 1
5:5-<-5 .13-_: -;;_;_:;?:'_; 22:3 ;;_:5_-_.,_.;-_ _ __:-.515.-_ 4:-:_
ll
-:~~

>:;

;'-_~:::_ _ _:_I_ _ 5_ , ; .-_- Ir. . _- -_- -

_'_

111

Inm-

_-m-an _-_i - -L,-_>.

Potassium feldspar

5. ..;

-5
_ r -as-

Muscovle mica

fl--'_:_=;"-r, .-.'_.-1-1-6--i-i-a--k.t;i--;-1-:;1- - -;

Granitic

(granite/rhyolite)

-.

m-amm--an-a-w

noq unlbiul

>
r
7
.

r 7

1,

Bowen's reaction series shows the sequence in which minerals crystallize from a magma. Compare this figure to the
mineral composition of the rock groups in Figure 3.9. Note that each rock group consists of minerals that crystallize in the same
temperature range.

chemistry, crystallizes over a temperature range of at least 200C,

unlike simple compounds (such as water), which solidify at specific temperatures. As magma cools, certain minerals crystallize
rst at relatively high temperatures (top of
:?:.*.i:3). At successively lower temperatures, other minerals begin to crystallize. This
arrangement of minerals, shown in Figure 3.13, became known as
Bowen's reaction series.
Bowen discovered that the rst mineral to crystallize from a
body ofmagma is olivine. Further cooling results in the formation
of pyroxene, as well as plagiocla-sefeldspai: At intermediate temperatures the minerals amphibole and biotite begin to crystallize.
During the last stage of crystallization, after most of the
magma has solidified, the minerals mascot/ite and potassium
feldspar may form (Figure 3.13). Finally, quartz crystallizes from
any remaining liquid. Olivine and quartz are seldom found in the
same igneous rock, because quartz crystallizes at much lower
temperatures than olivine.
Analysis of igneous rocks provides evidence that this crystallization model approximates what can happen in nature. In particular, we find that minerals that form in the same general
temperature range on Bowens reaction series are found together
in the same igneous rocks. For example, notice in Figure 3.13 that
the minerals quartz, potassium feldspar, and muscovite, located
in the same region of Bowens diagram, are typically found
together as major constituents of the igneous rock granite.
Magmatic Differentiation Bowen demonstrated that different
minerals crystallize from magma systematically. But how do
Bowens ndings accormt for the great diversity of igneous rocks?
During the crystallization process, the composition of magma
continually changes. This occurs because as crystals form, they
selectively remove certain elements from the magma, which

leaves the remaining liquid portion depleted in these elements.

Occasionally, separation of the solid and liquid components of
magma occurs during crystallization, which creates different mineral
assemblages. One such scenario, called crystal settling, occurs
when the earlier formed minerals are more dense (heavier) than
the liquid portion and sink toward the bottom of the magma
chamber, as shown in
When the remaining molten
material solidifieseither in place or in another location if it
migrates into fractures in the surrounding rocks-itwlll form a rock
with a chemical composition much different from the parent magma
(Figure 3.14). The formation of one or more secondary magmas
'om a single parent magma is called magmatic differentiation.
At any stage in the evolution of a magma, the solid and liquid
components can separate into two chemically distinct units. Furthermore, magmatic differentiation within the secondary magma
can generate other chemically distinct masses of molten rock.
Consequently, magmatic differentiation and separation of the
solid and liquid components at various stages of crystallization
can produce several chemically diverse magmas and, ultimately,
a variety of igneous rocks.

Assimilation and Magma Mixing

Strong evidence suggests that the chemical composition of a magma
can change by processes other than magmatic differentiation. For
example, as magma migrates upward through the crust, it may
incorporate some of the surrounding host rock, a process called
assimilation. Another means bywhich the composition of a magma
body can be altered is called magma mzlxing. This process occurs
whenever one magma body intrudes another that has a different
composition. Once combined, convective ow may stir the two
magmas to generate a uid with a different composition.

62

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

43*

"

""~_.

-2
Magma
body

liFitii*LlitE 3.14 Illustration of how a

magma evolves as the earlier formed
minerals (those richer in iron,
magnesium, and calcium) crystallize
and settle to the bottom of the magma
chamber, leaving the remaining liquid
richer in sodium, potassium, and silica
(S102). A. Emplacement of a magma
body and associated igneous activity
generates rocks having a composition
similar to that of the initial magma.
B. After a period of time, crystallization
and settling change the composition of
the liquid, while generating rocks
having a composition quite different
from the original magma. C. Further
magmatic differentiation results in
another more highly evolved mass of
molten material with its associated
rock types.

1/ is
Eg - '

. -Host? -J
--'9-k

-;a.4_<rI=
T

>

1
.
C-

Crystallization
and crystal settling
..
A

.\

In summary, N. L. Bowen successfully demonstrated that

through magmatic differentiation, a single parent magma can
generate several mineralogically different igneous rocks. This
process, in concert with magma mixing and contamination by
crustal rocks, accounts in part for the great diversity of magmas
and igneous rocks.

-is

'g i _
*

a .;'
Crystallization
i and crystal settling

Sedimentary Rocks:
Compacted and Cemented
Sediment
at ->"'2Z-\nu: I'I'I

concspr cnscx 3.2

Q What is magma? How does magma differ from lava?
Q In what basic settings do intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
originate?
Q How does the rate of cooling inuence crystal size? What
other factors inuence the texture of igneous rocks?
Q What does a porphyritic texture indicate about the history
of an igneous rock?
L't
ls an dd't'g'h
IS 1n uls amongthf
e our b
aslc comp't'
OS1 ron al
groups of igneous rocks.
Q How are granite and rhyolite different? In what way are they
similar?
Q What is magmatic differentiation? How might this process
lead to the formation of several different igneous rocks from
a single magma?

Earth Materials
D Sedimentary Rocks

Recall the rock cycle, which shows the origin ofsedimentary rocks.
Weathering begins the process. Next, gravity and erosional agents
(running water, wind, waves, and glacial ice) remove the products
of weathering and carry them to a new location where they are
deposited. Usually, the particles are broken down further during
this transport phase. Following deposition, this sediment may
become lithied, or turned to rock. Commonly, compaction and
cementation transform the sediment into solid sedimentary rock.
The word sedimentary indicates the nature ofthese rocks, for
it is derived from the Latin sedimentum, which means settling,
a reference to a solid material settling out of a uid. Most sediment is deposited in this fashion. Weathered debris is constantly
being swept from bedrock and carried away by water, ice, or wind.
Eventually, the material is deposited in lakes, river valleys, seas,
and countless other places. The particles in a desert sand dune,
the mud on the oor of a swamp, the gravels in a streambed, and

Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment

even household dust are examples of sediment produced by this

never-ending process.
The weathering of bedrock and the transport and deposition
of the weathering products are continuous. Therefore, sediment
is found almost everywhere. As piles of sediment accumulate, the
materials near the bottom are compacted by the weight of the
overlying layers. Over long periods, these sediments are cemented
together by mineral matter deposited from water in the spaces
between particles. This forms solid sedimentary rock.
Geologists estimate that sedimentary rocks account for only
about 5 percent (by volume) of Earths outer 16 kilometers
(10 miles). However, the importance of this group of rocks is far
greater than this percentage implies. If you sampled the rocks
exposed at Earths surface, you would nd that the great majority are
sedimentary (1ii*itgi"ii't.t ; <=..:~=;115;). Indeed, about '75 percent of all rock outcrops on the continents are sedimentary. Therefore, we can think
of sedimentary rocks as comprising a relatively thin and somewhat
discontinuous layer in the uppermost portion of the crust. This
makes sense because sediment accumulates at the surface.
It is from sedimentary rocks that geologists reconstruct many
details of Earths history. Because sediments are deposited in a
variety of different settings at the surface, the rock layers that they
eventually form hold many clues to past surface environments.
They may also exhibit characteristics that allow geologists to decipher information about the method and distance of sediment

63

Students Sometimes Ask...

Why are the sedimentary rocks in Figure 3.15 so colorful?
In the western and
southwestern United States,
steep cliffs and canyon walls
made of sedimentary rocks
often exhibit a brilliant display
of different colors. Utah's
Canyonlands National Park is
one good example (Figure 3.15).
Another is Arizonas Grand
Canyon where we can see
layers that may be red, orange,
purple, gray, brown, and buff
(see Figure 11.2, p. 325).
Sedimentary rocks in more

humid places are also colorful,

but they are usually covered
by soil and vegetation.
The most important
pigments " are iron oxides,
and only very small amounts
are needed to color a rock.
Hematite tints rocks red or pink,
whereas limonite produces
shades of yellow and brown.
When sedimentary rocks
contain organic matter, it
often colors them black or gray.

transport. Furthermore, it is sedimentary rocks that contain fossils, which are vital evidence in the study of the geologic past.
Finally, many sedimentary rocks are important economically.
Coal, which is burned to provide a signicant portion ofU.S. elec-

_Fftft;'; 3.'1.ii Sedimentary rocks exposed in Utah's Canyonlands National Park. Sedimentary rocks occur in layers called strata. About '75 percent
of all rock exposures on continents are sedimentary rocks. (Photo by Jeff Gnass)

64

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

Chemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

ll

ClasticTexture
( artide size)

.
Sedlment Name

,5

Rock Name

$4-5

(Angular particles)

I :;,'.:_ Q C; 03 g! ,1

l>IJ"0
0! -5-"'
l '0'-luv
'-1I|"-'
g-'9-#.,',a

_m.

Q-' _
J {Q

m-

,1,

: 1
21

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Clastic: Visible
shells and shell
'
fragments loosely
cemented
;

Camite, Caco
l?

ii

Travertine

|
I
|
i

9!

Crystalline
Limestone

crystalline

s d

"-inF .as-Lil0;-iftr?
Sandstone
-e_E;l (If abundant feldspar
*"
gig? is present the rock I
3,3
is called Arkose) :..E 1
1-i.on'.;,-;".'0'!-I
r~
7
mas.

Nonclastic:
Fine to coarse

U :;\-0 gait -:\

:>

Rock Name

Breccia
.__ .-

.5 __ . I
Q
ll|;."'1\,)1:Q|j*:t*0ue'

Texture

:~
.itr

Q Gravel
C
i.Q' (Rounded particles) l -congwmerate ti
____________ ~
a
~
- ~ ~ o1 J Gravel

Coarse
(over 2 mm)

(1/1|\g(j;g';nI1_|m)

Composition

:
. E
:I

K :

.
oquma

:1

1"

Fine

1:

r.rule
~.-E
Q
..tE
lat"
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2.
'"0Q
at I.1 :;Iw.a
v:.'O
J
'''-,

Very fine
(less than

1/256 mm)

r. 9 =

it

'90:
ll,
5
3:
0
r=:.;a..*i=.>F..aa-:*.ra

t F. '1? f>T: ' =31 '-5-Y- -

1/256 mm)

Clasticzvarious size
l.
Shells and Shell i t Fossiliferous

fragments cemented i. Limestone t

;.
with calcite cement
i oQ3m:o ~m l I-I-m(D-I.,"'

1",
l.
Q

C.
'7}
l

l'?c.'\;.
?g:'1.I
'u0-0b*" 1:b7"1
_C.t .:-~.'
-1-Q
'
il *""5-.'_=8
'-i.
-l
=.It
7"-'-a3''.-:1o7\'u
.. mla,;i,aul.".:n@
0 vi

3"-

Siltstone

..

Clastic: Microscopic t
shells and clay
i.

,
Mud

I
I

___

0?;

_.= ;
Identification of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary
rocks are divided into two major groups, detrital and chemical,
based on their source of sediment. The main criterion for naming
detrital rocks is particle size, whereas the primary basis for
distinguishing among chemical rocks is their mineral composition.

Gypsum
CaSO,,~2H2O

energy resources (petroleum and natural gas) occur in pores

____

____

_..,

___.__

._

ll
l

Rock Gypsum
-

l1
1

l
i1

RcckSalt

Nonclastic:
Fine-grained
. matter
organlc

ll

Flint (dark colored)

Halite,NaCl i N"'aSFl"?l
coarse c|y_s_talllne ,

___i

.=

-w -a wt- ._.

Altered
plant
ragments
l

l
l

, Chert(Iight colored)il

Nonclastic:Fineto
coarse crystalline *

trical energy, is classified as a sedimentary rock. Other major

Nonclastic: Very
fine crystalline

Qa"Z' Slog Il
_.l

__

DO
ii'
CD

Chalk

-__._m

I,

.l;

r.
..-itl

I
Bituminous Coal

lAl\-Al.IA_I.l~

within sedimentary rocks. Other sedimentary rocks are major

sources ofiron, aluminum, manganese, and fertilizer, plus nrurrerous materials essential to the construction industry.
Angular fragments indicate that the particles were not transported

Classifying Sedimentary Rocks

Materials accumulating as sediment have two principal sources.
First, sediments may originate as solid particles from weathered
rocks, such as the igneous rocks earlier described. These particles

are called detritus, and the sedimentary rocks that they form are
called detrital sedimentary rocks
._%i~).
The second major source of sediment is soluble material produced largely by chemical weathering. Vllhen these dissolved sub-

stances are precipitated back as solids, they are called chemical

sediment, and they form chemical sedimentary rocks. We now
look at detrital and chemical sedimentary rocks (Figure 3.16).
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks Though a wide variety of minerals
and rock agments may be found in detrital rocks, clay minerals

and quartz dominate. As you learned earlier, clay minerals are the
most abundant product of the chemical weathering of silicate
minerals, especially the feldspars. Quartz, on the other hand, is

very far from their source prior to deposition and so have not had
corners and rough edges abraded. Sandstone is the name given
rocks when sand-size grains prevail
Shale, the most
common sedimentary rock, is made ofvery ne-grained sediment
ii).
Siltstone, another rather ne-grained rock, is sometimes difcult to differentiate from rocks such as shale, which are
composed of even smaller clay-size sediment.

Particle size is not only a convenient method of dividing detrital

rocks; the sizes of the component grains also provide useful infor-

mation about the environment inwhich the sediment was deposited.

Currents of water or air sort the particles by size. The stronger the
current, the larger the particle size carried. Gravels, for example, are
moved by swiftly owing rivers, ro ckslides, and glaciers. Less energy

is required to transport sand; thus, it is common inwindblown dunes,

river deposits, and beaches. Because silts and clays settle very slowly,

accumulations of these materials are generally associated with the

quiet waters of a lake, lagoon, swamp, or marine enviromnent.

abundant because it is extremely durable and very resistant to

Although detrital sedimentary rocks are classied by particle

chemical weathering. Thus, when igneous rocks such as granite

are weathered, individual quartz grains are set free.
Geologists use particle size to distinguish among detrital sedimentary rocks. Figure 3.16 presents the four size categories for

size, in certain cases the mineral composition is also part ofnaming

a rock. For example, most sandstones are predominantly quartzrich, and they are often referred to as quartz sandstone. In addition,
rocks consisting of detrital sediments are rarely composed of grains
ofjust one size. Consequently, a rock containing quantities ofboth
sand and silt can be correctly classied as sandy siltstone or silty
sandstone, depending on which particle size dominates.

particles making up detrital rocks. I/Vhen gravel-size particles pre-

dominate, the rock is called conglomerate ifthe sediment is rounded

Zi.7lT..5.,-i."'.) and breccia if the pieces are angular (Figure 3.17B).

Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment

'

~:${", . -

\i'3.-

65

lit -

ta: ,, iflT
-

9-.-_

*-Q
H .

"vital?

"-5

-':.r.3\

11"-""":

FIGURE 3.19 Shale is a fine-grained detrital rock that is, by far, the
most abundant of all sedimentary rocks. Dark shales containing plant
remains are relatively common. (Photo courtesy of E. J. Tarbuck)

B.

Fit3'.~IlHE2 3.1? Detrital rocks made up of gravel-sized particles.

A. Conglomerate (rounded particles) B. Breccia (angular particles).
(Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks In contrast to detrital rocks, which

form from the solid products ofweathering, chemical sediments are
derived from material that is carried in solution to lakes and seas. This
material does not remain dissolved in the water indenitely. When
conditions are right, it precipitates to form chemical sediments. This
precipitation may occur directly as the result of physical processes,
or indirectly through life processes of water-dwelling organisms.
Sediment formed in this second way has a biochemical origin.
An example of a deposit resulting from physical processes is
the salt left behind as a body of saltwater evaporates. In contrast,
many water-dwelling animals and plants extract dissolved mineral
matter to form shells and other hard parts. After the organisms die,
their skeletons may accumulate on the oor of a lake or ocean.
Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock.
It is composed chiey of the mineral calcite (CaCO3). Ninety per-

cent of limestone is biochemical sediment, while the remaining

amount chemically precipitates from seawater.
One easily identified biochemical limestone is coquina, a
coarse rock composed ofloosely cemented shells and shell fragments (Figure 3.20). Another less obvious but familiar example is
FIGURE 3.20 Biochemical sedimentary rocks. A. This rock, called
coquina, consists of shell fragments; therefore, it has a biochemical
origin. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck) B. Seashells cover the beach at Sanibel
Island, Florida. (Photo by Donald R. FrazierfPhotolibrary, Inc./Alamy)
5 cm i>

_ M???

- ;?f".:( .

)_

-Q0

' ..
Q"u
".5? _
.
3
_/

IE

"T7
;./9?;-l
.-'~_*. 'r

I;_
. W,.

_
I
-..,,...|
d,_'

FIGURE 3.18 Quartz sandstone. After shale, sandstone is the most

abundant sedimentary rock. (Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)

1,
1
lip
..,. u
-

f,
~-tl:'-_.-,,..1.~*'~.-" 1'.
",l, .,,,.w'.
-ll.
--.-"(.1 l,PU\l._.o-H,
l-1.:
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I,-..
WU.~"I'Iv
;

_-3*

l/'""-'l1,
ll
"1.-"'

1--'.-. _,
Mgr

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''-.i.,.; 'm%

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"1.:k.,.r_*
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Kg;-'*

a=~-

I 5

66

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

jasper (red), and agate (banded). These chemical sedimentary rocks may have either an
inorganic or biochemical origin, but the
,
mode of origin is usually difficult to
1'
determine.
Very often, evaporation causes
.
minerals to precipitate from water.
Such minerals include halite, the
chief component of rock salt, and
zl-W
-a.,',,
gypsum, the main ingredient of
it
rock gypsum. Both materials have
r
significant commercial importance.
Halite is familiar to everyone as the
common salt used in cooking and seaB
soning foods. Of course, it has many other
uses and has been considered important
enough that people have sought, traded, and
fought over it for much of human history.
Gypsum is the basic ingredient of plaster of Paris. This
material is used most extensively in the construction industry
for drywall and plaster.
In the geologic past, many areas that are now dry land were
covered by shallow arms of the sea that had only narrow
hi

x
5.:-''..'$'*

IF.
pl

Q-5.!-a

..-__,-:_;'.'."v'

.'-:PJ__/i i--'_':"*_
I-ypm
iv u--7

"

'

1
jflJ

"\-\-'-

,9-n.

-L".l"~n.

7'.-

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< is ;

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-_.-t rlzangt-I

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ll x F.

v>

,._,___;.

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ll

FIGURE 3.22 Chert is a name used for a number of dense, hard rocks
made of microcrystalline quartz. Three examples are shown here.
A. Agate is the banded variety. (Photo by Jeffrey A. Scovil) B. The dark
color of int results from organic matter. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck) C. The
red variety, called jasper, gets its color from iron oxide. (Photo by E. J.
Tarbuck) D. Native Americans frequently made arrowheads and sharp
tools from chert. (Photo by LA VENTA/CORBIS/SYGMA)

A.

N
3Q;

FIGURE
Chalk is a soft, porous limestone consisting mainly of
hard parts of microscopic organisms. A. White Chalk Cliffs, East Sussex,
England. Thick deposits of chalk are formed in scattered sites in much
of western Europe, and were deposited in a marine environment during
the Cretacous period. (Photo by Prisms/Superstock) B. The majority of fossil
debris comprising chalk deposits consists of microscopic plates, called
coccoliths, that are mainly dispersed following the death of singlecelled algae. (Steve Gschmeissner/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

chalk, a soft, porous rock made up almost entirely of the hard

parts of microscopic organisms that are no larger than the head
of a pin. Among the most famous chalk deposits are the White
Chalk Cliffs exposed along the southeast coast of England

,___ _,_~_?
J
.1.

_.

__

I-'.?j."""-'~. $5. l

-5 r:

.;>_Z-i_

g
ff?
_

-:;____

ft g

1 '2 '

;E_'1

A. Ag ate

(Figtrre

Inorganic limestone forms when chemical changes or high

water temperatures increase the concentration of calcium carbonate to the point that it precipitates. Travertine, the type of
limestone that decorates caverns, is one example. Groundwater is the source of travertine that is deposited in caves. As water
drops reach the air in a cavern, some of the carbon dioxide
dissolved in the water escapes, causing calcium carbonate to
precipitate.
Dissolved silica (SiO2) precipitates to form varieties of microcrystalline quartz (Figure 3.22). Sedimentary rocks composed of
microcrystalline quartz include chert (light color), int (dark),

B. Flint

C. Jasper

D. Arrowhead

Sedimentary Rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment

connections to the open ocean. Under these conditions, water

continually moved into the bay to replace water lost by evaporation. Eventually, the waters of the bay became saturated and
salt deposition began. Today, these arms of the sea are gone,
and the remaining deposits are called evaporite deposits.
On a smaller scale, evaporite deposits can be seen in such
places as Death Valley, California. Here, following rains or periods of snowmelt in the mountains, streams flow from surrounding mountains into an enclosed basin. As the water
evaporates, saltats form from dissolved materials left behind
as a white crust on the ground (Figuire 3.23).
Coal is quite different from other chemical sedimentary
rocks. Unlike other rocks in this category, which are calcite or
silica-rich, coal is made mostly of organic matter. Close examination of a piece of coal under a microscope or magnifying glass
often reveals plant structures such as leaves, bark, and wood
that have been chemically altered but are still identifiable. This
supports the conclusion that coal is the end product of the burial of large amounts of plant material over extended periods
(Figrire 2.24).

67

SWAMP ENVIRONMENT

r _ s"_s _.
PH, ",_r",'

,|'--.-=.".'.

ii I-'="..-fl

.\

_1._\ =-

.~;*' \"-

1'i

1 .-.;

_ -F

.";.-_T,'t=r.-r..'='. I-'9;-"a. ,r.'r'::'1..

gifirl;

}|:1"i\i;>*!_-'1.l

.=- -I ;:,';,-1 -1-.- < I

--|=,
_.
,.= .,= It - I -;.. . 4 , , _
;' '
>
.' '

.1

_,. ,5

= Xi '~'

'

,'_.
'
11 1

1.

- - "- -= . -'?'-

:1 1

.1:

ii

=___._
< .
---I,-,,
|.
.
ll1|I- - . -:.F

1 .->1.

' '- _ '-. I

Yr i. .

i
(T.

all
Ell

'|

PEAT
(Partially altered plant
material)

A
1

1 Compaction 1

.- _
._.._ _ ---gr-.,-,,
_.
. . " ~- - _: _- - H--; _-~ . ._ ~|
._ _ -____ g
_
;.
.
_~ .-.
1 ' - _ ..- III
. --_< 1%-.1-'-=*=.1_-'41"-%=1%<".=-=' _=;""';.!'i 71: ',;?I.;1;:::='*:, rag;

..I
p
Grea . =Eburial
,r-_
I

LIGNITE
(Soft, brown coal)

-l

The initial stage in coal formation is the accumulation of

large quantities of plant remains. However, special conditions
are required for such accumulations, because dead plants normally decompose when exposed to the atmosphere. An ideal
environment that allows for the buildup of plant material is a
swamp. Because stagnant swamp water is oxygen-deficient,
complete decay (oxidation) of the plant material is not possible. At various times during Earth history, such environments
have been common. Coal undergoes successive stages of formation. With each successive stage, higher temperatures and
pressures drive off impurities and volatiles, as shown in
Figure 3.24.
Lignite and bituminous coals are sedimentary rocks,
but anthracite is a metamorphic rock. Anthracite forms when

_?|

i 1., - .';~1'.;_-'1.,~; .~-__ . ~_'-Q.-.;_ ::~1-3.. :_..._..:-,

l Compaction 1

' 1 .: 1: ZZ!';_T;5_iL-}};-__??I '1 1E'f_-j _i;'_f f _: -Z5?

1 .57
_

' as Y =;-"?,i._.15 1>'g'==>=_' >:-=>"~___;-:2it:'_P2 -:3" 1. 1?;-';1ii,_=';-=-:=' > -=

. ii

@_ .

- ' t

"e*==.E
.> 3*i?'=

BITUMINOUS
(Soft, black coal)

r,,,.....if
METAN/l|3-HISM

-'
.'-"7 .'
.

1-<
.r=_- --" "5
f.

A ET"?
,.~*.,~. ,
' . 5.1"-.1.
. . lr-__<
j
l
" .
i

;:1
=:_. -7 _ Z)
Q

ii;"-~I..*~.~

._J i-:____ . 'rn.\-=~"

~
.@~.~.-i>--

lll.
lfllt.

..
-

,__\'_J

Stress

_* _ -_;~
1 ' :_-
_
- .,__

ANTHRACITE
(Hard, black coal)

FIGURE 3.2% Successive stages in the formation of coal.

FIGURE 3.23 Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah. (Photo by Nash Photos/Photolibraiy)

E'l':_
I_\r_-

_;~";_"._f 1'

~.__._.,

Hi

;_.;;f:i'-%.sT=rf<r-?"-:;,_._ma---~'~-

:5
v:---

_.'

- - -..,

;--'5 .~- =. - .
s--*--.-.4

_---1

. _.:,>__

_...

.*- .

_ :

.~

-.i

T __n

I7
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i
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~--- -1A""-5"~~ ---'---~~<1'=-U

l-1.~- ,_. --_.z,_'\.'__:9... ,2311-' ; aw;

'13,
I ;s.;_::_- - -. -_.:./ - ~" ' '"' 1*-~.-*.
-.23 -

:- _ .-- ~
_ ..- =
._ - 1==.

~ .~.

___.__-k}Na_.'f__-_ 3:

-.=*-_",;
-_'~
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;_. , _
Mt i J. _
-K-__-{.1
-_
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*1'~,',:t "
'T3_

:12:?-_~_;$_\_;-5%._;;;_i.;,- 5.1,:-

- '2-;v_-."..=..'-.5.
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.>:-T-=:-Q. -.>*1~.a5'-"=__-;_.
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-'

V"

sedimentary layers are subjected to

the folding and deformation associated with mountain building.
In summary, we divide sedimentary roclcs into two major groups:
detrital and chemical. The main criterion for classifying detrital rocks is
particle size, whereas chemical rocks
are distinguished by their mineral
composition. The categories presented here are more rigid than is the
actual state of nature. Many detrital
sedimentary rocks are a mixture of
more than one particle size. Furthermore, many sedimentaiy rocks classied as chemical also contain at least
small quantities of detrital sediment,
and practically all detrital rocks are
cemented with material that was
originally dissolved in water.

68

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

Lithication of Sediment
Lithification refers to the processes by which sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks. One of the most
common processes is compaction. As sediments accumulate
through time, the weight of overlying material compresses the
deeper sediments. As the grains are pressed closer and closer,
pore space is greatly reduced. For example, when clays are
buried beneath several thousand meters of material, the
volume of the clay may be reduced as much as 40 percent.
Compaction is most significant in fine-grained sedimentary
rocks such as shale because sand and other coarse sediments
compress little.
Cernentation is another important means by which sediments
are converted to sedimentary rock. The cementing materials are
carried in a solution by water percolating through the pore spaces
between particles. Over time, the cement precipitates onto the
sediment grains, lls the open spaces, and joins the particles. Calcite, silica, and iron oxide are the most common cements. Identication of the cementing material is simple. Calcite cement will
effervesce (zz) with dilute hydrochloric acid. Silica is the hardest cement and thus produces the hardest sedimentary rocks.
When a sedimentary rock has an orange or red
color, this usually means iron oxide is present.

age. Fossils are important tools used in interpreting the geologic

past and will be examined in some detail in Chapter 1 1.

CONCEPT cnncrc 3.3

Q Why are sedimentary rocks important?
Q What minerals are most abundant in detrital sedimentary
rocks? In which rocks do these sediments predominate?
Q Distinguish between conglomerate and breccia.
Q What are the two categories of chemical sedimentary
rock? Give an example of a rock that belongs to each
category.
Q How do evaporates form? Give an example.
Q Compaction is an important lithification process with which
sediment size?
Q What is the single most characteristic feature of sedimentary
rocks?

i5itT%'tIi-*i1;:
Sedimentary environments. A. Ripple marks preserved
in sedimentary rocks may indicate a beach or stream channel
environment. (Photo by Ken Hamblin) B. Mud cracks form when wet mud
or clay dries and shrinks, perhaps signifying a tidal at or desert
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Sedimentary rocks are particularly important in the

study of Earth history. These rocks form at Earths
surface, and as layer upon layer of sediment
accumulates, each records the nature of the
environment at the time the sediment was
deposited. These layers, called strata, or beds, are
the single most characterislicfea.tw'e ofsedimentary
rocks (see Figure 3.15).
The thickness ofbeds ranges from microscopically thin to tens of meters thick. Separating the
strata are bedding planes, at surfaces along which
rocks tend to separate or break. Generally, each
bedding plane marks the end of one episode of
sedimentation and the beginning of another.
Sedimentary rocks provide geologists with
evidence for deciphering past environments. A
conglomerate, for example, indicates a high-r
energy environment, such as a rushing stream,
where only the coarse materials can settle out. By
contrast, black shale and coal are associated with a low-energy,
organic-rich environment, such as a swamp or lagoon. Other
features found in some sedimentary rocks also give clues to past
environments
are
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Fossils, the traces or remains of prehistoric life, are perhaps
the most important inclusions found in some sedimentary rock.
Knowing the nature of the life-forms that existed at a particular
time may help answer many questions about the environment.
Was it land or ocean, lake or swamp? Was the climate hot or cold,
rainy or dry? Was the ocean water shallow or deep, turbid or clear?
Furthermore, fossils are important time indicators and play a key
role in matching up rocks from different places that are the same

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The Carbon Cycle and

Sedimentary Rocks
To illustrate the movement of material and
energy in the Earth system, let us take a
brief look at the carbon cycle (Figure 3.A).
In nature, most carbon atoms are bonded
chemically to other elements to form compounds such as carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate, and the hydrocarbons found in coal
and petroleum. Carbon is also the basic
building block of life as it readily combines
with hydrogen and oxygen to form the fundamental organic compounds that compose
living things.
In the atmosphere, carbon is found
mainly as carbon dioxide (CO2). Atmospheric
carbon dioxide is significant because it is a
greenhouse gas, which means it is an efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth
and thus inuences the heating of the
atmosphere. Because many of the processes
that operate on Earth involve carbon dioxide, this gas is constantly moving into and
out of the atmosphere. For example, through
the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce the essential organic compounds
needed for growth. Animals that consume
these plants (or consume other animals that
eat plants) use these organic compounds as
a source of energy and, through the process
of respiration, return carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere. Furthermore, when plants die
and decay or are burned, this biomass is oxidized, and carbon dioxide is returned to the
atmosphere.
Not all dead plant material decays. As a
result, over long spans of geologic time, considerable biomass is buried with sediment.
Under the right conditions, some of these carbon-rich deposits are converted to fossil
fuelscoa1, petroleum, or natural gas. Eventually, some of the fuels are recovered (mined or

pumped from a well) and burned to run factories and fuel our transportation system. One
result of fossil-fuel combustion is the release of
huge quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere.
Certainly one of the most active parts of the
carbon cycle is the movement of CO2 from the
atmosphere to the biosphere and back again.
Carbon also moves from the geosphere
and hydrosphere to the atmosphere and
back again. For example, volcanic activity
early in Earths history is thought to be the
source of much of the carbon dioxide found
in the atmosphere. One way that carbon
dioxide makes its way back to the hydrosphere and then to the solid Earth is by first
combining with water to form carbonic acid
(HZCO3), which then attacks the rocks that
compose the geosphere. One product of this
chemical weathering of solid rock is the soluble bicarbonate ion (2 HCO3'), which is carried by groundwater and streams to the
ocean. Here water-dwelling organisms
extract this dissolved material to produce

hard parts of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

When the organisms die, these skeletal
remains settle to the ocean oor as biochemical sediment and become sedimentary rock.
In fact, the geosphere is by far Earth's
largest depository of carbon, where it is a
constituent of a variety of rocks, the most
abundant being limestone. Eventually, the
limestone may be exposed at Earths surface, where chemical weathering will cause
the carbon stored in the rock to be released
to the atmosphere as CO2.
In summary, carbon moves among all
four of Earth's major spheres. It is essential
to every living thing in the biosphere. In
the atmosphere carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas. In the hydrosphere,
carbon dioxide is dissolved in lakes, rivers,
and the ocean. In the geosphere, carbon is
contained in carbonate sediments and sedimentary rocks and is stored as organic matter dispersed through sedimentary rocks
and as deposits of coal and petroleum.

Volcanic
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Metamorphic Rocks:
New Rock from Old
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69

Earth Materials
P Metamorphic Rocks

Recall from the discussion of the rock cycle that metamorphism

is the transformation of one rock type into another. Metamorphic
rocks are produced from preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or

even other metamorphic rocks. Thus, every metamorphic rock

has a parent roclcthe rock from which it was formed.
Metamorphism, which means to change form, is a process
that leads to changes in the mineralogy, texture (e.g., grain size),
and sometimes the chemical composition of rocks. Metamorphism takes place when preexisting rock is subjected to a physical or chemical environment that is significantly different from
that in which it initially formed. In response to these new conditions the rock gradually changes until a state of equilibrium with
the new environment is reached. Most metamorphic changes

70

CHAPTER 3 _ Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

change is caused by the rise in temperature within the
host rock surrounding the mass of molten material.
2. During mountain building, great quantities of rock are
subjected to directed pressures and high temperatures
associated with large-scale deformation called regional
metamorphism.

occur at the elevated temperatures and pressures that exist in the

zone beginning a few kilometers below Earths surface and
extending into the upper mantle.
Metamorphism often progresses incrementally, from slight

changes (low-grade metarnorphisrn) to substantial changes (highgrade rnetamorphism). For example, under low-grade metamorphism, the common sedimentary rock shale becomes the more
compact metamorphic rock called slate. Hand samples of these
rocks are sometimes difficult to distinguish, illustrating that the
transition from sedimentary to metamorphic rock is often gradual and the changes can be subtle.
In more extreme environments, metamorphism causes a
transformation so complete that the identity of the parent rock
cannot be determined. In high-grade metamorphism, such features as bedding planes, fossils, and vesicles that may have existed
in the parent rock are obliterated. Furthermore, when rocks deep
in the crust (where temperatures are high) are subjected to
directed pressure, the entire mass may deform, producing largescale structures such as folds (:i.igr.i:@_*a fr.:l?.o),
In the most extreme metamorphic environments, the
temperatures approach those at which rocks melt. However,
daring metamorphism the rock must remain essentially solid,
for if complete melting occurs, we have entered the realm of

Extensive areas of metamorphic rocks are exposed on every

continent. Metamorphic rocks are an important component of
many mountain belts, where they make up a large portion of a
mountains crystalline core. Even the stable continental interiors,
which are generally covered by sedimentary rocks, are underlain by
metamorphic basement rocks. In all of these settings, the metamorphic rocks are usually highly deformed and intruded by igneous
masses. Consequently, signicant parts of Earths continental crust
are composed of metamorphic and associated igneous rocks.

What Drives Metamorphism?

The agents of metamorphism include heat, pressure (stress), and
chemically activeuids. During metamorphism, rocks are usually
subjected to all three metamorphic agents simultaneously.
However, the degree of metamorphism and the contribution of
each agent vary greatly from one environment to another.

igneous activity.

Most metamorphism occurs in one of two settings:

Heat as a Metamorphic Agent Thermal energy (heat) is the
most important factor driving metamorphism. It triggers
chemical reactions that result in the recrystallization of existing

1. When rock is intruded by magma, contact or thermal

metamorphism may take place. In such a situation,

Fit.-iliitiii i't.2l?i Folded and metamorphosed rocks in Anza Borrego Desert State Park, California. (Photo by A. P. Trujillo/APT Photos)
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minerals and the formation of new minerals. Thermal energy

for metamorphism comes mainly from two sources. Rocks
experience a rise in temperature when they are intruded by
magma rising from below. This is called contact or thermal
metamorphism. In this situation, the adjacent host rock is
baked by the emplaced magma.
By contrast, rocks that formed at Earths surface will experience a gradual increase in temperature as they are taken to
greater depths. In the upper crust, this increase in temperature
averages about 25C per kilometer. When buried to a depth of
about 8 kilometers (5 miles), where temperatures are between
150C and 200C, clay minerals tend to become unstable and

Students Sometimes Ask...

How hot is it deep in Earths crust?
The increase in temperature
with depth, based on the
geothermal gradient, can be
expressed as the deeper one
goes, the hotter it gets. This
relationship has been
observed by miners in deep
mines and in deeply drilled
wells. In the deepest mine
in the world (the Western
Deep Levels gold mine in South
Africa, which is 4 kilometers,
or 2.5 miles, deep), the
temperature of the surrounding

begin to recrystallize into other minerals, such as chlorite and

muscovite, that are stable in this environment. (Chlorite is a

micalike mineral formed by the metamorphism of iron- and magnesian-rich silicates.) However, many silicate minerals, particularly those found in crystalline igneous rocksquartz and
feldspar, for exampleremain stable at these temperatures.

Thus, metamorphic changes in these minerals require much

higher temperatures in order to recrystallize.

rock is so hot that it can scorch

human skin!
The temperature is even
higher at the bottom of the
deepest well in the world,
which was completed in the
Kola Peninsula of Russia in
1992 and goes down a record
12.3 kilometers (7.7 miles). At
this depth it is 245C (473F),
much greater than the boiling
point of water. What keeps
water from boiling is the high
confining pressure at depth.

the forces are equally applied in all directions (Ftgirm :=.alrs..).

The deeper you go in the ocean, the greater the confining
pressure. The same is true for buried rock. Confining pressure
causes the spaces between mineral grains to close, producing a
more compact rock having greater density. Further, at great

Confining Pressure and Differential Stress as Metamorphic

Agents Pressure, like temperature, also increases with depth
as the thickness of the overlying rock increases. Buried rocks are
subjected to conning pressu.resimilar to water pressure in that

iiiti.iEE
Pressure (stress) as a metamorphic agent. A. In a depositional environment, as confining pressure increases, rocks deform by decreasing in volume. B. During
mountain building, rocks subjected to differential stress are shortened in the direction
that pressure is applied, and lengthened in the direction perpendicular to that force.

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72

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

depths, confining pressure may cause minerals to

recrystallize into new minerals that display more
compact crystalline forms.
During episodes of mountain building, large rock
bodies become highly crumpled and metamorphosed
(Figure 3.2'7B). The forces that generate mountains are
unequal in different directions and are called difjferential
stress. Unlike conning pressure, which squeezes rock
equally in all directions, differential stresses are greater
in one direction than in others. As shown in Figure 3.27B,
rocks subjected to differential stress are shortened in the
direction of greatest stress, and elongated, or lengthened,
in the direction perpendicular to that stress. The defor- m~r
mation caused by differential stresses plays a major role in developing metamorphic textures.
In surface environments where temperatures are relatively
low, rocks are brittle and tend to fracture when subjected to differential stress. Continued deformation grinds and pulverizes
the mineral grains into small fragments. By contrast, in hightemperature environments, rocks are ductile. When rocks exhibit
ductile behavior, their mineral grains tend to atten and elongate
when subjected to differential stress. This accounts for their ability to deform by owing (rather than fracturing) to generate intricate folds (.F1.?."i i{.__?,*:i"i.1-=.*{;%
Chemically Active Fluids Fluids composed mainly of water
and other volatiles (materials that readily change to gases at surface
conditions), including carbon dioxide, are believed to play an
important role in some types of metamorphism. Fluids that
surround mineral grains act as catalysts to promote recrystallization
by enhancing ion migration. In progressively hotter enviromnents,
these ion-rich uids become correspondingly more reactive.
When two mineral grains are squeezed together, the parts of
their crystalline structures that touch are the most highly
stressed. Atoms at these sites are readily dissolved by the hot uids and move to the voids between individual grains. Thus, hot
uids aid in the recrystallization of mineral grains by dissolving
material from regions of high stress and then precipitating
(depositing) this material in areas of low stress. As a result,
minerals tend to recrystallize and grow longer in a direction
perpendicular to compressional stresses.
When hot uids circulate freely through rocks, ionic exchange
may occur between adjacent rock layers, or ions may migrate great
distances before they are nally deposited. The latter situation is
particularly common when we consider hot uids that escape during the crystallization of an intrusive mass of magma. If the rocks

surrounding the magma differ markedly in composition from the

invading uids, there maybe a substantial exchange ofions between
the uids and host rocks. When this occurs, the overall composition
of the surrounding rock changes.

Metamorphic Textures
The degree of metamorphism is reected in the rocks texture and
mineralogy. (Recall that the term texture is used to describe the size,
shape, and arrangement of grains within a rock.) I/Vhen rocks are
subjected to low-grade metamorphism, they become more compact
and thus denser. A common example is the metamorphic rock slate,

ii;
i-%%.v:ti Deformed metamorphic rocks exposed in a road cut in
the Eastern Highland of Connecticut. Imagine the tremendous force
required to fold rock in this manner. (Photo by Phil Dombrowski)

which forms when shale is subjected to temperatures and pressures

only slightly greater than those associated wii the compaction that
lithifies sediment. In this case, differential stress causes the

microscopic clay minerals in shale to align into the more compact

arrangement found in slate.

Under more extreme conditions, stress causes certain minerals to recrystallize. In general, recrystallization encourages the
growth oflarger crystals. Consequently, many metamorphic rocks
consist ofvisible crystals, much like coarse-grained igneous rocks.
Foliation The term foliation refers to any planer (nearly at)
arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within a
r0Cl<
Although foliation may occur in some
sedimentary and even a few types of igneous rocks, it is a
fundamental characteristic of regionally metamorphosed
rocks-that is, rock units that have been strongly deformed,
mainly by folding. In metamorphic environments, foliation is
ultimately driven by compressional stresses that shorten rock
units, causing mineral grains in preexisting rocks to develop
parallel, or nearly parallel, alignments. Examples of foliation
include the parallel alignment of platy minerals such as the
micas; the parallel alignment of attened pebbles;
compositional banding in which dark and light minerals
separate generating a layered appearance; and rock cleavage
in which rocks can be easily split into tabular slabs.
Nonfoliated Textures Not all metamorphic rocks exhibit a
foliated texture. Those that do not are referred to as nonfoliated,
and typically develop in environments where deformation is
minimal and the parent rocks are composed of minerals that
exhibit equidimensional crystals, such as quartz or calcite. For
example, when a fine-grained limestone (made of calcite) is
metamorphosed by the intrusion of a hot magma body, the small
calcite grains recrystallize to form larger interlocking crystals. The
resulting rock, marble, exhibits large, equidimensional grains that
are randomly oriented, similar to those in a coarse-grained
igneous rock.
To review, metamorphic processes cause many changes in
existing rocks, including increased density, growth of larger crystals, foliation (reorientation of the mineral grains into a layered or
banded appearance), and the transformation of low-temperature

Metamorphic Rocks: New Rock from Old

minerals into high-temperature minerals. Furthermore, the introduction of ions generates new minerals, some ofwhich are economically important.
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produced when volcanic ash is metamorphosed.

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Foliated Rocks Slate is a very fine-grained foliated rock

composed of minute mica akes that are too small to be
. .
- - metamorphism
visible
(i-. -I
). Anoteworthy characteristic
ofslate IS
its A. Before
(Uniform
Stress)
excellent rock cleavage, or tendency to break into at
.

=-"'*='

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slabs. This property has made slate a useful rock for

roof and oor tile, as well as billiard tables

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Common Metamorphic Rocks

A chart depicting the common rocks produced by
metamorphic processes is found in
f.-.-. .i1=..=1i, and a
description of each follows.

73

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-

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Slates color is variable Black slate contains organic
"*'~'. .~.-fl._

r"*1
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~.

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material; red slate gets its color from iron oxide; and
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green slate 1S usually composed of chlorite, a greenish if; ,.
;_; L
.i" ~"
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mlcallke- mlneral
;
ll 5- I> -~i~i;=f1
1'"-Iv-,-."-;"1-;~."="'. .'-e'-if - 1
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Schzsts are strongly foliated
rocks formed by * ' i.{;j-5,"' C
ie
~
i;;*.=
s ional metamor P hism ( F1 s ure 3 ~ 31 )- The Y are
platy and can be readily split into thin akes or slabs. Many
iii
Under the pressures of metamorphism, some mineral
schists, like slates, originate from shale parent rock. However,
grains become reoriented and aligned at right angles to the stress. The
schist forms under more extreme metamorphic conditions. The
resulting orientation of mineral grains gives the rock a foliated (layered)
term schist describes the texture of a rock regardless of compositexture. If the coarse-grained igneous rock (granite) on the left
tion. For example, schists composed primarily of muscovite and
underwent intense metamorphism, it could end up closely resembling
the metamorphic rock on the right (gneiss). (Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)
biotite are called mica schists.
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Classification of common metamorphic rocks.

Rock Name

rt

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Slate

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A AMAMM

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.:_=_-;_;-'a=.;=~=s-3:.':*;:-.~:-.
t-,/-;_

Schist
.._____~_*_______,.
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ii -.I.-==\-r- _",IE'--; :-=-~'-it;-i ,1";ii -- -;gl-+---;===-3122321:-,-.-Q.

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1 iv,
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:

if-'-L; *'~=-.*-'-'-f;l?.*'f

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(Marble

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ale;

is i - , .Qr;Si|ptStOpnieg.pp-..

Micaceous
minerals
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dominate,
scaly foliation

11.. ,mud,stone,..
S-haste;as I

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Compositional banding
due to segregation of
__
minerals

a i -sr;i't'%i9'1s,..-%i
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A -or;-volcantic-A-to '
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smooth dull surfaces

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i. _

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Medium
to
Oarse

r;"_.-f;-1;-->
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db
,
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wt

Quartzite

"9-,,,- '~.

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Medium
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Original
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Comments

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Fused quartz grains,

massive, very hard

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Anthracite

Fine

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Shiny black rock that may I

exhibit conchoidal fracture

o-ooai
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74

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

banded texture. While still deep below the surface Where temperatures and pressures are great, banded gneisses can be
deformed into intricate folds.

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Nonfoliated Rocks Marble is a coarse, crystalline rock whose

parent rock is limestone. Marble is composed of large interlocking
calcite crystals, which form from the recrystallization ofsmaller grains

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Yes! Although metamorphic rock

is typically formed in high
temperature environments,
glacial ice is an exception.
Despite its formation in cold
climates, glacial ice clearly
satisfies the criteria for being
classified as a metamorphic rock.
The formation of a glacier begins
as snow crystals are transformed
into a much denser mass of small
ice grains called firn. As more
snow is added to the pile, the
pressure on the layers below
promotes the recrystallization

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Is glacial ice considered a metamorphic rock?

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Students Sometimes Ask...

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i.li11i'i.ii?ii_i .Ei.il..E1 Because slate breaks into at slabs, it has many uses.
The larger image shows a quarry near Alta, Norway. (Photo by Fred
Bruemmer/Photolibrary). In the inset photo, slate is used to roof a house

ili

in Switzerland. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck)

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(metamorphism) of firn producing

larger interlocking ice crystals. In
addition, glacial movement is an
example of solid-state ductile
ow, another characteristic of
metamorphic rocks. Ductile ow
is facilitated by the internal
deformation and recrystallization
of individual ice crystals. The
resulting ductile ow is often
made visible because we can see
deformed dirty layers within the
ice. These structures are similar
to the folds exhibited by more
"typical" metamorphic rocks.

Q;

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Common metamorphic rocks. (Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)

iq

Gneiss (pronounced nice) is the term applied to banded

metamorphic rocks in which elongated and granular (as opposed
to platy) minerals predominate (Figure 3.3 1). The most common
minerals in gneisses are quartz and feldspar, with lesser amounts
of muscovite, biotite, and hornblende. Gneisses exhibit strong
segregation oflight and dark silicates, giving them a characteristic

Metamorphic Rocks: New Rock from Old

in the parent ro ck. Because of its color and relative softness

(hardness of only 3 on the Mohs scale), marble is a popular building
stone. White marble is particularly prized as a stone from which to
carve monuments and statues, such as the Lincoln Memorial in
Washington, D.C., and the Taj Mahal in India (Fig-i.u'e 3.33). The parent
rocks from which various marbles form contain impurities that color
ue stone. Thus, marble can be pink, gray, green, or even black.
Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock most often formed
from quartz sandstone. Under moderate- to high-grade metamorphism, the quartz grains in sandstone fuse. Pure quartzite is
white, but iron oxide may produce reddish or pinkish stains, and
dark minerals may impart a gray color.

75

Resources from Rocks

and Minerals
The outer layer of Earth, which we call the crust, is only as thick
when compared to the remainder of the Earth as a peach skin is
to a peach, yet it is of supreme importance to us. We depend on
it for fossil fuels and as a source of such diverse minerals as the talc
for baby powder, salt to avor food, and gold for world trade. In
fact, on occasion, the availability or absence of certain Earth
materials has altered the course of history. As the material
requirements of modern society grow, the need to locate
additional supplies of useful minerals also grows and becomes
more challenging.

CONCEPT CHECK 3.4

Q Metamorphism means to change form." Describe how a
rock may change during metamorphism.
Q Briey describe what is meant by the statement, every metamorphic rock has a parent rock."
Q List the three agents of metamorphism and describe the role
of each.
Q Distinguish between regional and contact metamorphism.
Q Which feature would easily distinguish schist and gneiss from
quartzite and marble.
Q In what ways do metamorphic rocks differ from the igneous
and sedimentary rocks from which they formed?

Metallic Mineral Resources

Some of the most important accumulations of metals, such as
gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead, platinum, and nickel, are
produced by igneous and metamorphic processes (Table 3.1).
These mineral resources, like most others, result from
processes that concentrate desirable materials to the extent
that extraction is economically feasible.
The igneous processes that generate some metal deposits are
quite straightforward. For example, as a large magma body cools,
the heavy minerals that crystallize early tend to settle to the lower
portion of the magma chamber. This type of magmatic differen-

i=?.ii%i;I.i%E
Marble, because of its workability, is a widely used building stone. A. The white exterior of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington,
D.C., is constructed mainly of marble that was quarried in Marble, Colorado. Inside, pink Tennessee marble was used for the oors, Alabama
marble for the ceilings, and Georgia marble for Lincolns statue. (Photo by Daniel Grill/iStockphoto) B. The exterior of Indias Taj Mahal is constructed
primarily of the metamorphic rock marble. (Photo by Holger Mette/Shutterstock)
ll

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76

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

TABLE 3.1 Ore Minerals of Important Metals

I Metal

ore Mineral

Aluminum

Bauxite

Chromium

__>_U__g____ Chromite

Copper

7'79

ii .-'1 ~'

i _ __w___ _

Bornite

u_., I 1,

Ix

Chalcocite
Gold

__

$2

* *5;

Chalcopyrite

Iron

p Native gold

_
0.,

Hematite

Limonite
Lead

Galena

Magnesium

Magnesite

${-..:f"'
-' Al'-~"$_
=""."

. Q

Magnetite

W- I

7 i

jg

*~'1'r'5'-&hs-.};."'
- 4
.,_-Q,

ea.

rw}
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'.Twp?-

4.

If.$9.;7!-.Il"._7 .i5.

I3

-Q:-

Dolomite
Manganese

Pyrolusite

Mercury

Molybdenum
Nickel

Molybdenite
Bentlandite A

Platinum
ilver

Cimiabar

Native platinum
j

if i

Native silver
Argentite
Cassiterite

Titanium

Ilmenite
Rutile

Tungsten

iiitliiii-ii-J 3.3% This granite pegmatite is composed mainly of quartz

(dark gray) and feldspar (white and salmon color). (Photo by Marli Miller)

Wolframite
Scheelite

Uranium

Ilraniniteipitchblende)

Zinc

Sphalerite

if

tiation is particularly active in large basaltic magmas where

chromite (ore of chromium), magnetite, and platinum are
occasionally generated. Layers of chromite, interbedded with
other heavy minerals, are mined from such deposits in the
Bushveld Complexin South Africa, which contains over 70 percent
of the worlds known reserves of platinum.
Igneous processes are also important in generating other
types ofmineral deposits. For example, as a granitic magma cools
and crystallizes, the residual melt becomes enriched in rare
elements and heavy metals, including gold and silver. Furthermore, because water and other volatile substances do not crystallize along with the bulk of the magma body, these uids make
up a high percentage of the melt during the nal phase of solidification. Crystallization in a uid-rich environment
enhances the migration of ions and results in the
formation of crystals several centimeters, or
_
even a few meters, in length. The resulting
rocks, called pegmatites, are composed of
these unusually large crystals (Figure 3.3%).
Most pegmatites are granitic in composition and consist of unusually large crystals of quartz, feldspar, and muscovite. l
Feldspar is used in the production of ceramics, and muscovite is used for electrical insulation and glitter. In addition to the common
silicates, some pegmatites include semiprecious

gems such as beryl, topaz, and tourmaline. Moreover, minerals

containing the elements lithium, cesium, uranium, and the rare
earths are sometimes found. Most pegmatites are located within
large igneous masses or as dikes or veins that out into the host
rock surrounding the magma chamber (Figure 3.35).
Among the best-known and most important ore deposits
are those generated from hydrothermal (hydra. = water,
therm = heat) solutions. Included in this group are the gold
deposits of the Homestake mine in South Dakota; the lead, zinc,
and silver ores near Coeur dAlene, Idaho; the silver deposits ofthe
Comstock Lode in Nevada; and the copper ores of the Keweenaw
Peninsula in Michigan.
The majority of hydrothermal deposits are thought to originate from hot, metal-rich uids that are associated with cooling
magma bodies. During solidication, liquids plus various metallic ions accumulate near the top of the magma chamber. Because
these hot uids are very mobile, they can migrate great distances
through the surrounding rock before they are eventually
FIGURE 3.35 Illustration of the relationship between a parent
igneous body and the associated pegmatite and hydrothermal
mineral deposits.
.-e,

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Metamorphic Rocks New Rock from Old

77

TABLE 3.2 Uses of Nonmetallic Minerals

Mineral

Uses

Apatite

Phosphorous fertilizers

Asbestos (chrysotile)

Incombustible fibers

Calcite

Aggregate; steelmaking, soil conditionmg, chemicals, cement building stone

Clay minera_ls_(l<aolinite)

p Ceramics; china

Corundum

Gemstones abrasives

Diamond

Gemstones; abrasives

Fluorite

Steelmaking; aluminum refining, lass chemicals

Garnet

Abrasives; gemstones

Graphite

Pencil lead; lubricant; refractories

Gypsum
Halite

Plaster of Paris; wallboard

p

Table salt; chemicals; ice control

Muscovite

Ins ulato r i'n electric al applications

Quartz

Primary ingredient in glass

Sulfur

Chemicals; fertilizer manufacture

Sylvite

Potassium fertilizers

Talc

Powder used in paints, cosmetics, etc

deposited. Some of this uid moves along fractures or bedding

planes, where it cools and precipitates the metallic ions to produce vein deposits (Figure 3.35). Many of the most productive
deposits of gold, silver, and mercury occur as hydrothermal vein
deposits.

Another important type of accumulation generated by

hydrothermal activity is called a disseminated deposit. Rather
than being concentrated in narrow veins and dikes, these ores
are distributed as minute masses throughout the entire rock
mass (Figure 3.35). Much of the worlds copper is extracted from

min

j f

-= ii Rock of Ages granite quarry in Barre, Vermont (Photo by

Raymond Forbes/Photolibrary)

MWIM
K

asuqs

disseminated deposits, including the huge Bingham Canyon

copper mine in Utah. Because these accumulations contain only

0.4-0.8 percent copper, between 125 and 250 metric tons of ore
must be mined for every ton of metal recovered. The environmental impact of these large excavations, including the prob-

-_

~- -3-5'3

lems of waste disposal, is significant.

., :%" - '1-~" "

Nonmetallic Mineral Resources

il
l

Mineral resources not used as fuels or processed for the metals

they contain are referred to as nonmetallic mineral resources.
These materials are extracted and processed either to make use
of the nonmetallic elements they contain or for the physical and

chemical properties they possess (Table 3.2). Nonmetallic mineral

resources are commonly divided into two broad groups: building
materials and industrial minerals
:'%.;:.n%). As some
substances have many different uses, they are found in both
categories. Limestone, perhaps the most versatile and widely used
rock of all, is the best example. As a building material, it is used not
only as crushed rock and building stone but also in the making of

-In

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wt... 4%

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cement. Moreover, as an industrial mineral, it is an ingredient in

the manufacture of steel and is used in agriculture to neutralize

acidic soils.
Besides aggregate (sand, gravel, and crushed rock) and cut
stone, the other important building materials include gypsum

Q5i

..

ss___;;%;

78

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

are used as abrasives to make machinery parts; and sylvite,

which is employed in the production of the fertilizers used to
grow food crops.

for plaster and wallboard, clay for tile and bricks, and cement,

which is made from limestone and shale. Cement and aggregate go into the making of concrete, a material that is essential
to practically all construction.
Many and various nonmetallic resources are classified as
industrial minerals. People often do not realize the importance

CONCEPT CHECK 3.5

of industrial minerals because they see only the products that

resulted from their use and not the minerals themselves. That is,

Q List two general types of hydrothermal deposits.

Q Nonmetallic resources are commonly divided into two
broad groups. List the two groups and give some examples
of materials that belong to each.

many nonmetallics are used up in the process of creating other

products. Examples include uorite and limestone, which are
part of the steelmaking process; corundum and garnet, which

GIVE IT SOME
1. Refer to Figure 3.2. How does the rock cycle diagram, in particular the labeled arrows, support the
fact that sedimentary rocks are the most abundant rock type on Earths surface?
2. Would you expect all of the crystals in an intrusive igneous rock to be the same size? Explain why
or why not.
3. Apply your understanding of igneous rock textures to describe the cooling history of each of the
igneous rocks pictured here.

as
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4. ls it possible for two igneous rocks to have the same mineral composition but be different rocks? Use
an example to explain your answer.
5. Use your understanding of Bowens reaction series (Figure 3.13) and the process of magmatic differentiation to explain how partial melting can generate magmas with different compositions.
6. Dust collecting on furniture is an everyday example of a sedimentary process. Provide another

example of a sedimentary process that might be observed in or around where you live.
7. Describe two reasons why sedimentary rocks are more likely to contain fossils than igneous rocks.
8. If you hiked to a mountain peak and found limestone at the top, what would that indicate about the

likely geologic history of the rock there?

Chapter Summary

9. The accompanying photos each illustrate either a typical igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
rock body. Which do you think is a metamorphic rock? Explain why you ruled out the other rock
bodies.

A.

8.

C.

10. Examine the accompanying photos, which show the geology of the Grand Canyon. Notice that
most of the canyon consists of layers of sedimentary rocks, but if you were to hike down into the

inner gorge you would encounter the Vishnu schist, a metamorphic rock.
a. What process might have been responsible for the formation of the Vishnu schist? I-low does
this process differ from the processes that formed the sedimentary rocks that are atop the
Vishnu schist?

b. What does the Vishnu schist tell you about the history of the Grand Canyon prior to the formation of the canyon itself?
c. Why is the Vishnu schist visible at Earths surface?
d. Is it likely that rocks similar to the Vishnu schist exist elsewhere but are not exposed at Earths
surface? Explain.

ck?

& ._i iv

A. Grand Canyon

B. Close up ofvishnu
Schist (dark color)
I

80

CHAPTER 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

In Review Chapter 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth

The three rock groups are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorpliic. Igneous roclc forms from magma. that cools and
solidifies in a process called crystallization. Sedimentary rock
forms from the lithication of sediment. Metamorphic rock
forms from rock that has been subjected to great pressure and
heat in a process called metamorphism.
Igneous rocks are classified by their texture and mineral composition. The rate of cooling of magma greatly inuences the
size of mineral crystals in igneous rock and thus its texture.
The four basic igneous rock textures are (1) fine-grained,
(2) coarse-grained, (3) porphyritic, and (4) glassy.
Igneous rocks are divided into broad compositional groups
based on the percentage of dark and light silicate minerals
they contain. Felsic rocks (e.g., granite and rhyolite) are composed mostly of the light-colored silicate minerals potassium
feldspar and quartz. Rocks of intermediate composition (e.g.,
andesite) contain plagioclase feldspar and amphibole. Mafia
rocks (e.g., basalt) contain abundant pyroxene and calciumrich plagioclase feldspar.
The mineral makeup of an igneous rock is ultimately determined by the chemical composition of the magma from
which it crystallized. N. L. Bowen showed that as magma
cools, minerals crystallize in an orderly fashion at different
temperatures. Magmatic derentiation changes the composition of magma and causes more than one rock type to form
from a common parent magma.
Detrital sediments originate as solid particles derived from
weathering and are transported. Chemical sediments are soluble materials produced largely by chemical weathering that
are precipitated by either inorganic or biological processes.
Detrital sedimentary rocks, which are classied by particle
size, contain a variety of mineral and rock fragments, with clay
minerals and quartz the chief constituents. Chemical sedimentary roclcs often contain the products of biological processes
or mineral crystals that form as water evaporates and minerals
precipitate. Lithijication refers to the processes by which sediments are transformed into solid sedimentary rocks.

Common detrital sedimentary rocks include shale (the

most common sedimentary rock), sandstone, and conglomerate. The most abundant chemical sedimentary rock
is limestone, consisting chiey of the mineral calcite. Rock
gypsum and rock salt are chemical rocks that form as water
evaporates.
Some features of sedimentary rocks that are often used in the
interpretation of Earth history and past environments include
strata or beds (the single most characteristic feature), bedding
planes, and fossils.
Two types of metamorphism are (1) regional metamorphism
and (2) contact or thermal metamorphism. The agents
of metamorphism include heat, pressure (stress), and
chemically activeuids. Heat is the most important
because it provides the energy to drive the reactions
that result in the recrystallization of minerals. Metamorphic
processes cause many changes in rocks, including increased
density, growth of larger mineral crystals, reorientation
of the mineral grains into a layered or banded appearance
known as foliation, and the formation of new
minerals.
Some common metamorphic rocks with afoliated texture
include slate, schist, and gneiss. Metamorphic rocks with a
nonfoliated texture include marble and quartzite.
Some of the most important accumulations of metallic
mineral resources are produced by igneous and metamorphic
processes. Vein deposits (deposits in fractures or bedding
planes) and disseminated deposits (deposits distributed
throughout the entire rock mass) are produced from
hydrothermal solutionshot, metal-rich uids associated
with cooling magma bodies.
Nonmetallic mineral resources are mined for the nonmetallic
elements they contain or for the physical and chemical
properties they possess. The two groups of nonmetallic
mineral resources are (1) building materials (e.g., limestone
and gypsum) and (2) industrial minerals (e.g., uorite and
corundum).

Key Terms
andesitic (intermediate) composition
(p. 60)
basaltic composition (p. 60)
Bowens reaction series (p. 61)
chemical sedimentary rock (p. 64)
coarse-grained texture (p. 56)
contact (thermal) metamorphism (p. 70)
crystal settling (p. 61)
detrital sedimentary rock (p. 64)
disseminated deposit (p. 77)
evaporite deposit (p. 67)
extrusive (volcanic) (p. 55)
felsic (p. 58)
fine-grained texture (p. 56)

foliation (p. '72)

fossil (p. 68)
glassy texture (p. 5'7)
granitic composition (p. 58)
hydrothermal solutions (p. 76)
igneous rock (p. 55)
intrusive (plutonic) (p. 55)
lava (p. 55)
lithification (p. 68)
mafic (p. 60)
magma (p. 55)
magmatic differentiation (p. 61)
metamorphic rock (p. 69)
metamorphism (p. 69)

nonfoliated texture (p. 72)

pegmatite (p. 76)
porphyritic texture (p. 57)
regional metamorphism (p. '70)
rock cycle (p. 52)
sediment (p. 62)
sedimentary rock (p. 62)
strata (beds) (p. 68)
texture (p. 56)
ultramafic composition (p. 60)
vein deposit (p. 77)
vesicular texture (p. 56)

Mastering Geology

81

Examining the Earth System

1. The sedimentary rocks coquina and shale have each
formed in response to interactions among two or more of
Earths spheres. List the spheres associated with the formation of each of the rocks and write a short explanation for
each ofyour choices.
2. Of the two main sources of energy that drive the rock cycleEarths internal heat and solar energywhich is primarily
responsible for each of the three groups of rocks found on
and within Earth? Explain your reasoning.
3. Every year about 20,000 pounds of stone, sand, and gravel
are mined for each person in the United States.

a. Calculate how many pounds of stone, sand, and gravel

will be needed for an individual during an 80-year
lifespan.
b. If one cubic yard of rocks weighs roughly 1,700 pounds,
calculate (in cubic yards) how large a hole must be dug to
supply an individual with 80 years worth of stone, sand,
and gravel.
c. A typical pickup truck can carry about a half cubic yard of
rock. How many pickup truck loads would be necessary
during the 80-year span?

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Looking for additional review and test prep materials? Visit the

Self Study area in www.masteringgeology.com to find practice

quizzes, study tools, and multimedia that will aid in your understanding of this chapter's content. In MasteringGeology' you
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0 GEODe: Earth Science: An interactive visual walkthrough of
key concepts

Geoscience Animation Library: More than 100 animations

illuminating many difficult-to-understand Earth science
concepts
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